Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
WORLD WAR IEyewitness
Early gas helmet
Model of British motor ambulanceused on the Western Front
Early Britishreconnaissance
aircraft
German incendiarybomb, droppedduring first air raid on London
Book that stopped a bullet
British 20 lb (9 kg)Hales bomb
British “carcass”incendiary bomb
French tin soldiers
Signboard fromYpres station, 1916
IN ASSOCIATION WITHTHE IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUM
US DistinguishedService Cross
Prussian IronCross
Written by
SIMON ADAMSPhotographed by
ANDY CRAWFORD
Caricature puzzle ofHerbert Asquith,
British primeminister from
1908–16
British Maxim Mark 3machine gun
Figurine of GrandDuke Nicolas,commander-
in-chief of theRussian armies at
the start of the war
WORLD WAR I
Eyewitness
German steelhelmet adaptedfor use with a
telephone
British steel helmet with visor
British andGerman
barbed wire
Grenade
Britishofficer’scompass
Germanmedicalorderly’s
pouch
Dummy riflesused by Britisharmy recruits,
1914–15
French Croix deGuerre medalawarded for
valour
Project editor Patricia MossArt editors Julia Harris, Rebecca Painter
Senior editor Monica BylesSenior art editors Jane Tetzlaff, Clare Shedden
Category publisher Jayne ParsonsManaging art editor Jacquie Gulliver
Senior production controller Kate OliverPicture research Sean Hunter
DTP designers Justine Eaton, Matthew Ibbotson
PAPERBACK EDITION
Managing editor Linda EspositoSenior editor Shaila Awan
Managing art editor Jane ThomasCategory publisher Linda Martin
Art director Simon WebbEditor and reference compiler Clare Hibbert
Art editor Rebecca JohnsProduction Jenny Jacoby
Picture research Sean HunterDTP designer Siu Yin Ho
This Eyewitness ® Guide has been conceived by Dorling Kindersley Limited and Editions Gallimard
Hardback edition first published in Great Britain in 2001.This edition first published in Great Britain in 2004
by Dorling Kindersley Limited,80 Strand, London WC2R 0RL
Copyright © 2001, © 2004, Dorling Kindersley Limited, LondonA Penguin Group
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner.
A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN 1 4053 0298 4
Colour reproduction by Colourscan, Singapore
Printed in China by Toppan Co., (Shenzhen) Ltd.
See our complete catalogue at
LONDON, NEW YORK, TORONTO, MELBOURNE, MUNICH, and DELHI
Contents6
Divided Europe8
The fatal shot10
War in the west12
Fighting men14
Joining up16
Digging the trenches18
Life in the trenches20
Ready to fight22
Communication and supplies24
Observation and patrol26
Bombardment28
Over the top30
Casualty32
Women at war34
War in the air36
Zeppelin38
War at sea40
Gallipoli42
Verdun
Highexplosive
shells
44Gas attack
46The Eastern Front
48War in the desert
50Espionage
52Tank warfare
54The US enters the war
56Under enemy lines
58The final year
60Armistice and peace
62The cost of the war
64Did you know?
66Key people and places
68Find out more
70Glossary
72Index
62
AT THE START of the 20th century, the countriesof Europe were increasingly hostile to eachother. Britain, France, and Germany competedfor trade and influence overseas, whileAustria-Hungary and Russia both tried
to dominate the Balkan states ofsouth-east Europe. Military tension
between Germany and Austria-Hungaryon the one hand and Russia and France onthe other led to the formation of powerfulmilitary alliances. A naval arms race addedto the tension. In 1912–13 two major wars
broke out in the Balkans as rival statesbattled to divide Turkish-controlled
lands between them. By 1914the political situation in Europewas tense, but few believed thata continental war was inevitable.
HMS DREADNOUGHTThe launch of HMS Dreadnought inFebruary 1906 marked a revolution inbattleship design. With its 10 12-inch(30-cm) guns and a top speed of 21knots, the British ship outperformedand outpaced every other battleship of the day. As a result, Germany,France, and other maritime nationsbegan to design and build their own“Dreadnoughts”, starting a worldwidenaval armaments race.
Divided Europe
KAISER WILHELM IIWilhelm II becameemperor of Germanyin 1888, when he wasjust 29. He had awithered arm andother disabilities, butovercame them throughhis strong personality. Asemperor, he tried to turnGermany from a European power to a world power, but his aggressivepolicies and arrogant behaviour upset other European nations,particularly Britain and France.
Some children had modelsof HMS Dreadnoughtand could recite everydetail of her statistics
Hand-painted,tinplate toybattleship
THE POWER HOUSEThe factory, shown above, in theRuhr valley of western Germany
belonged to the Alfred KruppArms Company. The Kruppfamily was the largest arms
supplier in the world. Germanywas a largely agricultural nationwhen it became a united country
in 1871. Over the next 30 years,new iron, coal, steel, engineering,
and shipbuilding industriesturned Germany into the third
biggest industrial country in theworld, after the USA and Britain.
Key to wind upclockwork motor
THE GERMAN FLEETIn 1898 Germany began an ambitiousnaval building programme designed tochallenge the supremacy of the BritishRoyal Navy. While German admiralscommanded these new ships in the Balticand North Seas, German children playedwith tin battleships in their baths.
EUROPEAN RIVALRIESIn 1882 Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italysigned the Triple Alliance to protect themselvesagainst invasion. Alarmed by this, France andRussia formed an alliance in 1894. Britain signedententes (understandings) with France in 1904 and Russia in 1907. During the war, Serbia,Montenegro, Belgium, Romania, Portugal, andGreece fought with the Allies. Bulgaria and Turkeyfought alongside Germany and Austria-Hungary –the Central Powers. Italy joined the Allies in 1915.
Central Powers
Allied Nations
Neutral
Tsar Nicholas II of Russia George V of Britain
A FAMILY AFFAIR?Although George V and TsarNicholas II look very similar,
they were not directly related.Nicholas’s wife, Alexandra,
however, was a cousin ofGeorge V, as was Emperor
Wilhelm of Germany.
7
OTTOMANEMPIRE
(TURKEY)
RUSSIA
GERMANY
FRANCE
BULGARIA
GREECE
SPAIN
BRITAIN
IRELAND
NORWAY
SWEDEN
NETHERLANDS
BELGIUM
SWITZERLAND
ITALYPORTUGAL
ALBANIA
SERBIAROMANIA
AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
DENMARK
MediterraneanSea
Black Sea
NorthAtlanticOcean
NorthSea
BalticSea
MONTENEGRO
8
The fatal shot
MOBILIZE!During July1914, militarynotices wereposted up acrossEurope informingcitizens that theircountry’s army wasbeing mobilized(prepared) for warand that all thosebelonging to regular and reserve forcesshould report for duty.
28 June Archduke Franz Ferdinandis assassinated in Sarajevo5 July Germany gives its ally,Austria-Hungary total support forany action it takes against Serbia
23 July Austria issuesa drastic ultimatum toSerbia, which wouldundermine Serbian independence25 July Serbia agrees to most of
Austria-Hungary’s ultimatums,but still mobilizes as a safety
precaution28 July Austria-Hungary ignoresSerbia’s readiness to seek a peaceful
end to the crisis and declares war30 July Russia mobilizes in supportof its ally, Serbia 31 July Germany demands thatRussia stop its mobilization
ONE DAY IN SARAJEVOThe six assassins – five Serbs and oneBosnian Muslim – lay in wait alongArchduke Ferdinand’s route to theAustrian governor’s residence inSarajevo. One of them threw a bomb at Ferdinand’s car, but it bounced offand exploded under the following car, injuring two army officers. TheArchduke and his wife went to visitthe injured officers in hospital 45minutes later. When their car took a wrong turning, Gavrilo Principstepped out of the crowd and shot the couple. Ferdinand’s wife diedinstantly and he died 10 minutes later.
THE AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN ARMYThe Austro-Hungarian empire had three armies – Austrian,Hungarian, and the “Common Army”. Ten main languages
were spoken! The official one was German, but officers had to learn their men’s language, leading to frequent
communication difficulties. The complex structure of thearmy reflected Austria-Hungary itself, which in reality
was two separate monarchies ruled by one monarch.
ON 28 JUNE 1914 the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne,Archduke Franz Ferdinand, was assassinated in Sarajevo,Bosnia. Bosnia had been part of Austria-Hungary since 1908, but it was claimed byneighbouring Serbia. Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for
the assassination, and on 28 July declared war.What began as the third Balkan war rapidlyturned into a European war. Russia supportedSerbia, Germany supported Austria-Hungary,and France supported Russia. On 4 August,Germany invaded neutral Belgium on its wayto France. It intended to knock France out ofthe war before turning its attention to Russia,thus avoiding war on two fronts. But Britainhad guaranteed to defend Belgium’s neutrality,and it too declared war on Germany. The Great War had begun.
Bomb bounced offcanopy and landedunder following car
Princip fired at closerange from therunning board
Archduke and his wifeSophie sat in the backof the open-top car
THE ASSASSINSGavrilo Princip, aboveright, fired the fatalshot. He belonged to the Black Handterrorists, who believedthat Bosnia should bepart of Serbia.
GERMANY REJOICESGermany prepared its armyon 1 August, declaring war
against Russia later the sameevening and against France on
3 August. Most Germans in thecities were enthusiastic for the
war and many civilians rushed tojoin the army in support of Kaiser
and country. Germans in thecountryside were less enthusiastic.
