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8/10/2019 Drabek - EM and HS Curricula-Contexts, Cultures, And Constra
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EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AND HOMELAND SECURITY
CURRICULA: CONTEXTS, CULTURES, AND CONSTRAINTS
Thomas E. DrabekJoh E!as "ro#essor, Emer$%&s
De'ar%me% o# So($o)o*+ a Cr$m$o)o*+
U$!ers$%+ o# De!er
De!er, Co)orao -/-0/12-
3%e40o.(om
*A paper presented at the annual meeting of the Western Social Science Association,Calgary, Alberta, Canada, April, 2007. I ish to than! "uth Ann #rabe! for her or! on
this paper. $artial support as recei%ed from the &ni%ersity of #en%er through the 'ohn
(%ans $rofessorship $rogram and the )igher (ducation $roect, +ederal (mergencyanagement Agency, #epartment of )omeland Security. Any opinions, findings,
conclusions or recommendations e-pressed in this paper are those of the author and do
not necessarily reflect the %ies of the &ni%ersity of #en%er or the +ederal (mergencyanagement Agency.
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EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AND HOMELAND SECURITY
CURRICULA: CONTEXTS, CULTURES, AND CONSTRAINTS
A5STRACT
#uring the past three decades, emergency management has become more
professionalied. An important part of this transformation has been the e-plosi%e groth
in higher education programs designed to pro%ide the fundamental !noledge and s!ills
re/uired of emergency managers. +olloing the attac!s of September , 200, hoe%er,
curricula reflecting homeland security issues and competencies ha%e been established.
Some ha%e proposed that these programs should be better integrated. +olloing a brief
summary of the historical conte-t in hich these de%elopments occurred, !ey points of
culture clash are identified. It is concluded that future faculty and administrati%e
initiati%es ill be constrained by these cultural differences and deflected by future
go%ernmental policies, disaster e%ents, and other e-ternal factors.
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EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AND HOMELAND SECURITY
CURRICULA: CONTEXTS, CULTURES, AND CONSTRAINTS
When disaster stri!es, most people thin! immediately of first responders1police,
fire, emergency medical, and the li!e. And they should 3hese are the people ho e
depend on to confront the conse/uences of disaster, at least initially. 4ut behind the
scenes, aay from the tornado path or the flooded homes, sits another important
responder hose primary mission is to facilitate coordination among the hundreds of on5
scene personnel ho represent doens of agencies. 3his person, and their staff, perform
the emergency management function during the full life cycle of any disaster, i.e.,
response, reco%ery, mitigation and preparedness. 3he multiorganiational netor!s they
see! to coordinate are comprised of personnel and resources from local, state and federal
go%ernment organiations and from the pri%ate sector 6#rabe! 200b8.
#uring the past three decades, emergency management has become more
professionalied 6e.g., $eta! 9:;< #rabe! 9:7, 200=< >uban 99=< Wilson and ?yola5
@amaiel 2000, 2008. An important part of this transformation has been the e-plosi%e
groth in higher education programs designed to pro%ide the fundamental !noledge
and s!ills re/uired of emergency managers 64lanchard 2008. +olloing the attac!s of
September , 200, hoe%er, curricula reflecting homeland security issues and
competencies ha%e been established. Some ha%e proposed that these program areas
should be better integrated. Indeed, some faculty and administrators decided to simply
adopt both terms for program identification as if there as no difference in content,
culture, or perspecti%e. 3his essay e-plores these matters through the e-amination of
three themesB 8 historical conte-t< 28 curricula and cultural differences< and =8
=
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alternati%e integrati%e strategies. 3he analysis points toard the conclusion that future
faculty and administrati%e initiati%es for increased integration among emergency
management and homeland security curricula ill be constrained by important cultural
differences, future go%ernmental policies, disaster e%ents, and other e-ternal factors.
