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Dual-career Commuter Couples - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia
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5/17/2015 DualcareercommutercouplesWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dualcareer_commuter_couples#Role_conflict 1/7
DualcareercommutercouplesFromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Commutercouplesareasubsetofdualcareercouples"inwhichbothpartnerspursuecareerswhilemaintainingseparateresidencesindifferentgeographiclocations".[1]
GilbertandRachlinaddressthedifferencebetweendualearnerfamiliesanddualcareerfamilies,distinguishingthatdualearnercouplesarethoseinwhichbothspousesareearningforthefamily,butoneorbothofthemconsidertheiroccupationalinvolvementasajob.Jobsareunlikecareersinthattheydonotrequireextensivetrainingorcommitment.Indualearnercouples,onespouse'sworkisgenerallyconsideredsecondary.Dualcareercouplesarefamiliesinwhich"bothheadsofhouseholdpursuecareersandatthesametimemaintainafamilylifetogether".[2]Bothhavehighdegreesofcommitmenttotheircareers,andneitherpartner'scareeristhoughttobemoreimportantthanthatoftheother.[3]
Contents
1Historicalbackground1.1Statistics1.2Formationofcommutercouples1.3Characteristics1.4Advantages1.5Disadvantages
2Contributingfactors2.1Roleconflict2.2Socialcomparison2.3Adjustingversusestablishedcouples
3Becomingacommutercouple3.1Attachmenttheoryandperceivedrelationshipquality
3.1.1Attachmenttheory3.1.2Perceivedlongdistancerelationshipquality3.1.3Decisionmakingprocesses
4Practicalimplications5Seealso6References
Historicalbackground
Statistics
IntheUnitedStates,statisticsfromasearlyas1989reportthat53%ofmarriedhouseholdsweredualearnercouples.By1996,thepercentofdualearnercouplesgrewto61%.Accordingtodatafrom1989,approximately7millionemployees(15%to20%ofalldualearnermarriages)wereclassifiedasdualcareercouples.[4]By2003,U.S.workerstakemorethan400millionlongdistancebusinesstrips(i.e.,tripsover50miles)eachyear.[5]Commutermarriagesareontherise,withrecentestimatesindicatingthatasmanyas3millionAmericansresideindifferentlocationsfromtheirspouses.[6]
5/17/2015 DualcareercommutercouplesWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
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Inothercountries,theprevalenceofdualcareercouplesisrelativelylowcomparedtotheU.S.AccordingtoGermanresearchonacademicallyeducatedcouples,lessthanonethirdofthesecoupleshadbothpartnerspursuingafulltimeprofessionaloccupation.ASwissstudyfoundthatonly10percentofcoupleshadbothpartnersfollowingupwardcareers.ThisproportionissimilartotheonefoundforcouplesinItaly,onthebasisofoccupationalclassesofemployedhusbandsandwives.[7]
Formationofcommutercouples
Theincreaseinwomenscareeropportunitiesalsoincreasestheproblemsofcouplespursuingtwocareersinthesameplace,andcancauseconflictregardingwhichspousescareershouldtakeprecedence.[8]Onemajorconcernfordualcareercouplesisfindingemploymentinthesamegeographiclocation.Onepartnerusuallycompromisesbytakingalessdesirablejobsothattheothercantakeapositionthatmightfurtherhisorhercareer.However,ifthiscompromisecannotbereached,theoptionofcommutingcanbetheresult,wherebothspousesenjoyhighlydesirablejobsatthesacrificeofmaintainingseparateresidences.[9]
Inthedefinitionofdualcareercommutercouples,theworkpursuedbyeachmemberofthecouplerequires1)ahighdegreeofcommitmentandspecialtrainingwithincreasingdegreesofresponsibility(thisincludesstudentspursuinganadvancededucationaldegree)and2)thatthecouplemaintainhomesinseparategeographiclocations.Travelingsalesorbusinessworkers,militarypersonnel,migrantworkers,andconstructionandtradeworkerswholeavehomeforvariouslengthsoftimearenotincludedinthedefinition.Whencouplesshareahomeandoneorbothmemberscommutelongdistancestoworkeachdayorcouplesimmigratingatseparatetimes,theyarealsonotincludedinthisdefinition.[2][10]
Thedyadofcommutercouplesistypicallycomposedofthe"commuter",whomovestoasecondaryresidenceforwork,andthe"noncommuter",whostaysattheprimaryresidence.[1]Othertermsforthelifestylearemarriedsingles,commutermarriages,commuterfamilies,commuterlifestyle,andcommuterrelationships.