Austro-Hungarian Reiter(Trooper) of the 8th Uhlan
(Lancer) Regiment
9
VIVE LA FRANCEThe French army mobilized on 1 August. For manyFrenchmen, the war was an opportunity to seek revengefor the German defeat of France in 1870–71 and the lossof Alsace-Lorraine to German control.
ALL ABOARD!The German slogans on thiswestbound train read “Daytrip to Paris” and “See youagain on the Boulevard”, asall Germans believed thattheir offensive against Francewould soon take them toParis. French trains headingeast towards Germany carriedsimilar messages about Berlin.
1 August Germany mobilizesagainst Russia and declares war;France mobilizes in support of itsally, Russia; Germany signs a treaty with Ottoman Turkey; Italy
declares its neutrality2 August Germany invadesLuxembourg and demands theright to enter neutral Belgium,which is refused
3 August Germany declares war on France4 August Germany invadesBelgium on route to France; Britain enters the war to safeguard
Belgian neutrality6 August Austria-Hungarydeclares war on Russia12 August France and Britaindeclare war on Austria-Hungary
“The lamps aregoing out all over Europe”
SIR EDWARD GREYBRITISH FOREIGN SECRETARY, 1914
German (above) and French (right) mobilization posters
War in the westEVER SINCE THE 1890s, Germany had feared that itwould face a war on two fronts – against Russia in the east and against France, Russia’s ally since 1893, in the west. Germany knew the chances of winningsuch a war were slim. By 1905, the chief of the Germanstaff, Field Marshal Count Alfred von Schlieffen, haddeveloped a bold plan to knock France swiftly out ofany war before turning the full might of the Germanarmy against Russia. For this plan to work, the
German army had to pass through Belgium, a neutral country. In August1914, the plan went into operation. German troops crossed the Belgianborder on 4 August, and by the end of the month, invaded northernFrance. The Schlieffen Plan then required the army to sweep around thenorth and west of Paris, but the German commander, General Moltke,modified the plan and instead headed east of Paris. This meant his rightflank (side) was exposed to the French and British armies. At the Battleof the Marne on 5 September, the German advance was held and pushedback. By Christmas 1914, the two sides faced stalemate along a line fromthe Belgian coast in the north to the Swiss border in the south.
CHRISTMAS TREATThe London TerritorialAssociation sent each oftheir soldiers a Christmaspudding in 1914. Othersoldiers received gifts in the name of PrincessMary, daughter of KingGeorge V.
IN RETREATThe Belgian army was too smalland inexperienced to resist theinvading German army. Here,soldiers with dog-drawnmachine guns are withdrawingto Antwerp.
Third gunner firesthe gun on command
Second gunnerloads the shellIN THE FIELD
The British Expeditionary Force (B.E.F.)had arrived in France by 22 August1914. Its single cavalry divisionincluded members of the Royal HorseArtillery, whose L Battery fired this 13-pounder quick firing Mark I gunagainst the German 4th CavalryDivision at the Battle of Néry on 1September. This held up the Germanadvance into France for one morning.Three gunners in the battery receivedVictoria Crosses for their valour.
Shaft to attach gunto horses that pullthe gun along
Steel helmet
Soldiers woreputtees, long strips
of cloth wrappedaround their legs
First gunnerhands shell tosecond gunneron command
11
Rope wrappedaround recoilmechanism
EYEWITNESSCaptain E.R.P. Berryman of the 2nd Battalion 39thGarwhal Rifles, wrote a letter home describing thetruce. He told his family that the Germans had put up Christmas trees in theirtrenches. This cartoonillustrates the absurdity of his situation – shooting theenemy one day and greetingthem as friends the next.
Fires 12.5-lb (5.6-kg)shells a distance of5,395m (5,900 yards)
HEADING FOR THE FRONTThe German advance into northern France was so rapid that
by early September, its troops were along the River Marne,only 40 km (25 miles) east of Paris. General Gallieni, military
governor of Paris, took 600 taxis and used them to convey6,000 men to the front line to reinforce the French 6th Army.
Soldier shooting atenemy with a notesaying “Christmas
Eve – Get ‘em!”
British and Germansoldiers greeting each
other on Christmas Day
THE CHRISTMAS TRUCE On Christmas Eve 1914, soldiers on
both sides of the Western Front sangcarols to each other in comradely
greeting. The following day, troopsalong two-thirds of the front observeda truce. All firing stopped, and church
services were held. A few soldierscrossed into no-man’s-land to talk to
their enemy and exchange simplegifts of cigarettes and other items.
Opposite Ploegsteert Wood, south ofYpres, Belgium, a game of football
took place between members of theGerman Royal Saxon Regiment and
the Scottish Seaforth Highlanders.The Germans won 3–2. In some
places, the truce lasted for almost a week. A year later, however,
sentries on both sides were ordered to shoot anyone attempting a
repeat performance.
German trench
THE OUTBREAK OF WAR in Europe inAugust 1914 changed the lives of millionsof men. Regular soldiers, older reservists,eager recruits, and unwilling conscriptsall found themselves caught up in thewar. Some of them were experiencedsoldiers, but many had barely held a riflebefore. In addition to the European forces,both Britain and France drew heavily on armies recruited from their overseascolonies and from the British dominions.The design and detail of their uniformsdiffered considerably, although brightercolours soon gave way to khaki, dullblue, and grey.
12
Fighting men
GRAND DUKE NICOLASAt the outbreak of war, the Russian army was ledby Grand Duke Nicolas, uncle of Tsar Nicholas II.In August 1915, the Tsar dismissed his uncle andtook command himself. As commander-in-chief,the Tsar dealt with the overall strategy of the war.The Russian armies were led by generals whodirected the battles. The other warring countriesemployed similar chains of command.
Jerkin could bemade of goat-or sheepskin
Hat flaps could bepulled down to
keep out the cold
Ammunitionpouch
France
Russia
EASTERN ALLIESIn Eastern Europe,Germany faced the vastRussian army, as well as smaller armies fromSerbia and Montenegro.In the Far East, Germancolonies in China and the Pacific Ocean wereinvaded by Japan. Theseillustrations come from a poster showingGermany’s enemies.
THE BRITISH ARMYAt the start of war, the Britisharmy contained 247,432regulars and 218,280reservists. Soldiers wore akhaki uniform consisting of a single-breasted tunic with a folding collar, trousers,puttees or leggings worn toprotect the shins, and ankle-boots. In the winter soldierswere issued with additionalitems such as jerkins. Manywore knitted scarves andbalaclavas sent from home.
Woollenputteeswrappedaroundshins
Thick boots toprotect feet
Britishsoldier
EMPIRE TROOPSThe British and French armies includedlarge numbers of recruits from theircolonial possessions in Africa, Asia, thePacific, and the Caribbean. In addition,the British dominions of Australia, NewZealand, Canada, and South Africa senttheir own armies to take part in theconflict. Many of these troops had neverleft their home countries before. TheseAnnamites (Indo-Chinese), above, fromFrench Indo-China were stationed withthe French army at Salonika, Greece, in1916. They wore their own uniformsrather than those of the French army.
Lee Enfield rifleNo. 1 MkIII
13
Tent cloth
Mauser rifle
Gasmask
Stick grenade
Cartridgepouch
Field tunic(Waffenrock)
France Belgium
Russia
Germansoldier
Serbia Montenegro Japan
Britain
French infantryman,known as
le poilu
THE FRENCH ARMYThe French army was oneof the largest in Europe.Including reservists andcolonial troops, the Frencharmy totalled 3,680,000trained men at the
outbreak of war.
THE GERMAN ARMYThe German armywas the strongest inEurope because it hadbeen preparing forwar. At the outbreakof hostilities, itconsisted of 840,000men. All men underthe age of 45 weretrained for militaryservice and belongedto the reserve army.On calling up thereserves, the Germanarmy could expand to over four milliontrained men.
Steel helmetswere issuedin 1916
WESTERN ALLIESIn Western Europe, Britain,France, and Belgium were
allied against Germany.The British and Frencharmies were large, but the Belgian army was
small and inexperienced. These illustrations come
from a German posteridentifying the enemy.
Lebel rifle
Haversack withpersonal items
Water bottle
French infantrymen photographed in 1918
AT
TH
EO
UT
BR
EA
KO
FW
AR
, eve
ryE
urop
ean
coun
try
but o
ne h
ad a
larg
est
and
ing
arm
y of
con
scri
pted
troo
psre
ady
to f
ight
. The
exc
epti
on w
asB
rita
in, w
hich
had
a s
mal
l arm
ym
ade
up o
f vo
lunt
eers
. On
6A
ugus
t 191
4, th
e Se
cret
ary
ofW
ar, L
ord
Kit
chen
er, a
sked
for
100,
000
new
rec
ruit
s.W
hole
str
eets
and
vill
ages
of
pat
riot
ic m
en q
ueue
d to
enlis
t. M
ost t
houg
ht th
ey w
ould
be h
ome
by C
hris
tmas
. By
the
end
of
1915
, 2,4
46,7
19 m
en h
advo
lunt
eere
d, b
ut m
ore
wer
e ne
eded
to f
ill th
ed
eple
ted
ran
ks o
f so
ldie
rs. I
n Ja
nuar
y19
16, c
onsc
ript
ion
was
intr
oduc
edfo
r al
l sin
gle
men
age
d 1
8–41
.