H$s%or$(a) Co%e6%
)uman response to disaster, both initial impacts and longer term conse/uences,
as ignored by most social scientists during the formati%e years of their disciplines. A
notable e-ception as Soro!ins 69;28 treatise herein he theoried about the human
impacts and responses to a ide %ariety of socially disrupti%e e%ents. (arlier, and more
e-acting and focused, hoe%er, as the seminal documentation of responses to the
)alifa- harbor e-plosion by $rince 69208. &sing this tragedy 6#ecember , 978 as a
case study, $rince formulated a series of generaliations hereby future scholars might
transcend the details of this single case, e.g., Scanlon 997< Scanlon and )andmer 200.
3hree decades later, field teams from the &ni%ersity of Chicago inter%ieed hundreds of
disaster %ictims and completed the first comparati%e studies hereby modal patterns of
response ere identified 6e.g., +rit 9< +rit and ar!s 9;8. ?ften, especially
regarding panic beha%ior, immobility, and anti5social acts such as looting, the
documented patterns ere not consistent ith the public image 6Duarantelli and #ynes
972< #ynes, Duarantelli and >reps 9728. And paralleling these research findings ere
those of social geographers li!e White 69;8, ho unra%eled the decision dynamics
related to users of flood prone areas 6see also )insha 2008. Collecti%ely, these
empirical studies pro%ided the intellectual foundation on hich a ne profession could be
built.
;
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Apart from the theoretical and empirical research base that as dri%en primarily
by scholars or!ing ithin frameor!s de%eloped ithin sociology and social
geography, go%ernment employees ere guided by to e%ol%ing policy streams that
reflected legislati%e responses to both ar and a ide %ariety of so5called EnaturalF
disasters, including floods, hurricanes, earth/ua!es, tornadoes, and the li!e 6#rabe!
998. )ence, Eci%il defenseF offices ere funded for state go%ernments and some local
communities to prepare for potential enemy attac!s. 4ut hen natural or technological
agents caused ha%oc ithin communities, local officials confronted o%er 0 different
federal units that had specialied interests, programs, and resource priorities. ?ne of the
legacies of $resident 'immy Carter as the reorganiation of this Ebureaucratic buffetF
into a single unified bureau he named the +ederal (mergency anagement Agency
6+(A8. &pon its creation in 'uly, 979, the ne federal bureau confronted the
predictable reorganiation groing pains reflecti%e of the cultures learned by its agency
personnel. &nder $resident "eagan the contro%ersies regarding +(A most often
focused on ar related initiati%es li!e the ill5fated Ecrisis relocation programF 6ay and
Williams 9:8. Gocal go%ernments repainted office doors ith %arying names ranging
from ci%il defense to emergency preparedness to emergency management or %arious
combinations of these and related terms.
#uring the 990s, the agency that too often as easy fodder for late night
comics, as turned around. $resident Clintons e-periences as go%ernor helped him
realie the defects in the local5state5federal partnerships that had failed $resident )erbert
Wal!er 4ush during the response to )urricane Andre in 992. Clinton appointed his
former state emergency manager from Ar!ansas1r. 'ames Gee Witt1as the +(A
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director. Witts leadership, buttressed by continual and consistent support from Clinton
and !ey professionals li!e the late Gacy Suiter ho had directed the program in
3ennessee, transformed the agency and headed the nation toard an alternati%e
philosophy of haard and disaster management. Ho longer ere floods to be %ieed as
enemies best dealt ith by the construction of more dams< rather a philosophy of
en%ironmental sustainability became the assumption base. He federal policies,
reflecting the full life cycle of disaster, pro%ided local and state officials ith ne tools
and higher le%els of legitimacy than e%er had been accorded most of those earing ci%il
defense clothes 6c(ntire 200< 2007, pp. :50;88. Collecti%ely, more and more local
go%ernment employees hose agency missions ere changing oined their national
professional organiation hose leadership renamed the unit to become the International
Association of (mergency anagers 6IA(8 6former name as Hational Coordinating
Council on (mergency anagement8 6e.g., see #rabe! 99< )addo and 4ulloc!
200=8.