Characteristics
Researchrevealsthatmostcommutercoupleshaveahighlevelofeducationandthatbothpartnershaveprofessionalorexecutivecareers.Mostarebetweentheagesof25to65,themeanagebeingmidtolatethirties.Fortyto50%ofcommutercoupleshavechildren,andmorethan50%havebeenmarriedformorethan9years.[9]Mostofcommutercouplesarewithadvanceddegreesandareheavilyinvolvedintheircareers.[11]Themostattractivefactorofajobforcommutercouplesisthejobeducationmatch.[12]
Advantages
Advantagesofthecommutinglifestyleareidentifiedas1)increasedcareeropportunities,2)professionalautonomy,3)increasedindependence,4)increasedappreciationoftimetogether,5)decreasedfocusondisagreements,and6)decreasedfrequencyofarguments.[13][14][15]
Disadvantages
Disadvantagesofbeingcommutingcouplesare1)financialproblems2)loneliness3)lackofpersonalandprofessionalsupportsystemduetoalackoftimetobuildandmaintaintheserelationships4)negativeattitudesfromfriends,family,coworkers,andsociety5)increasedtensioninmarriageandthe
5/17/2015 DualcareercommutercouplesWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
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family6)decreasedsatisfactionwithsexlife7)missedimportantfamilymomentsanddaytodayexperiencesand8)lackofsociallife,hobbies,andindividualprojects.[13][14][15][16]
Contributingfactors
Roleconflict
Therehasbeeninconsistentevidenceinrelationtoroleconflictindualcareercommutercouples.Roleconflict,accordingtoBiddle,istheconcurrentappearanceoftwoormoreincompatibleexpectationsforthebehaviorofaperson,andwhenapersonexperiencesroleconflict,itcanhavenegativeeffectsonmultipleaspectsoftheirlives,includingdecreasedjobperformanceanddecreasedcommitmenttoanorganization.[17]Incontrasttothatdefinition,findingshaveshownthatmanycommutersfindtheirlifestylebeneficialinthatitallowsthemtopursuetheircareerswithouthavingtodealwithdailyfamilydistractions,andalsogivesthemasenseofautonomy.Thisabilitytocompartmentalizetherolestheindividualplaysmayleadtomoreworklifesatisfaction,supportedbyfindingsthatcommutercouplesgenerallyhadmoreworklifesatisfactionthandualcareercouplesinasingleresidence.[1]However,therearestillchallengesfacedbycommutercouplesintheirdifferentroles.Itwouldseemthatsuchgreatcompartmentalizationcanleadsomeindividualstostrugglewithbalancingboththeirworkandfamilyrolesandtheresponsibilitiesforeach[16]almosthalfofcommutercouplesstudiedbyAndersonreportedthattheyrarelyfeltthattheyhadagoodbalancebetweenjobandfamily.Also,familieswhoarecommutersarethoughttobecomemorecompetentintheirperformanceofallfamilyrelatedtasks,suggestingthatthereisalesstraditionaldivisionoflaborbetweenthehusbandandwife.[9]However,AndersonandSpruillfoundthatevenincommutercouples,mosttraditionalhouseholdtaskswerestillperformedbywomen,whiletaskssuchashouseholdmaintenanceandlawnmowingwereperformedbymen.[9]Thesefindingssuggestthatcommutercouplesmaystillberelativelytraditionalintheirroledivisionsfromagenderperspective.
Socialcomparison
AccordingtoFestinger(1954)andSocialComparisonTheory,whenthereisnoobjectiveassessmentforonesabilitiesoropinions,onewillcomparethemselvestootherswhoareseentobesimilar.Itisalsosaidthatwhenothershaveadifferenceinabilitiesoropinions,onewhoiscomparingthemselveswillalmostalwaysmovetheirideaofwhatabilitiesoropinionsareappropriateclosertothecomparisonothers.[18]Inlinewiththistheory,itmakessensethatcommutercoupleswouldtrytocomparethemselvestoothermarriedcouples,butitwilloftenposeproblemsforthembecausetheirrelationshipsdodifferinmanyways.Whencommutercouplescomparethemselvestotraditionalmarriages,itcancausethemalotofdiscomfort.[19]Thisisalsotrueforsocietysexpectationsofacommutercoupleifsocietycomparesthemtotraditionalcouples,theyrefrainfromaddressingimportantaspectsoftherelationship,andconsequentlylackasolidunderstanding.Itwasfoundthatpartnerswhofeltthattheirpeersthoughtthatthecommutinglifestylewasthebeginningofadivorceexperiencedmorestress.[16]
Adjustingversusestablishedcouples
"Adjusting"couplesaregenerallyyoungerwithfewornochildren,andtheyexperiencetheseparationearlierintheirmarriage.Itseemsthatyoungerwivesgenerallystrugglemorewiththeguiltthattheirhusbandsaredisadvantagedinsomeway,andyounghusbandstendtofeelasenseoflossincomparisontoatraditionalhusband.Thesecouplesoftenexperiencemorestressovertheconflictofwhosecareerismoreimportantthanthestressofbeingapart.