14
Join
ing
up
TH
E T
ES
TE
very
Bri
tish
rec
ruit
had
to u
nder
go a
med
ical
test
to m
ake
sure
he
was
fit
tofi
ght.
Lar
ge n
umbe
rs f
aile
d th
is te
st, b
ecau
se o
f po
or e
yesi
ght,
ches
t com
plai
nts,
or
gen
eral
ill h
ealt
h. O
ther
s w
ere
refu
sed
bec
ause
they
wer
e un
der
19,
alt
houg
hm
any
lied
abo
ut th
eir
age.
Onc
e he
pas
sed
the
test
, the
rec
ruit
took
the
oath
of
loya
lty
to th
e ki
ng a
nd w
as th
en a
ccep
ted
into
the
arm
y.
“YO
UR
CO
UN
TR
Y N
EE
DS
YO
U”
Apo
rtra
it o
f B
riti
sh W
ar M
inis
ter,
Gen
eral
Kit
chen
er w
as u
sed
as
a re
crui
ting
pos
ter.
By
the
tim
e it
app
eare
d in
late
Sep
tem
ber
1914
, how
ever
,m
ost p
oten
tial
rec
ruit
s ha
d a
lrea
dy
volu
ntee
red
.
QU
EU
E H
ER
E F
OR
KIN
G A
ND
CO
UN
TR
YA
t the
out
brea
k of
war
, lon
g qu
eues
form
ed a
t rec
ruit
ing
offi
ces
arou
nd
the
coun
try.
Men
fro
m th
e sa
me
area
or
ind
ustr
y gr
oupe
d to
geth
er
to f
orm
the
fam
ous
Pals
bat
talio
ns,
so th
ey c
ould
fig
ht to
geth
er. B
y m
id-
Sept
embe
r, ha
lf a
mill
ion
men
had
volu
ntee
red
to f
ight
.
Smal
l box
resp
irat
orga
s m
ask
Hav
ersa
ckco
ntai
ned
the
filte
r of
the
sm
all
box
resp
irat
or
Pou
chco
ntai
ned
thre
e cl
ips,
whi
ch e
ach
held
five
bulle
ts
Two
sets
of f
ive
amm
unit
ion
pouc
hes
on b
elt
WA
R L
EA
DE
RB
riti
sh P
rim
e M
inis
ter
Her
bert
Asq
uith
was
cari
catu
red
as
“the
last
of th
e R
oman
s” a
ndre
plac
ed b
y D
avid
Llo
yd G
eorg
e in
Dec
embe
r 19
16.
15
RA
TIO
NS
Eac
h so
ldie
r w
as g
iven
an
“iro
n ra
tion
”, c
onsi
stin
gof
har
d b
iscu
its,
cor
ned
bee
f, an
d a
tin
cont
aini
ngte
a an
d s
tock
cub
es. D
aily
rat
ions
cou
ld in
clud
ebr
ead
, har
d b
iscu
its,
“bu
lly”
mea
t, ti
nned
ste
w,
tinn
ed p
ork
and
bea
ns, s
ugar
, tea
, tin
ned
plu
man
d a
pple
jam
, and
tinn
ed b
utte
r. R
atio
n pa
rtie
sca
rrie
d th
e fo
od to
the
fron
t lin
e in
san
dba
gs.
PAY
ING
FO
R T
HE
TR
OO
PS
The
cos
t of
rais
ing
and
sup
plyi
ngva
st a
rmie
s m
eant
eac
h co
untr
y ha
dto
rai
se ta
xes.
Ban
ks a
nd p
riva
tein
vest
ors
wer
e as
ked
to le
nd m
oney
to th
eir
gove
rnm
ent i
n th
e fo
rm o
fw
ar lo
ans.
Thi
s fa
mou
s Fr
ench
post
er e
xhor
ts p
atri
ots
to s
uppo
rtth
e go
vern
men
t’s s
econ
d n
atio
nal
def
ence
loan
wit
h th
e w
ord
s “O
n le
s au
ra!”
(W
e’ll
get t
hem
!).
TH
E B
AS
IC K
ITA
Bri
tish
sol
die
r ca
rrie
d e
noug
h ba
sic
equi
pmen
t to
figh
t and
to s
urvi
ve in
the
tren
ches
. Alo
ng w
ith
his
rifl
e an
d b
ayon
et, h
e ca
rrie
d s
uppl
ies
of a
mm
unit
ion
in p
ouch
es o
n hi
s be
lt a
nd a
n en
tren
chin
g to
ol to
dig
a sh
allo
w h
ole
to ta
ke c
over
in. B
y 19
17, e
very
sol
die
ral
so c
arri
ed a
res
pira
tor
in c
ase
of g
as a
ttac
ks. H
issu
rviv
al k
it in
clud
ed c
utle
ry, w
ashi
ng k
it, a
nd s
pare
clot
hes.
Whe
n he
wen
t int
o ba
ttle
, he
tran
sfer
red
th
e m
ost n
eed
ed it
ems
out o
f hi
s pa
ck in
to a
sm
alle
r ha
vers
ack.
Bis
cuit
s
Line
n ba
gto
sto
reir
on r
atio
n
Hav
ersa
ck u
sed
for
sold
ier’
s ki
t w
hen
in t
he t
renc
hesBul
ly b
eef
Tin
cont
aini
ngte
a an
dst
ock
cube
s
Spoo
n
But
ton
stic
k
Kni
fe
ForkSh
avin
gbr
ush
Cut
-thr
oat
razo
r
Raz
or c
ase
Ent
renc
hing
tool
han
dle
Bay
onet
Wat
er-b
ottl
e
Boo
t la
ces
Con
scie
nti
ous
obje
ctor
sSo
me
peop
le w
ho r
efus
ed
to jo
in u
p w
ere
give
n w
hite
feat
hers
as
a si
gn o
f co
war
dic
e.C
erta
in r
elig
ious
gro
ups
obje
cted
to th
e w
ar a
s th
ey b
elie
ved
it w
asw
rong
to k
ill, a
nd s
ome
Soci
alis
tsob
ject
ed to
fig
htin
g fe
llow
wor
kers
.B
oth
grou
ps w
ere
know
n as
cons
cien
tiou
s ob
ject
ors.
Som
eob
ject
ors
serv
ed in
non
-com
bata
ntun
its,
suc
h as
med
ical
ser
vice
s.
Sold
ier’
s sm
all k
it
Hol
dall
EM
PIR
E T
RO
OP
S
Whe
n w
ar w
as d
ecla
red
, tho
usan
ds
of m
envo
lunt
eere
d f
rom
acr
oss
the
Bri
tish
Em
pire
.E
xist
ing
regi
men
ts, s
uch
as th
ese
Ben
gal L
ance
rs,
wer
e au
gmen
ted
by
new
rec
ruit
s. I
ndia
n tr
oops
serv
ed w
ith
dis
tinc
tion
on
the
Wes
tern
Fro
nt, i
nG
erm
an E
ast A
fric
a, a
nd in
the
Mid
dle
Eas
t.
16
Digging the trenchesAT THE OUTBREAK OF WAR, both sides on the Western Front expected to take partin massive military manoeuvres overhundreds of kilometres of territory, and to fight fast-moving battles of advance and retreat. No-one expected a static fightbetween two evenly matched sides. Astalemate occurred mainly becausepowerful long-range artillery weapons andrapid-fire machine guns made it dangerousfor soldiers to fight in unprotected, openground. The only way to survive suchweapons was to dig defensive trenches.
Front line of trenches
POSITIONING THE TRENCHNeither side had great expertise indigging trenches at the outbreak of war,but they quickly learned from their mistakes.The Germans usually built trenches where theycould best observe and fire at the enemy while remainingconcealed. The British and French preferred to capture asmuch ground as possible before digging their trenches.
THE FRONT LINEBy December 1914, a network of trenches stretched along theWestern Front from the Belgiancoast in the north down througheastern France to the Swiss border,645 km (400 miles) in the south. By1917, it was possible in theory towalk most of the length of the frontalong the winding trench network.
THE FIRST TRENCHESEarly trenches were just deep
furrows, which provided minimalcover from enemy fire. These troopsfrom the 2nd Scots Guards dug this
trench near Ypres in October 1914.Their generals believed that suchtrenches were only temporary, as
the “normal” war of movementwould resume in the spring.
ENTRENCHING TOOLSEach soldier carried an entrenching tool.With it, the soldier could dig a scrape – abasic protective trench – if he was caught
out in the open by enemy fire. He couldalso use it to repair or improve a trench
damaged by an enemy artillerybombardment.
Bladecover
SIGNPOSTSEach trench wassignposted to makesure no-one lost his way during anattack. Nicknamesfrequently becamesignposted names.
•PasschendaeleYpres•
•Verdun
Amiens•River Somme
•ParisRiver Marne
BELGIUMGERMANY
LUXEMBOURG
FRANCE
American M1910entrenching tool
17
BOARDED UPOne of the main dangers of trench life was the possibility ofbeing buried alive if the walls collapsed. By summer 1915,many German trenches were reinforced with wooden wallsto prevent this happening. They were also dug very deep tohelp protect the men from artillery bombardments.
HOME SWEET HOME?The Germans constructed very elaborate trenchesbecause, as far as they were concerned, this was thenew German border. Many trenches had shutteredwindows and even doormats to wipe muddy boots on! Allied trenches were much morebasic because the Allies expected torecapture the occupied territory.