A fe faculty, mostly in sociology and geography, designed courses to introduce
students to the burgeoning research literature. raduate students or!ed ithin an
e-panding set of institutes and centers. ost notable among these as the #isaster
"esearch Center at the &ni%ersity of #elaare, hich had been relocated from 3he ?hio
State &ni%ersity in 9:, and the &ni%ersity of Colorados Hatural )aards "esearch and
Application Information Center. raduates of these and other social science departments
founded additional research and teaching programs at numerous other uni%ersities
throughout the &.S.A.
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In 99, I oined se%eral other researchers at a or!shop sponsored by the
(mergency anagement Institute at +(As Hational (mergency 3raining Center in
(mmitsburg, aryland. #r. Wayne 4lanchard, director of a ne initiati%e13he )igher
(ducation $rogram1summaried his research on uni%ersity curricula. At that time only
to formal degree programs e-isted in emergency management1&ni%ersity of Horth
3e-as and 3homas (dison College 6Heal 20008. It as decided that +(A should host
an annual conference for all college and uni%ersity faculty teaching courses related to
emergency management. "ecogniing the professional needs of practitioners and
opportunities for curricular e-pansions into an important ne substanti%e area, faculty
and administrators /uic!ly responded ith course and program proposals 6see #rabe!
200d8. &nder 4lanchards atchful eye, a doen or so faculty produced a series of
instructor guides to facilitate course proposals and preparation. 3hese ha%e been posted
on the +(A )igher (ducation $roect ebsite and may be donloaded free of cost
6httpBJJtraining.fema.go%JemiebJedu8.
4y 'une, 200, o%er 00 formal programs in emergency management ere being
offered throughout the nations colleges and uni%ersities. And about another 00 ere in
the process of being created 64lanchard 2008.
While terrorism as a topic ithin these Eall5haardF programs, the attac!s of
September , 200, changed the priorities of many. As numerous groups criti/ued both
the response and the intelligence failures that permitted these attac!s to occur, many
ithin higher education /uestioned the ade/uacy of e-isting curricula including the
nely formed emergency management programs. 4uilding on the testimony,
obser%ations, and the final report of the 95 Commission 6200;8, some /uic!ly produced
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ne course and program proposals. 4y the 'une, 200, conference, o%er 0 programs in
E)omeland SecurityJ#efenseF ere identified. Indeed, for the first time, hat had been
an emergency management conference as co5sponsored 6+ederal (mergency
anagement Agency, #epartment of )omeland Security and the H?"3)C?
)omeland SecurityJ#efense (ducation Consortium8. It as in this setting that many
faculty ere first e-posed to the cultural clashes that reflected important differences in
perspecti%e. 3hese differences are not limited to alternati%e course titles, rather they
reflect %ery real contrasts in perceptions of ris! and %ulnerability and approaches to
solution. 3hus, the definition of Ethe problemF differs as does the priority among
strategies for addressing it.
C&rr$(&)a a C&)%&ra) D$##ere(es
$rior to the 'une, 200, +(A conference, I as in%ited to ser%e as a panelist for
a session focused on issues of potential integration among homeland security and
emergency management programs. In preparation for this assignment, I re%ieed
numerous program outlines for both types of curricula. y re%ie identified fi%e
important contrasts hich ere amplified by faculty I listened to throughout the
conference.
. Disaster agent. As ould be e-pected, ithin homeland security programs,
terrorism is identified as the maor ris! currently confronting the &.S.A. ?ne faculty
member, echoing lines I had read pre%iously in White )ouse position statements 6e.g.,
4ush 2008, emphasied Ee are at ar.F )e ent on to stress his %ie that increased
aareness of the scope, intensity, and commitment of our enemies must be a maor
program goal. "is! perceptions of Americans must be changed because most are
:
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unaare of our %ulnerability and unprepared to respond. While emergency management
faculty, reflecting an all5haards perspecti%e, might agree ith that last sentence in
principle, they ould focus on building support for flood mitigation measures and better
hurricane e%acuation procedures. So at the outset, the %ery definition of Ethe problemF is
a sharp contrast.