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"Established"couplesaregenerallyolder,havebeenmarriedlonger,andhavechildren.Withthesecouples,muchofthestresscomesfromchildcare.Generally,husbandswillfeelsomeresentmentintheincreaseinresponsibilitiesforthechildren,whilethewivesfeelguiltyabouttheirlessenedinvolvementintheirchildrenslives.[19]
Becomingacommutercouple
Attachmenttheoryandperceivedrelationshipquality
Attachmenttheory
Inimportantromanticrelationships,attachmentreferstostrongemotionalbondingandthefeelingofbeingsecure.[20]Tomaintainthesecurityfeelings,individualsstayinacomfortablerangeofproximitytotheirpartner.[21]Undercertaincircumstances,evenseparationduetoplannedtravelevokesconcernsofthepartnersinaccessibility.[22]Thisinaccessibilitymaybeassociatedwithanxiety,loneliness,andyearningforthepartner.Throughpsychological(e.g.,internalrepresentation),symbolic(e.g.,pictures),orphysicalproximitygainingaccessibility,individualscalmdownandrestoresecurity.Threedifferentattachmentstylesareidentifiedbyattachmentresearchers:[23]secure,avoidant,andanxietyattached.Thosewhoaresecurelyattachedhavepositiveviewsoftheselfandtheirpartner,andareconfidentwhenseekingproximitytothepartner.Avoidantindividuals,withtwosubtypes,generallysuppressdesiresofseekingforpartners.Specifically,dismissingavoidantindividualshaveapositiveselfworth,buthaveanegativeviewofthepartner,andpreferlowemotionalinvolvement.Fearfulavoidantshavenegativeviewsofboththeselfandthepartnerandfearrejection.Incontrast,individualswithanxietyattachmentstylesarehyperactive,continuouslyseekingandattemptingtomaintainpartnerproximity.Thosewhohaveanxiousattachmentstyleshavenegativeselfviews,andthepartnerisconsideredessentialtoselfworthbutinsufficientlyaccessible.TheRelationshipQuestionnairebyBartholomewandHorowitz(1991)[24]andExperienceinCloseRelationshipScalebyBrennan,Clark,andShaver(1998)[25]aretwocommonlyusedmeasurementsforattachmentstyle.TheRelationshipQuestionnaireassessattachmentstylebycrossingthepositiveornegativeviewofselfandpartner.Thisquestionnaireprovidesthecategoricaldata,thatmeanstocategorizeparticipantsintofourattachmentstyleswithoutanyscores.TheExperienceinCloseRelationshipScaleontheotherhand,measuresonasevenpointscale.Peoplewithlowerscoresaretowardtheattachmentavoidanceend,andpeoplewithhigherscoresaremorelikelytobeattachmentanxiousstyle.Thisscaleprovidesquantitativeinformationaboutattachmentstyle.Thoughthetwoscalescanbeusedseparately,theymakeupthecategoricalandintervalpartforeachother.Thus,itisrecommendedtousebothofthem.[26]Thecombinationofbothscaleshavebeenprovenvalidinmeasuringattachmentstyles.[27]
Perceivedlongdistancerelationshipquality
Secureattachmentisrelatedtopositiverelationshipqualities(e.g.,satisfactioncommitment).[23]Althoughitmayseemcounterintuitive,longdistancerelationshipsbetweensecurelyattachedindividualsareperceivedtobesimilarinrelationshipqualitytorelationshipsofsecurelyattachedindividualswhoaregeographicallyclose.Avoidantandanxiousattachmentstyleindividualswhoareinvolvedinlongdistancerelationshipsperceivetheirrelationshipaslowerqualitythanavoidantandanxiousindividualsingeographicallycloserelationships.Commutercouplesrelationshipqualityareexpectedtodifferbasedontheindividualsattachmentstyles.[26]Recently,researchfoundthatcommutercoupleswhomeetonamonthlybase(i.e.,meetmorethanonceamonth)relationshipqualitywasinfluencedbytheseparation.[28]