Officers’shelter
Passing point
Front-line trench
Latrine
Section ofshell trench
Shelltrench
TRENCH PLANA trench system consisted ofa series of trenches runningroughly parallel to the enemytrenches. The front-linetrench zig-zagged to stop anenemy raiding party killingeveryone along its lengthwith a well-positionedmachine gun, and to reducethe effects of a shell landingin a fire bay.
COPING WITH THE MUDRain, snow, and natural seepage soon filledtrenches with water. Wooden slats, known asduckboards, were laid on the ground to keepsoldiers’ feet reasonably dry, but the constantmud remained one of the major features of trench life.
Fire bay
Communication trench
Second linesupport trench
Communicationtrench
18
Life in the trenchesDAYTIME IN THE TRENCHES alternated between shortperiods of intense fear, when the enemy fired, andlonger periods of boredom. Most of the work was doneat night when patrols were sent out to observe and raid enemy trenches, and to repair their own front-lineparapets and other defences. Dawn and dusk were themost likely times for an enemy attack, so all the troops“stood to”, that is manned the fire bays, at these times.The days were usually quiet, so the men tried to catchup on sleep while sentries watched the enemy trenches.Many soldiers used this time to write home or keep adiary of events. There were no set mealtimes on thefront line, and soldiers ate as and when transport wasavailable to bring food to the front by carrying parties.To relieve the boredom, soldiers spent one week to 10days in the front line, then moved into the reserve lines,and finally went to a rear area to rest. Here, they weregiven a bath and freshly laundered clothes beforereturning to the trenches.
CLEAN AND TIDYThe cleaning of kit and the waterproofing of boots was as much a part of life in the trenches as it was in the barracks back home.These Belgian soldiers cleaning their rifles knew that such taskswere essential to maintaining combat efficiency.
A LITTLE SHELTERThe trenches were usually very narrow and often exposedto the weather. The Canadian soldiers in this trench havebuilt a makeshift canopy to shelter under. The sides aremade of sandbags piled on top of each other.
OFFICERS’ DUG-OUTThis re-creation in London’s Imperial War Museum of an
officers’ dug-out on the Somme in autumn 1916 shows thecramped conditions people endured in the trenches. The
officer on the telephone is calling in artillery support for animminent trench raid, while his weary comrade is asleep
behind him on a camp bed. Official notices, photographs,and postcards from home are pinned around the walls.
A RELAXING READ?This re-creation from London’s
Imperial War Museum shows a soldier reading. While there
was plenty of time for thesoldiers to read during the day,they were often interrupted by
rats scurrying past their feet and itching lice in their clothes.
Soldier removing mudfrom ammunition pouchwith a piece of cloth
Artists and poetsSome soldiers used their spare time in the trenches to write poemsor make sketches. A huge number wrote long letters home, or kept a diary. After the war, many of these writings were published.Literary records of trench life made fascinating and
shocking reading. In 1916, the Britishgovernment began to
send officialwar artists,
such as PaulNash (1889–1946), to thefront to recordthe war in paint.
19
French authorHenri Barbusse
(1873–1935)wrote of life inthe trenches,
denouncing thewar in his novel
Le Feu (UnderFire) of 1916.
Poem and self-portrait by British poet and
artist IsaacRosenberg
(1890–1918)
The Menin Road (1918) by Paul Nash
CAVE MENOrdinary soldiers – such as these members of the British BorderRegiment at Thiepval Wood on the Somme in 1916 – spent their timeoff duty in “funk holes”, holes carved out of the side of the trench, orunder waterproof sheets. Unlike the Germans, the British did notintend to stay in the trenches too long, so did not want the soldiers to make themselves comfortable.
TRENCH CUISINEThese French officers are dining well in
a reserve trench in a quiet area. Others were less fortunate, enduring tinned food or mass-produced meals cooked and brought up from
behind the lines and reheated in the trench.
Soldiers servedalongside aregiment ofrats and lice
Paints and brushesbelonging to Britishwar artist Paul Nash
20
PREPARE TO FIREThese German troops on the Marne in 1914 are firing through purpose-built gun holes.This enabled them to view and fire at theenemy without putting their heads above theparapet and exposing themselves to enemyfire. Later on in the war, sandbags replaced the earth ramparts. On their backs, the troopscarry leather knapsacks with rolled-upgreatcoats and tent cloths on top.
WRITING HOMECanon Cyril Lomax served in
France in 1916–17 as a chaplain tothe 8th Battalion Durham Light
Infantry. As a non-combatant, hehad time to describe in illustrated
letters home some of the horrorshe encountered. The armies of
both sides had chaplains andother clergy at the front.
IT IS EASY TO imaginethat most of the actionon the Western Fronttook place when soldiersleft their trenches andfought each other inopen ground, or no-man’s-land, between thetwo opposing front lines.In reality, such events werefar rarer than the constantbattle between soldiers in theirfacing lines of trenches. Botharmies took every opportunity to take shots at anyone foolish orunfortunate enough to be visible to theother side. Even soldiers trying to rescuewounded comrades from no-man’s-land orretrieve bodies caught on the barbed-wire fences wereconsidered fair targets. Raiding parties from one frontline to the other added to the danger. This relentless warof attrition kept every soldier on full alert, and meantthat a watch had to be kept on the enemy lines everyhour of the day.
Ready to fight
IN CLOSE QUARTERSSoldiers were armed with a range ofclose-combat weapons when they wenton raiding parties in case they needed to kill an enemy. The enemy could be killed silently so that the raidingsoldiers did not draw attention tothemselves. Theweapons were rarely used.
Germanstick
grenade
Frenchtrenchknife
British Millsbomb
German timedand fused ball
grenade
Germanclub
21
WALKING WOUNDEDThis recreation in London’s
Imperial War Museum shows a wounded German prisoner
being escorted by a medicalorderly from the front line backthrough the trench system to a
regimental aid post. Many,however, were not so fortunate.
A soldier wounded in no-man’s-land would be left until it was
safe to bring him back to histrench, usually at nightfall.
Many soldiers risked their livesto retrieve wounded comrades.
Sadly some soldiers diedbecause they could not be
reached soon enough.
REGIMENTAL AID POSTBattalion medical officers, as shown in this recreation fromLondon’s Imperial War Museum, worked through the heat
of battle and bombardment to treat the flood of casualties asbest they could. They dressed wounds, tried to relieve pain,
and prepared the badly wounded for the uncomfortablejourney out of the trenches to the field hospital.
SAVED BY A BOOKThe soldier carrying this book was lucky. By the time the bullet had passed through thepages, its passage was slowed enough tominimise the injury it caused.
Path of bullet
“The German that I shot was a fine
looking man ... I didfeel sorry but it was
my life or his ”BRITISH SOLDIER JACK SWEENEY,
21 NOVEMBER, 1916
ALWAYS IN ACTIONThis photograph of Bulgarian soldiers
was taken in 1915. It shows thatsoldiers could never let their guard
down while in a trench. A permanentlook-out must be kept, and
guns always primed andready in case the enemy
mounted a sudden attack.The soldiers had to eat in
shifts to ensuretheir constant
readiness forbattle.
PIGEON POSTCarrier pigeons were often used to carrymessages to and from the front line wheretelephone lines did not exist. In fact, thenoise and confusion of the front meant thatthe birds easily became bewildered andflew off in the wrong direction. Germanyused “war dogs” specially trained to carrymessages in containers on their collars.
22
Communicationand supplies
GETTING IN TOUCHTeams of engineers – such as this Germangroup – were trained to set up, maintain, andoperate telephones in the field. This allowedcloser and more regular contact between thefront line and HQ than in previous wars.
MISSILE MESSAGESEnemy fire often cut telephone lines,so both sides used shells to carrywritten messages. Flares on the shellslit up to signal their arrival. Signalgrenades and rockets were alsowidely used to convey pre-arrangedmessages to front-line troops.
French armypigeon handler’s
badge
Germanmessage shell
Message rolledup in base
Britishnightsignal
Canvas topsecured
with ropes
COMMUNICATING WITH andsupplying front-line troops is thebiggest problem faced by everyarmy. On the Western Front, thisproblem was particularly acutebecause of the length of the front line and the large number of soldiersfighting along it. In mid-1917, forexample, the British army required500,000 shells a day, and million-shell days were not uncommon. Tosupply such vast and hungry armies,both sides devoted great attention tolines of communication. The main form of transport remained the horse, but increasing use was made of mechanized vehicles.Germany made great use of railways to move men and suppliesto the front. Both sides set up elaborate supply systems to ensurethat front-line troops never ran out of munitions or food. Front-line troops also kept in close touch with headquarters and otherunits by telephone and wireless.
FIELD TELEPHONETelephones were the maincommunication method between the front line and headquarters. They relayed voice and Morse code messages.
TWO-WAY TRAFFICOne of the main
problems on the WesternFront was the lack of good roads
to and from the front line. Quietcountry lanes suddenly became major
thoroughfares as columns of marching men, supply lorries, munitions wagons, fieldambulances, and other vehicles forced their waythrough. The traffic was frequently two-way, withsoldiers ready for combat marching to the front,passing their exhausted and often woundedcomrades heading in the opposite direction.