2. Management paradigm. Again reflecting documents floing from the White
)ouse, most homeland security faculty reflected a top5don approach to management. I
encountered this in the White )ouse analysis of the failed >atrina response.
EA useful model for our approach to homeland security is the Hationsapproach to nationalsecurity. . . . operationally organied, it stresses the
importance of unity of command from the $resident don to thecommander in the field.F 6White )ouse 200, pp. 578.
E?ur model for the command and control structure for the +ederalresponse in the ne Hational $reparedness System is our successful
defense and national security statutory frameor!. In that frameor!,
there is a clear line of authority that stretches from the $resident, through
the Secretary of #efense, to the Combatant Commander in the field. . . .Although the Combatant Commander might not Kon or control forces on
a day5to5day basis, during a military operation he controls all military
forces in his theater< he e-ercises the command authority and has access toresources needed to affect outcomes on the ground.F 6White )ouse 200,
p. 78.
In direct contrast, emergency management faculty ha%e been teaching an
alternati%e model, one that emphasies cooperation, not command< coordination, not
control. A Ebottoms5upF perspecti%e is e%ident ithin the curricula of emergency
management programs 6#rabe! 200;, 200d< c(ntire 20078 and reflects the research
based criti/ues of command and control management models 6e.g., #ynes 99;< Heal and
$hillips 998.
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=. Scope of event. #isasters come in a ide %ariety. Indeed, many ise
researchers ha%e suggested that much attention must be gi%en to a fundamental /uestion,
i.e., What is a disasterL 6Duarantelli 99:, $erry and Duarantelli 200, $erry 200,
Duarantelli et al. 2008. In part at least, the issue has to do ith establishing appropriate
limits of generaliation of research findings 6for elaboration, see Committee on #isaster
"esearch in the Social Sciences 200, pp. ;;5;8. #o the responses to a small tornado
in 3ope!a, >ansas, inform our predictions regarding those that might be forthcoming
folloing an airplane crash in the same localeL )o might the response pattern differ if
the crash as into an office building folloing a hiac!ing by a band of terroristsL And
ould there be e%en more differences if the hiac!ers had been successful in smuggling a
nuclear de%ice onboardL If detonated in the crash, the potential disaster scene escalates
immediately from a single plane and office building to an entire city. It is such Ehat
ifsF that Clar! 62008 urges disaster officials to build into their training and planning
acti%ities so as to stimulate the imagination. And by doing so, he recommends more
focus on Ethe possibleF rather than the current blinders reflecting focus on Ethe probable.F
)omeland security faculty are ad%ised to study the isdom ithin Clar!s
analysis so as to go beyond their limited proections of terrorists plots. 4ut by a near
singular focus on Ethe enemy,F these faculty fail to benefit from the insights of a much
larger picture. In a frameor! I ill outline belo, I ill suggest potentials for greater
integration ith emergency management. We learned long ago that a primary focus on
planning for Ethe big oneF1in those days nuclear attac! from the So%iet &nion1as a
barrier to both public credibility and effecti%e use of community resources during times
of disaster. 3hat lesson should not be forgotten. +urthermore, the failed >atrina response
0
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must not be used to narro our focus to EcatastrophicF e%ents to the neglect of the
hundreds of disasters that probably ill occur before another e%ent of that scope.
;. Intergovernmental system. All disasters are local. At least, the first response
to any type of maor e%ent ill reflect local resources. (mergency management
programs emphasie the horiontal pattern of relationships that must be nurtured if the
emergent response netor! is to be effecti%e 6#rabe! 200, 200=< c(ntire 20078. And
procedures to rapidly access state and federal resources are among the core !noledge
that any emergency manager must !no thoroughly. )omeland security faculty,
hoe%er, emphasie Ethe crime sceneF nature of the disaster setting and the important
roles played by la enforcement agencies. Intelligence gathering designed to thart
potential enemy attac!s and the /uic! capture of those ho might be successful in
implementing their plot becomes a top priority. While local officials are recognied, the
role of the federal bureaus rises to the top of the homeland security agenda. Students are
thereby socialied into a culture that differs significantly from the orld of emergency
management as it is practiced ithin most local communities.