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Decisionmakingprocesses
Somestudiesreportthatmanycouplesdonotgothroughanevaluationofthecommutinglifestylebeforetheyengageinit.[8][9][10]Althoughthedualcareercommutercouplesaregenerallyahighlyeducatedandsophisticatedgroupofpeople,themajorityofthecouplesstudieddidnotuseasystematicdecisionmakingprocess.Thecommutercouplesdidnotcollectinformation,talktoothercommutingcouples,orreviewotheralternativesinmakingtheirdecisiontocommute.Instead,thecouplessimplyacceptedthatcommutingwasnecessaryandthendiscussedwhatthedetailsoftheimpendingseparationwouldentail.Inaddition,twothirdsofthecouplesmadenoplanstoreevaluatetheeffectivenessoftheirdecisiontocommute.[8][9]Despitethesefindings,therearecoupleswhodogothroughadecisionmakingprocess.Theyarereportedtohavehigherrelationshipsatisfactionthanthosewhodidnotgothroughasystematicdecisionmakingprocess.[8]
Practicalimplications
Fortheindividual,thereareafewsuggestionstobemadeinregardstobecomingadualcareercouplebasedonimplicationsofpastresearch.First,thedivisionoflaborshouldbediscussedandmadecleartobothspouses,soiteachindividualsexpectationsareapparent.Thestabilityoftherelationshipshouldalsobeconsidered,aswellasthepossiblereactionseachindividualmighthaveinresponsetosocietalviews.Theexpensesoftravelingandeachspouseshistoryofbeingalone(i.e.,theirattachmentstyles)shouldbeconsideredaswell.[14]Finally,couplesshouldconsiderdiscussingthedecisionwithothercommutercouplestogainfirsthandknowledge.[9]Organization,frequentcommunication,andritualshavebeenfoundtobethreeofthemostimportantaspectsofsuccessfullymaintainingacommutinglifestyle.[29]Weeklyorganizedmeetingscanprovideanopportunityforthecoupletopracticecommunication,improveorganization,takecareofhouseholdresponsibilities,andkeepintouchaboutpastandfutureevents.[30][31]Developingasetofritualsandschedulescanhelpcommutercoupleseasethestressofdepartingandreunitingwitheachother.[32]Ritualssuchasdailyphonecalls,sharingdinnerwhiletalkingonthephone,regulardependablevisitationtimes,apredictableroutineforreunitinganddeparting,specialdinnerdatesfortheirfirstnightstogether,andleavingintimatemessagesandsignsofaffectionhavebeenfoundtobehelpfulformanycommutercouples.[14][16]Theseritualshelpthecoupleestablishasharedhistorythattheycandrawonduringlonelymoments.
Seealso
AttachmentTheorySocialComparisonTheoryWorklifeBalanceLongdistancerelationship
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families:Commutingversussingleresidencecouples.JournalofMarriageandtheFamily,399407.2. Rapoport,R.,Rapoport,R.N.,&Bumstead,J.M.(Eds.).(1978).Workingcouples.NewYork:Harper&
Row.3. Gilbert,L.A.,&Rachlin,V.(1987).Mentalhealthandpsychologicalfunctioningofdualcareerfamilies.
TheCounselingPsychologist,15(1),749.4. Reed,C.M.,&Bruce,W.M.(1993).Dualcareercouplesinthepublicsector:Asurveyofpersonnel
policiesandpractices.PublicPersonnelManagement.
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5. theU.S.BureauofTransportationStatistics,2003.6. Bergen,K.M.,Kirby,E.,&McBride,M.C.(2007)."Howdoyougettwohousescleaned?":Accomplishing
familycaregivingincommutermarriages.JournalofFamilyCommunication,7,287307.7. Rusconi,A.,&Solga,H.Asystematicreflectionupondualcareercouples.Discussion
paper//WissenschaftszentrumBerlinfrSozialforschung(WZB),ForschungsschwerpunktBildung,ArbeitundLebenschancen,AbteilungAusbildungundArbeitsmarkt.