23
Supply trucksheading forthe front
Sides dropped downfor access
Open driver’s cab
FABULOUS BAKER GIRLSBehind the lines, vast quantities of food wereproduced every day to feed the soldiers at thefront. British kitchens, canteens, and bakeries,such as this one in Dieppe, France, were oftenstaffed by members of the Women’s ArmyAuxiliary Corps (W.A.A.C.). The Corps was setup in February 1917 to replace the men needed to fight on the front line. Women also played amajor role as clerks, telephone operators, andstorekeepers, ensuring that the front line wasadequately supplied and serviced at all times.
WHEEL POWERBoth sides used lorries and vans to ferry menand supplies to the front line. This British 3-ton (3,050-kg) Wolseley transport lorry was specially built for war service, but othersmaller lorries and vans were also used.
Soldier hitching alift to the front ona supply wagon
Wounded Britishtroops returningfrom the trenches in November 1916
British Wolseley 3-ton(3,050-kg) transport lorry
24
AE
RIA
LR
EC
ON
NA
ISS
AN
CE
B
oth
sid
es u
sed
air
craf
t to
obse
rve
enem
ypo
siti
ons
on th
e W
este
rn F
ront
. At f
irst
, Alli
edco
mm
and
ers
wer
e su
spic
ious
of
this
new
met
hod
. But
in S
epte
mbe
r 19
14, F
renc
h A
irSe
rvic
e pi
lots
saw
the
adva
ncin
g G
erm
anar
mie
s ch
ange
dir
ecti
on n
ear
Pari
s. T
his
info
rmat
ion
enab
led
the
Alli
es to
sto
p th
eG
erm
an a
dva
nce
into
Fra
nce
at th
e B
attl
e of
the
Mar
ne. T
he B
E2a
, abo
ve a
nd le
ft, w
asst
rong
, sta
ble,
and
eas
y to
fly
, mak
ing
it id
eal
for
reco
nnai
ssan
ce w
ork.
The
cra
ft’s
pilo
t,L
ieut
enan
t H.D
. Har
vey-
Kel
ley
was
the
firs
tB
riti
sh p
ilot t
o la
nd in
Fra
nce
afte
r th
eou
tbre
ak o
f w
ar.
Sold
ier
rest
s on
inte
rnal
ste
p-la
dder
whi
le lo
okin
g th
roug
hca
mou
flage
d sp
y-ho
le
Art
ifici
al t
ree
was
an
exac
tre
plic
a of
the
rea
ltr
ee it
rep
lace
d
Obs
erva
tion
and
patr
ol
CO
MPA
SS
BE
AR
ING
SA
nigh
t pat
rol c
ould
eas
ily g
et lo
stin
no-
man
’s-l
and
bec
ause
obv
ious
feat
ures
of
the
land
scap
e, s
uch
as la
nes,
woo
ds,
fie
lds,
and
even
hill
s ha
d a
ll be
en b
low
naw
ay. A
refl
ecti
ve c
ompa
ssw
as th
eref
ore
esse
ntia
l if
the
patr
ol w
as to
navi
gate
saf
ely
and
get b
ack
aliv
e to
its
own
tren
ch b
efor
ed
aybr
eak.
Twin
-pro
pelle
ren
gine
Solid
whe
els
Twin
-sea
ter
cock
pit
Gla
ss fr
ont
Mot
her-
of-p
earl
face
to
catc
h th
e lig
ht
Roy
al A
ircr
aft F
acto
ryB
léri
ot E
xper
imen
tal (
BE
)2a
used
for
rec
onna
issa
nce
and
ligh
t bom
bing
Leat
her
case
Can
vas
win
g ov
erw
oode
n fr
ame
Ger
man
ster
eosc
opic
peri
scop
e
GA
TH
ER
ING
INT
EL
LIG
EN
CE
AB
OU
Tth
e en
emy
is o
f gr
eat i
mpo
rtan
ce d
urin
g w
ar, b
ecau
se
that
info
rmat
ion
can
be u
sed
to m
ount
a
succ
essf
ul a
ttac
k or
rep
el a
n en
emy
adva
nce.
Int
erro
gati
ng p
riso
ners
was
a v
ery
succ
essf
ul m
etho
d o
f ga
ther
ing
info
rmat
ion.
Ad
dit
iona
lly, a
long
the
Wes
tern
Fro
nt, b
oth
sid
es w
ere
inge
niou
s in
dev
isin
g ne
w m
etho
ds
to g
athe
r in
telli
genc
e. N
ight
-tim
e pa
trol
s pr
obed
the
stre
ngth
s an
d w
eakn
esse
s of
ene
my
lines
. Thi
sw
as h
azar
dou
s w
ork,
as
it m
eant
cro
ssin
g ro
ws
ofba
rbed
-wir
e en
tang
lem
ents
and
per
haps
dis
turb
ing
an u
nexp
lod
ed s
hell
or a
ttra
ctin
g en
emy
gunf
ire.
Obs
erva
tion
turr
ets
and
peri
scop
es w
ere
also
used
. Air
craf
t bec
ame
incr
easi
ngly
pop
ular
sin
ceth
ey c
ould
fly
vir
tual
lyun
hind
ered
ove
r th
e en
emy,
obse
rve
thei
r tr
ench
es a
nd g
unem
plac
emen
ts, a
nd p
hoto
grap
hth
e fr
ont l
ine.
Thi
s in
form
atio
nco
uld
then
be
used
to p
rod
uce
map
s of
the
enem
y lin
es.
25
SIL
EN
T P
OS
TS
The
fir
st b
arbe
d-w
ire
enta
ngle
men
ts w
ere
stru
ng a
long
woo
den
pos
ts k
nock
ed in
toth
e gr
ound
wit
h m
alle
ts. T
he n
oise
of
stri
king
mal
lets
oft
en a
ttra
cted
ene
my
fire
,so
met
al p
icqu
ets
wer
e so
on u
sed
by
the
Alli
es. T
he p
icqu
ets
wer
e sc
rew
edsi
lent
ly in
to th
e gr
ound
and
rol
ls o
fba
rbed
-wir
e w
ere
hung
on
the
loop
s.Bri
tish
w
ire
cutt
ers
Scre
w s
ecur
edpi
cque
t in
th
e gr
ound
BIR
D’S
EY
E V
IEW
Bot
h si
des
con
stru
cted
art
ific
ial
tree
s as
an
arti
llery
obs
erva
tion
post
to d
irec
t fir
e at
the
enem
y.
Aso
ldie
r cl
ambe
red
up
a la
dd
erin
sid
e th
e tr
ee a
nd p
eere
d w
ith
bino
cula
rs a
t the
ene
my
lines
thro
ugh
a sp
y-ho
le in
the
sid
e of
the
trun
k. T
he s
old
ier
pass
ed o
nw
hat h
e sa
w to
a s
econ
d s
old
ier
at th
e ba
se o
f th
e po
st. T
hefo
rwar
d o
bser
vati
on o
ffic
er th
enre
laye
d d
irec
tion
s by
tele
phon
e to
an
arti
llery
bat
tery
beh
ind
the
lines
. Thi
s in
form
atio
n en
able
dth
e ar
tille
ry b
atte
ry to
dir
ect i
tsfi
re a
t the
ene
my
mor
e ac
cura
tely
than
bef
ore.
The
rec
reat
ion,
ri
ght,
is a
t Lon
don
’s I
mpe
rial
W
ar M
useu
m.
Bri
tish
dou
ble-
stra
nd b
arbe
dw
ire
Loop
s at
var
ying
heig
hts
to h
ang
barb
ed-w
ire
enta
ngle
men
ts o
n
AL
ON
G T
HE
WIR
ET
he tr
ench
es a
long
the
Wes
tern
Fron
t wer
e pr
otec
ted
by
row
s of
bar
bed
-wir
e en
tang
lem
ents
.Pa
trol
s w
ent o
ut a
t nig
ht to
repa
ir e
ntan
glem
ents
and
tore
conn
oitr
e en
emy
lines
. If
an a
ssau
lt w
as p
lann
ed f
or th
ene
xt d
ay, p
atro
ls c
lear
ed a
pat
hth
roug
h th
e en
tang
lem
ents
toal
low
thei
r in
fant
ry u
nhin
der
edac
cess
to th
e en
emy’
s fr
ont l
ine.
Ger
man
wir
e cu
tter
s
PE
RIS
CO
PE
SSo
ldie
rs lo
okin
g at
the
enem
y ov
er th
e to
p of
atr
ench
ris
ked
bei
ng s
hot
at. A
s a
resu
lt, b
oth
sid
esd
evel
oped
sop
hist
icat
edpe
risc
opes
. The
Bri
tish
als
oad
apte
d a
rif
le f
or u
se in
the
tren
ches
. Tw
o m
irro
rs w
ere
atta
ched
to th
e ri
fle
so, w
hile
held
upr
ight
, the
sol
die
rco
uld
use
it a
s a
peri
scop
e.
Bri
tish
“O
cent
ric”
rifl
e pe
risc
ope
Mir
ror
tovi
ew e
nem
ypo
siti
on
Adj
usta
ble
eye
piec
es
Ger
man
sing
le-s
tran
dba
rbed
wir
e
26
BombardmentARTILLERY DOMINATED the battlefields ofWorld War I. A well-aimed bombardment could destroy enemy trenches, and knock out artillery batteries and communication lines. It could also help break up an infantryattack. But as defensive positions strengthened,artillery bombardments became longer andmore intense. New tactics were required tobreak down enemy lines. The most effective was the creeping barrage, which rained down a moving curtain of heavy and insistent fire just ahead of attacking infantry.