. Content. In 200 a group of e-perts as con%ened by a committee ithin the
Hational Academy of Sciences to e-amine proposals regarding undergraduate degrees in
homeland security. What ould comprise the contentL any topics ere discussed,
some of hich reflect courses currently being offered at %arious uni%ersities and colleges.
3opics li!e these are listed in different program statementsB E$ort Security,F EA%iation
Security,F EAsymmetric 3hreats and 3errorism,F ECi%il5ilitary "elations,F E3he
Intelligence Community and the Intelligence $rocess,F E$rinciples of Criminal
In%estigation,F EGegal and Constitutional Issues in )omeland Security and (mergency
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$reparedness,F EHuclear, 4iological, and Chemical 3hreats,F E(nergy and 3ransportation
Security.F ?b%iously this is ust a sampling, but the HAS e-perts ere concerned. 3heir
conclusionL EHot a single or!shop participant, or any of the committee members,
%oiced support for an undergraduate degree program focused specifically on homeland
security. As an area of study, it as deemed too immature and too broad.F Such matters
seemed best pursued at the graduate le%el. 6Committee on (ducational $aradigms for
)omeland Security 200, p. 98.
"egardless of ones position on the issue of uni%ersity degrees, the contrast in
substanti%e content to that offered ithin undergraduate emergency management
programs is informati%e. 4eyond the Eintroduction toF classes, typical course topics areB
E)aard itigation 3heory and $ractice,F E#isaster "esponse and "eco%ery,F
EGeadership and ?rganiational 4eha%ior,F E)aardous aterials,F E$ri%ate Sector
Issues,F EComputers in (mergency anagement,F E4uilding #isaster "esilient
Communities,F EMoluntary Agency #isaster Ser%ices,F ECrisis CommunicationsF and
ECommunity #isaster $reparedness.F
As ith )omeland Security, the multidisciplinary nature of emergency
management has resulted in program placement issues. 3he first undergraduate degree
program as founded at the &ni%ersity of Horth 3e-as and is administered ithin the
#epartment of $ublic Administration hich identified an E(mergency Administration and
$lanning $rogram.F In contrast, the first $h.#. program in emergency management as
created at Horth #a!ota State &ni%ersity and is housed ithin the E#epartment of
Sociology, Anthropology, and (mergency anagement.F
2
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?thers ha%e e%ol%ed ith much greater specificity. +or e-ample, graduate
degrees and certificates may be earned at eorge ason &ni%ersitys Hational Center for
4iodefense. Among the courses offered are theseB E3hreat Analysis IB 4acterial
AgentsF< E3hreat Analysis IIB Miral AgentsF< E3hreat Analysis IMB 3o-insFreps. 972. 1 (erspective on Disaster(lanning2Columbus, ?hioB #isaster "esearch Center, 3he ?hio State &ni%ersity.
#rabe!, 3homas (. 9:7. #he (rofessional 'mergency Manager& Structures and Strategies
for Success. 4oulder, ColoradoB Institute of 4eha%ioral Science, &ni%ersity ofColorado.
+rit, Charles (. 9. E#isasters.F $p. 59; in Contemporary Social (roblems,"obert
>. erton and "obert A. Hisbet 6eds.8. He @or!B )arcourt.
+rit, Charles (. and (li S. ar!s. 9;. E3he H?"C Studies of )uman 4eha%ior in#isaster.F #he .ournal of Social Issues0B25;.
+uredi, +ran!. 200. EHe #imensionsB 3he roth of a ar!et in +ear.F $p. 0:520 in
)andboo of Disaster -esearch, )a%idRn "odr/ue, (nrico G. Duarantelli, and
"ussell ". #ynes 6eds.8. He @or!B Springer.
ardner, 'ohn W. 9. Self"-enewal& #he Individual and the Innovative Society. He@or!B )arper O "o.