8. Anderson,E.A.(1992).Decisionmakingstyle:Impactonsatisfactionofthecommutercouples'lifestyle.JournalofFamilyandEconomicIssues,13(1),521.
9. Anderson,E.A.,&Spruill,J.W.(1993)."Thedualcareercommuterfamily:Alifestyleonthemove".Marriage&FamilyReview,19(12),131147.
10. Gerstel,N.,&Gross,H.E.(1984).Commutermarriages:Astudyofworkandfamily.NewYork:Guilford.11. vanderKlis,M.,&Mulder,C.H.(2008).Beyondthetrailingspouse:thecommuterpartnershipasan
alternativetofamilymigration.JournalofHousingandtheBuiltEnvironment,23(1),119.12. Jackson,A.P.,Brown,R.P.,&PattersonStewart,K.E.(2000).AfricanAmericansinDualCareer
CommuterMarriages:AnInvestigationofTheirExperiences.TheFamilyJournal,8,2236.13. Groves,M.M.,&HormWingerd,D.M.(1991).Commutermarriages:Personal,familyandcareerissues.
Sociologyandsocialresearch,75(4),212217.14. Magnuson,S.,&Norem,K.(1999).Challengesforhighereducationcouplesincommutermarriages:Insights
forcouplesandcounselorswhoworkwiththem.TheFamilyJournal,7(2),125134.15. Winfield,F.E.(1985).Commutermarriage:Livingtogetherapart.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.16. Jackson,A.P.,Brown,R.P.,&PattersonStewart,K.E.(2000).AfricanAmericansindualcareercommuter
marriages:Aninvestigationoftheirexperiences.TheFamilyJournal,8(1),2236.17. Biddle,B.J.(1986).Recentdevelopmentinroletheory.Annualreviewofsociology,6792.18. Festinger,L.(1954).Atheoryofsocialcomparisonprocesses.Humanrelations,7(2),117140.19. Gross,H.E.(1980).Dualcareercoupleswholiveapart:Twotypes.JournalofMarriageandtheFamily,
567576.20. Bowlby,J.(1988).Asecurebase.NewYork:Basic.21. Bowlby,J.(1969).AttachmentandLoss:Vol.I:Attachment.NewYork,BasicBooks.22. Bowlby,J.(1973).Attachmentandloss:Vol.II:Separation.NewYork:BasicBooks.23. Mikulincer,M.,&Shaver,P.R.(2007).Attachmentinadulthood:Structure,dynamics,andchange.New
York:Guilford.24. Bartholomew,K.,&Horowitz,L.M.(1991).Attachmentstylesamongyoungadults:Atestofafour
categorymodel.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,61,226244.25. Brennan,K.A.,Clark,C.L.,&Shaver,P.R.(1998).Selfreportmeasurementofadultattachment:An
integrativeoverview.InJ.A.Simpson&W.S.Rholes(Eds.),Attachmenttheoryandcloserelationships(pp.4676).NewYork:Guilford.
26. Pistole,M.C.,Roberts,A.&Chapman,M.L.(2010).Attachment,relationshipmaintenance,andstressinlongdistanceandgeographicallycloseromanticrelationships.JournalofSocialandPersonalRelationships,27(4),535552.
27. Levy,K.N.,Blatt,S.J.,&Shaver,P.R.(1998).Attachmentstylesandparentalrepresentations.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology,74(2),407.
28. VanderKlis,M.&Karsten,L.(2009).Commutingpartners,dualresidencesandthemeaningofhome.JournalofEnvironmentalPsychology,29,235245.
29. Rotter,J.C.,Barnett,D.E.,&Fawcett,M.L.(1998).Ontheroadagain:Dualcareercommuterrelationships.TheFamilyJournal,6(1),4648.
30. Bettner,B.L.,&Lew,A.(1992).Raisingkidswhocan:Usingfamilymeetingstonurtureresponsible,cooperative,caring,andhappychildren.NewYork:HarperPerennial.
31. GerhartBrooks,D.R.,&Lyle,R.R.(1999).Thefamilymeeting:Facilitatingdialoguewithdivorcedfamilies.JournalofFamilyPsychotherapy,10(2),7782.
32. Johnson,S.E.(1987).WeavingtheThreads:EqualizingProfessionalandPersonalDemandsFacedbyCommutingCareerCouples.JournaloftheNationalAssociationofWomenDeans,Administrators,andCounselors,50(2),310.
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