BEWARE!Soldiers at the front neededconstant reminders to keeptheir heads down as they wereso used to shells flying past.Warning signs were common.
Breastplate
Articulatedplates to cover
lower body
HIDING THE GUNTwo main types of artillerywere used during the war– light field artillery, pulledby horses, and heavierguns, such as howitzers,moved by tractor and setup on reinforced beds.Once in place, artillerypieces were camouflagedto conceal them from the enemy.
British 8-in (20-cm)Mark V howitzer
SHELL POWERThe huge number of
shells needed to maintain a constant artillery barrage
against the enemy can beseen in this photograph of a British shell dump
behind the Western Front.
GERMAN ARMOURIn January 1916 the German army replacedits distinctive spikedPickelhaube with a rounded steel helmet. Body armour was first issued in 1916 to machine gunners.
Helmet
SIGHT SAVERIn 1916–17 a chain-mail visorwas added to the basic Britishhelmet to protect the eyes. Visorswere soon removed as they weredifficult to see through.
Visor for extraprotection
27
LOADING A HOWITZERLarge pieces of artillery required a teamof experienced gunners to load and firethem. This British 15-in (38-cm)howitzer was used on the MeninRoad near Ypres in October 1917.The huge shell on the left ofthe picture is too largeand heavy to lift, so itis being winchedinto position.
CLASSIFYING SHELLSShells were classified by weight or diameter. High-explosiveshells exploded on impact. Anti-personnel shrapnel shellsexploded in flight and were designed to kill or maim.
German 15-cm (5.9-in)shrapnel shell
British 4.5-in(11.4-cm) high-explosive shell
French 75-mm(2.9-in)
shrapnelshell
British 13-pounder(5.9-kg) high-
explosive shell
EXPLOSION!The devasting impact of artilleryfire can be seen in this dramaticpicture of a British tank hit by a shell and bursting into flames. To its right, another tank breaksthrough the barbed wire. It was unusual for moving targets,such as tanks, to be hit, and mostartillery fire was used to soften upthe enemy lines before an attack.
Fired froma howitzer
Over the top
Water-cooledbarrel
Tripodmounting
British .303-in (7.7-mm)Maxim Mark 3 medium
machine gun
QUICK FIRINGMachine guns fired up to 600 bullets a minute.Ammunition was fittedinto a fabric or metal-link belt, or in a metaltray fed into the gunautomatically. The gunbarrel was surroundedwith a cold-water jacketto cool it.
Steel water jacketto cool gun barrel
Disc is part of theflash hider assembly,making the gunharder to spot
IN ACTIONThis German machine-gun crew isprotecting the flank (side) of an advancinginfantry troop on the Western Front. Thereliability and firepower of machine gunsmade them effective weapons. Also, theirsmall size and manoeuvrability made them difficult for the enemy to destroy.
ONCE THE ARTILLERY bombardment had poundedthe enemy’s defences, the infantry climbed out of their trenches and advanced towards enemy lines. The advance was very dangerous. Artillerybombardments rarely knocked out every enemydefence. Often, many gun emplacements andbarbed-wire fences were still intact. Gaps in the defensive line were filled by highly mobilemachine-gunners. Against them, a soldier armedwith only a rifle and bayonet and laden withheavy equipment was an easy target. On the first day of the Battle of the Somme in July 1916,German machine-gun fire accounted for twoBritish soldiers killed or injured along eachmetre (three feet) of the 28-km(16-mile) front.
German MG‘08 Maxim
machine gun
LEAVING THE TRENCHThe most frightening moment
for a soldier was scrambling upa ladder out of his trench and
into no-man’s-land. Few men knew the horrors
that awaited them.
Trenchmounting
FUTILE ATTACKThe Battle of the Somme lasted
from 1 July 1916 until 18November, when snowstorms
and rain brought the attack to amuddy halt. The Allies capturedabout 125 sq km (48 sq miles) ofland, but failed to break through
the German lines, reducing much of the area to a desolatewasteland. The Germans had
been on the Somme since 1914, soknew the terrain well. The British
belonged to Kitchener’s newarmy. Young and inexperienced,this was the first battle many of
them had fought in.
Below: Soldiers of the 103rd(Tyneside Irish) Brigade attack
La Boisselle on the first day of the Somme
TENDING THE WOUNDEDThe cramped conditions in a trench
can be seen in this picture of an armymedical officer tending a wounded
soldier at Thiepval near the Somme inSeptember 1916. Movement along atrench was often difficult and slow.
First day on the Somme The Allies planned to break through the German lines north of the River Somme, France, in 1916. On 24 June, the British
began a six-day artillery bombardment on German lines, butthe Germans retreated into deep bunkers and were largelyunharmed. As the British infantry advanced at 7.30 am on
1 July, German machine gunners emerged from their bunkersand opened fire. Believing the artillery bombardment had
destroyed German lines, the infantry marched in long, slowwaves towards the enemy who literally mowed them down.
“The sunkenroad ... (was) ...filled with pieces
of uniform,weapons, anddead bodies.”
LIEUTENANT ERNST JUNGER,GERMAN SOLDIER, THE SOMME, 1916
30
Casualty NO-ONE KNOWS how many soldiers were wounded in the war, but a possible figure is 21 million. Caringfor casualties was a major military operation. Theywere first treated at regimental aid posts in thetrenches. Then, they were taken to casualty clearingstations behind the front line. Here, they receivedproper medical attention and basic surgery, if required,before being transported to base hospitals still furtherfrom the front. Soldiers with severe injuries went hometo recover in convalescent hospitals. Over 78% ofBritish soldiers on the Western Front returned to activeservice. Sickness was a major cause of casualty – inMesopotamia over 50% of deaths were due to disease.
LUCKY MANDespite a splinterfrom a shell piercinghis helmet, this soldierescaped with only aminor head wound.Many soldiers werenot so fortunate,receiving severeinjuries that stayedwith them for life – ifthey survived at all.
Inventorylistingcontents andwhere to findthem in thepouch
Bottles of liquidantisepticsand pain-killers
THE GERMAN KITGerman Sanitätsmannschaften (medicalorderlies) carried two first-aid poucheson their belts. The pouch on the right(above) contained basic antiseptics,pain-killers, and other treatments,while the pouch on the leftcontained dressings andtriangular bandages.
Germanbandages
TRENCH AIDInjured soldiers had their wounds
dressed by medical orderlies in thetrench where they fell. They were then
transferred to the regimental aid post, where their injuries
could be assessed.Strip oflace curtain
RECYCLED BANDAGESFollowing the naval blockade by Britain,Germany ran out of cotton and linen.Wood fibre, paper, and lace curtainswere used to make bandages instead.
31
AMBULANCEThe British Royal ArmyMedical Corps, like itsGerman counterpart, had a fleet of field ambulancesto carry the wounded tohospital. Many of theseambulances were staffedby volunteers, oftenwomen, and those fromnon-combatant countriessuch as the USA.
THE FIELD HOSPITALFarmhouses, ruined factories, and even bombed-out churches, such as this
one in Meuse, France, were used as casualty clearing stations to treat thewounded. Care was basic, and many were left to help themselves.
Forceps andclamps heldsecurely in ametal tray
Bunks for the injuredto lie on
Shellshock Shellshock is the collective name that was used to describeconcussion, emotional shock, nervous exhaustion, and othersimilar ailments. Shellshock was not identified before World War I,but trench warfare was so horrific that large numbers of soldiersdeveloped symptoms. Most of them eventually recovered, butsome suffered nightmares and other effects for the rest of theirlives. The condition caused great controversy, and in 1922 theBritish War Office Committee announced that shellshock didnot exist and was a collection of already known illnesses.
A medicalorderly helps a
wounded soldieraway from the
trenches
Red Cross symbol to signify non-combatant status of the ambulance
TOOLS OF THE TRADEArmy doctors carried a standard set of
surgical instruments, as in this set issued bythe Indian army. Their skills were in greatdemand, as they faced a wide variety ofinjuries from bullets and shell fragments that required immediate attention.
Lower traycontains sawsand knives foramputation
32
Women at warWHEN THE MEN went off to fight, the women were called upon totake their place. Many women were already in work, but their rolewas restricted to domestic labour, nursing, teaching, agricultural workon the family smallholding, and a few other jobs considered suitablefor women. Now they went to work in factories, drove trucks andambulances, and did almost everything that only men had done
before. Many working womenleft their low-paid, low-statusjobs for higher-paid work in munitions and other
industries, achieving a new status in the eyes of
society. Such gains, however,were short-lived, as most
women returned to the homewhen the war ended.
FRONT-LINE ADVENTUREFor some women, the war was abig adventure. English nurse ElsieKnocker (above) went to Belgiumin 1914 where she was joined byScottish Mairi Chisholm. Thewomen set up a dressing station atPervyse, Belgium, and dressed thewounded until both were gassed in1918. They were almost the onlywomen on the front line. The twobecame known as the Women ofPervyse and were awarded theOrder of Leopold by Belgian KingAlbert, and the British MilitaryMedal. Elsie later married aBelgian officer, Baron de T’Sercles.
ARMY LAUNDRYTraditional pre-war women’s work, such asworking in a laundry or bakery, continuedduring the war on a much larger scale.The French women employed at thisBritish Army laundry at Prevent,France in 1918 were washing andcleaning the dirty clothes of manythousands of soldiers every day.