)addo, eorge #. and 'ane A. 4ulloc!. 200=. Introduction to 'mergency Management.AmsterdamB 4utterorthJ)einemann.
)art, ary. 200. #he Shield and the Cloa& #he Security of the Commons. He @or!B?-ford &ni%ersity $ress.
)insha, "obert (. 200. 0iving with *ature3s 'xtremes& #he 0ife of $ilbert !owler
hite. 4oulder, C?B 'ohnson 4oo!s.
>uban, "on. 99=. ECrisis anagementB Analysis of the anagement of Communal
Catastrophes.F $h.#. 3hesis. (dmonton, Alberta, CanadaB &ni%ersity of Alberta.
ay, $eter '. and Walter Williams. 9:. Disaster (olicy Implementation& Managing
(rograms +nder Shared $overnance. He @or! and GondonB $lenum $ress.
c(ntire, #a%id A. 2007. Disaster -esponse and -ecovery. He @or!B 'ohn Wiley.
2=
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c(ntire, #a%id A. 200. EGocal (mergency anagement ?rganiations.F $p. :5:2
in)andboo of Disaster -esearch, )a%idRn "odr/ue, (nrico G. Duarantelli, and
"ussell ". #ynes 6eds.8. He @or!B Springer.
Hational Commission on 3errorist Attac!s &pon the &nited States. 200;. #he 4566
Commission -eport. He @or!B W.W. Horton O Company.
Heal, #a%id . 2000. E#e%eloping #egree $rograms in #isaster anagementB Some
"eflections and ?bser%ations.F International .ournal of Mass 'mergencies andDisasters:B;75;=7.
Heal, #a%id . and 4renda #. $hillips. 99. E(ffecti%e (mergency anagementB
"econsidering the 4ureaucratic Approach.F Disasters& #he .ournal of DisasterStudies, (olicy and Management9B=275==7.
Hormand, Alain. 200. EIntegration of #isciplines is in the +uture for (mergency
anagement, 4usiness Continuity and Security.F $aper presented at the annualCanadian "is! and )aards Hetor! Symposium, ontrPal, DuPbec, Canada,
?ctober.
$erry, "onald W. 200. EWhat Is a #isasterLF $p. 5 in)andboo of Disaster -esearch,
)a%idRn "odr/ue, (nrico G. Duarantelli, and "ussell ". #ynes 6eds.8. He @or!BSpringer.
$erry, "onald W. and (.G. Duarantelli. 200. hat Is a Disaster7& *ew 1nswers to an 8ld
9uestion, $hiladelphia, $AB Tlibris Corporation.
$eta!, William '. 9:;. EHatural )aard itigationB $rofessionaliation of the $olicy
a!ing $rocess.F International .ournal of Mass 'mergencies and Disasters2B2:5=02.
$rince, Samuel )enry. 920. ECatastrophe and Social Change, 4ased &pon a SociologicalStudy of the )alifa- #isaster.F $h.#. thesis. He @or!B Columbia &ni%ersity
#epartment of $olitical Science.
Duarantelli, (. G. 99:b. hat Is a Disaster7& (erspectives on the 9uestion. Gondon andHe @or!B "outledge.
Duarantelli, (. G. and "ussell ". #ynes. 972. EWhen #isaster Stri!es 6It Isnt uch Gi!eWhat @ou%e )eard and "ead About8.F(sychology #odayB570.
Duarantelli, (.G., $atric! Gagadec, and Aren 4oin. 200. EA )euristic Approach to +uture#isasters and CrisesB He, ?ld, and In54eteen 3ypes.F $p. 5; in)andboo of
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Scanlon, 3. 'oseph. 997. E"eriting a Gi%ing GegendB "esearching the 97 )alifa-
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!lood (roblems in the +nited States. 6"esearch $aper Ho. 298. Chicago, IllinoisB
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