QUEEN MARY’S AUXILIARYFew women actually fought in
the war, but many were enlistedinto auxiliary armies so that men
could be released to fight on thefront line. They drove trucks,
mended engines, and did much of thenecessary administration and supply work.
In Britain, many women joined The Women’s(later Queen Mary’s) Army Auxiliary Corps,whose recruiting poster featured a khaki-cladwoman (left) with the words “The girl behindthe man behind the gun”. The women remainedcivilians, despite their military work.
33
WOMEN’S LAND ARMYThe war required a huge increase in food production at home as both sidestried to restrict the enemy’s imports of food from abroad. In Britain, 113,000women joined the Women’s Land Army, set up in February 1917 to provide a well-paid female workforce to run the farms. Many members of the LandArmy, such as this group of healthy looking women, came from the middleand upper classes. They made a valuable contribution, but their numberswere insignificant compared with the millions of working-class womenalready employed on the land in the rest of Europe.
SUPPORT YOUR COUNTRYImages of “ideal” women were used to gain support for acountry’s war effort. This Russian poster urges people tobuy war bonds (fund-raising loans to the government) bylinking Russian women to the love of the motherland.
WORKING IN POVERTYThe war brought increased status and
wealth to many women but this was not the case everywhere. These Italian
women worked in terrible conditions in amunitions factory. Many were very youngand could not even afford shoes. This was
common in factories across Italy, Germany,and Russia. The women worked long, hard
hours but earned barely enough to feedtheir families. Strikes led by women
were very common as a result.
MEMENTOS FROM HOMEWomen kept in contact with their absenthusbands, brothers, and sons by writingletters to them at the front. They alsoenclosed keepsakes, such as photographsor pressed flowers, to reassure the men thatall was well in their absence and to remindthem of home. Such letters and mementosdid much to keep up the morale ofhomesick and often very frightened men.
RUSSIA’S AMAZONSA number of Russian women joined the “Legion of Death” to fight for their country. The first battalion from Petrograd (St Petersburg)distinguished itself by taking more than 100 German prisoners during a Russian retreat, although many of the women died in the battle.
Letters to men at thefront describing events
at home
Lace handkerchief
Familyphotographs
34
SOPWITH CAMELThe Sopwith F1 Camel first flew in battle in June 1917 and becamethe most successful Alliedfighter in shootingdown German aircraft.Pilots enjoyed flyingthe Camel because ofits exceptional agility andability to make sharp turnsat high speed.
War in the airWHEN WAR BROKE OUT in August 1914, the history ofpowered flight was barely 10 years old. Aircraft had fought brieflyin the Italian–Turkish war of 1911, but early aircraft development hadbeen almost entirely for civilian use. Some military leaders could noteven see how aircraft could be used in war but they soon changedtheir minds. The first warplanes flew as reconnaissance craft,looking down on enemy lines or helping to direct artillery fire
with great precision. Enemy pilots tried to shoot them down,leading to dogfights in the sky between highly skilled and
immensely brave “aces”. Specialized fighter planes, suchas the Sopwith Camel and the German Fokker line, weresoon produced by both sides, as were sturdier craft
capable of carrying bombs to drop on enemy targets. By the end of the war, the role of military aircraft had changed from being a minor help to the ground
forces into a major force in their own right.
DRESSED FOR THE AIRPilots flew in opencockpits, so theywore soft leathercoats and balaclavas,sheepskin-lined furboots, and sheepskin-lined leather gloves tokeep out the cold. Laterin the war, one-piecesuits of waxed cottonlined with silk and furbecame common.
8.2-m (26-ft 11-in)wingspan
Pouch to keep maps in
Sheepskin-linedleather gloves toprotect againstfrostbite
Coat of soft,supple leather
Turned-upcollar to keep
neck warm
DOGFIGHTSPilots engaged indogfights with enemyaircraft above the WesternFront. Guns weremounted on top of thecraft, so pilots had tofly straight at theenemy to shoot.
Anti-splinter glass goggles
Leather face mask
Leather balaclava
Fins to stopthe bomb fromspinning on its descent
Perforated casingto help bomb catchfire on impact
British Carcassincendiary
bomb
Wooden box-structurewings coveredwith canvas
Sheepskin boots
Thick sole togive a good grip
Propeller to guidethe bomb
British 9.1-kg(20-lb) Marten
Hale bomb,containing 2 kg (4.5 lb)
of explosives
BOMBS AWAYThe first bombs were literally droppedover the side of the aircraft by the pilot.Specialized bomber aircraft soonappeared, equipped with bombsights,bomb racks beneath the fuselage,and release systems operatedby the pilot or anothercrew member.
MANOEUVRESThe art of aerial warfarewas unknown to pilots atthe start of the war andhad to be learned fromscratch. This Britishinstruction poster showsthe correct method ofattacking a Germanfighter, althoughtheory on theground was no substitute for actualexperience in the sky.
35
ANTI-AIRCRAFT GUNSThe first anti-aircraft guns,such as this British QF 1-pounder, were originallyinstalled on ships to fire
at torpedo boats. Onceadapted for high-angleshooting, they becameuseful anti-aircraftguns on land.
GERMAN FIGHTERThe formidable German Fokker DVIIappeared in April 1918. Althoughslower than the Sopwith Camel, itclimbed rapidly, recovered quicklyfrom a dive, and flew well atall altitudes.
AIR ACESTo qualify as an air “ace”, a pilot had to bringdown at least 10 enemy aircraft. Those whodid became national heroes. Baron vonRichthofen – the “Red Baron” – was thehighest-scoring ace of the war, shooting down80 Allied aircraft. The British ace, CaptainAlbert Ball, had more decorations for braverythan any other man of his age, including theVictoria Cross; he was only 20 when he wasshot down and killed in 1917.
Wooden struts
Captain EddieRickenbacker(USA) – 24 1⁄3
hits (1890–1973)
Captain Albert Ball(Britain) – 44 hits
(1896–1917)
Rittmeister Manfredvon Richthofen
(Germany), centre –80 hits (1892–1918)
Captain RenéFonck (France)
– 75 hits(1894–1953)
Symbol of British RoyalFlying Corps, later the Royal Air Force
Barrel couldfire 1-pound(453.6-g) shell
Pivot to changedirection andangle of gun
"You ask me to ‘letthe devils have it’ ...
when I fight ... I don’tthink them devils ... I only scrap because
it is my duty."CAPTAIN ALBERT BALL, 1916
Germanaircraft holds a steady course
British fightercomes up frombelow andbehind
Fokker DV11
Side cutaway toshow internalsteel-tubingframework
BMW engine
36
ZeppelinIN THE SPRING OF 1915, the first Germanairships appeared in Britain’s night sky. Thesight of these huge, slow-moving machinescaused enormous panic – at any moment ahail of bombs could fall from the airship. Yet in reality, airships played little part in the war. The first airship was designed by the German Count Ferdinand von Zeppelin in 1900. Airships are often called zeppelins,but technically only those designed by himshould bear the name. Early in the war,airships could fly higher than planes, so itwas almost impossible to shoot them down.This made them useful for bombing raids. But soon, higher flying aircraft and the use ofincendiary (fire-making) bullets brought theseaerial bombers down to earth. By 1917, mostGerman and British airships were restricted to reconnaissance work at sea.
GETTING BIGGERThis L3 German airshiptook part in the firstairship raid on Britainon the night of 19–20January 1915, causing 20 civilian casualties.Eyewitnesses werescared by its size, but by 1918 Germany wasproducing ships almostthree times as big.
INSIDE THE GONDOLAThe crew operated the airship from the gondola – a spacious cabinbelow the main airship. The gondola had open sides, so the crewhad little protection from the weather.
BOMBS AWAY!Crews in the first airshipshad to drops their bombs,such as this incendiarybomb, over the side of thegondola by hand. Latermodels had automaticrelease mechanisms.
Fuel tank Gondola
German incendiary bombdropped by Zeppelin LZ38
on London, 31 May 1915
CAPITAL TARGETThe first German airship raid on London tookplace on 31 May 1915, and was followed by a more powerful attack on 8 September. Theartist R. Schmidt from Hamburg recorded onesuch night raid. In total, there were 51 airshipattacks on British cities. They dropped 196 tons(2,000 kg) of bombs, killing 557 people andwounding 1,358.
HIGH ABOVE THE SEASThe British used airshipschiefly to patrol the seaslooking for German U-boats.The machine gunnerprotected the crew and shipagainst an enemy fighter,while other crew memberswere on look-out. These twocrew members are perchingon a flimsy gantry mountedto the side of the gondolastrung beneath the airship.
SEA SCOUT ZEROThe British SSZ (Sea Scout Zero) was firstintroduced into service in 1916. It was a non-rigid airship, meaning it had no internalframework. Its light weight gave it animpressive top speed of 72 km/h (45 mph)and it could stay airborne for 17 hours. Its crew of three were employed mainly on submarine patrol or on escort duty for convoys.
Gantry
Lewis gunner
The engine gantry waslinked to the gondola
by a rope ladder
Float in case airshiplanded on sea
Engine andpropeller toprovide powerand steer airship
Observer
Stabilizer
Emblem of BritishRoyal Naval AirService
38
War at seaSINCE THE LAUNCH OF Britain’s Dreadnoughtbattleship in 1906, Britain, Germany, and othercountries had engaged in a massive navalbuilding programme. Yet the war itself wasfought largely on land and both sides avoidednaval conflict. The British needed their fleet tokeep the seas open for merchant ships bringingfood and other supplies to Britain, as well as toprevent supplies reaching Germany. Germanyneeded its fleet to protect itself against possibleinvasion. The only major sea battle – offDanish Jutland in the North Sea in 1916 – wasinconclusive. The main fight took place underthe sea, as German U-boats waged a damaging
war against Allied merchant andtroop ships in an effort to forceBritain out of the war.
CONSTANT THREATThis German propaganda poster, The U-boatsare out!, shows the threat posed to Alliedshipping by the German U-boat fleet.
SUCCESS AND FAILUREGerman U-boats operated both underthe sea and on the surface. Here, thecrew is opening fire with a deckcannon to stop an enemy steamer.German U-boats sank 5,554 Allied and neutral merchant ships as well as many warships. Their own losses,however, were also considerable. Outof a total fleet of 372 German U-boats,178 were destroyed by Allied bombs or torpedoes.
Gun
LIFE INSIDE A U-BOATConditions inside a U-boat werecramped and uncomfortable. Fumesand heat from the engine and poorventilation made the air very stuffy.The crew had to navigate their craft through minefields, and avoiddetection from reconnaissance aircraft,in order to attack enemy ships.
“I WANT YOU”When the USA enteredthe war in April 1917, a poster showing anattractive woman innaval uniform (above)urged volunteers to enlist.
LAND AND SEASeaplanes are able to take off and land
on both water and ground. They were used for reconnaissance and
bombing work. This version of theShort 184 was the first seaplane
to sink an enemy ship with a torpedo.
Observationballoon
Floats forlanding onwater
39
Medalsawarded to
Jack Cornwall
Flight deck
THE BRITISH GRAND FLEETThe British Royal Navy was the
biggest and most powerful in theworld. It operated a policy known as the “two-power standard” – thecombined might of the British fleetshould be the equal of the two next
strongest nations combined. Despitethis superiority, the navy played a
fairly minor role in the war comparedwith the army, keeping the seas free of
German ships and escorting convoysof merchant ships to Britain.
DAZZLEDDuring the war, many artistscontributed to their country’s wareffort, some in surprising ways. Themodern British painter EdwardWadsworth supervised the applicationof “dazzle” camouflage to ships’ hulls.He later painted a picture (above),Dazzle ships in dry dock at Liverpool,showing the finished result.
BOY (1ST CLASS) John Travers Cornwall was only 16 when he first
saw action at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916. He was a ship’s boy (1st class) aboard HMS Chester and
was mortally wounded early in the battle. While othercrew members lay dead or injured, Cornwall stayed at his post until the end of the action. He died of his wounds on
2 June and was posthumously awarded the Victoria Cross.
CONFUSE AND SURVIVEIn 1917 the British Admiralty began tocamouflage merchant ships with strange and garish designs.These grey, black, and blue geometric patterns distorted thesilhouette of the ship and made it difficult for German U-boatsto determine its course and thus aim torpedoes at it with anyaccuracy. More than 2,700 merchant ships and 400 convoyescorts were camouflaged in this way before the war ended.
HMS FURIOUSAircraft carriers firstsaw service during WorldWar I. On 7 July 1918, sevenSopwith Camels took off from the deck of HMS Furious to attackthe zeppelin base at Tondern innorthern Germany, destroying bothsheds and the two Zeppelins inside.
VictoriaCross (VC)
BritishWar
Medal
VictoryMedal
THE CASUALTY RATEDespite the efforts of the medical staff, some of whomeven carried portable surgical kits, the treatment andevacuation of casualties from Gallipoli was complicatedby the enormous numbers of soldiers who were sick, aswell as those who were wounded.
IN EARLY 1915 the Allies decided toforce through the strategic, but heavilyfortified, Dardanelles straits andcapture the Ottoman Turkish capital of Constantinople. Naval attacks on 19 February and 18 March both failed.On 25 April, British, Australian, andNew Zealand troops landed on the
Gallipoli peninsula, while French troops staged adiversion to their south. In August, there was a secondlanding at Suvla Bay, also on the peninsula. Although thelandings were a success, the casualty rate was high andthe Allies were unable to move far from the beaches dueto fierce Turkish resistance. As the months wore on, thedeath rate mounted. The Allies eventually withdrew inJanuary 1916, leaving the Ottoman Empire still in controlof the Dardanelles and still in the war.
40
Gallipoli
GALLIPOLI PENINSULAThe Gallipoli peninsula lies to the north of theDardanelles, a narrow waterway connecting the AegeanSea to the Black Sea via the Sea of Marmara. Control ofthis waterway would have given Britain and France adirect sea route from the Mediterranean to the Black Seaand their ally, Russia. But both sides of the waterwaywere controlled by Germany’s ally, the Ottoman Empire.
TASTY GREETINGSBritish army biscuits wereoften easier to write onthan to eat, as this hard-baked Christmas cardfrom Gallipoli illustrates.
IMPROVISED GRENADESThe fighting at Gallipoli
was often at very closerange. Hand-thrown
grenades were particularlyeffective in knocking out
enemy positions. During amunitions shortage, Allied
troops improvised bymaking grenades out
of jam tins.
Gallipolipeninsula
BlackSea
Sea ofMarmara
MediterraneanSea
Dardanellesstraits
AegeanSea
CRETE
GREECE
OTTOMANEMPIRE
Privately purchased medical kit usedby a British officer on the front line
Jetty for boatscarrying sick andwounded soldiers
Scissors Tweezers
Pouch
Scalpel
Hypodermicneedles
GERMAN HELPThe Allies expected theGallipoli peninsula to be lightlydefended, but with the helpof Germany, the Turks hadbuilt strong defensivepositions. They dug trenches,erected barbed-wire fences, andbuilt well-guarded artillerypositions. Germany alsoequipped the Turks withmodern pistols, rifles,and machine guns.
THE SICK BEACHBoth sides had their food contaminated by flies carrying diseasefrom the many corpses. Dysentery was endemic – in September1915, 78% of the Anzac troops in the No. 1 Australian StationaryHospital at Anzac Cove (above) were being treated for the disease.
41
Narrow beach unprotectedagainst Turkish fire
Turkish defences lookdown on beach
ANZAC MEMORIALDuring the war, both Australia andNew Zealand suffered large numbersof deaths in proportion to their smallpopulations. Australia lost 60,000 menfrom a population of less than fivemillion. New Zealand lost 17,000 froma population of one million. Of those,11,100 died at Gallipoli. Today,Australia and New Zealand remembertheir war dead on Anzac Day, 25 April.
FOR DISTINCTIONThe Turkish Order of the Crescentwas instituted on 1 March 1915 for distinguished service. It wasawarded to German and Turkishsoldiers who fought at Gallipoli.
British soldiers evacuated by raftfrom Suvla Bay, 19 December 1915
Large horse-drawn gun
Many soldiers weresuffering from frostbite
WINTER EVACUATIONOn 7 December 1915, the Allies decided to withdrawfrom Gallipoli. A flotilla of ships evacuated thetroops and their supplies. Unlike the chaos andcarnage of the previous six months, the withdrawalsunder the cover of darkness went without a hitchand not a single person was injured. British andAnzac forces withdrew from Anzac and Suvla on thenight of 18–19 December, with the rest of the Britishforces at Cape Helles following on 8–9 January 1916.
ANZAC COVEOn 25 April, the Australian and NewZealand Army Corps, known as the Anzacs,landed on the western coast of the Gallipolipeninsula. All hopes of swiftly capturing thepeninsula were thwarted by the unyieldingterrain. The beach was very narrow and thesteep, sandy hills gave the men no cover.They were under constant fire from thewell-hidden Ottoman Turks above. Thebeach is now known as Anzac Cove as a sign of remembrance.
KEMAL ATATURKBorn in 1881, Mustafa Kemaldistinguished himself fighting for the Ottoman Turkish army in Libya in 1911 and against the Bulgarians in 1912–13. At Gallipoli, Kemal wasappointed divisional commanderwhere he helped to strengthen theOttoman Turkish defences. Kemalthen brilliantly led the 19th Divisionon the ridges above AnzacCove, preventing the Alliesfrom penetrating inland.After the war, Kemal led a revolt to prevent thedismemberment of Turkey.In 1923 he became the firstpresident of the TurkishRepublic, later gaining the name Atatürk (Father of the Turks).
Sultan’s Cypher with the year 1333in the Muslim calendar, which is
1915 in the Western calendar
Hyde ParkMemorial,
Sydney,Australia
42
VerdunON 21 FEBRUARY 1916, Germany launched a massive attackagainst Verdun, a fortified French city. Verdun lay close to theGerman border and controlled access into eastern France. After a huge, eight-hour artillery bombardment, the German infantryadvanced. The French were caught by surprise and lost control ofsome of their main forts, but during the summer their resistancestiffened. By December, the Germans had been pushed backalmost to where theystarted. The cost to bothsides was enormous –over 400,000 Frenchcasualties and 336,831German casualties. The German GeneralFalkenhayn later claimedhe had tried to bleedFrance to death. He did not succeed and,including losses at theBattle of the Somme,German casualties thatyear were 774,153.
BURNING WRECKAGEOn 25 February, the ancient city of Verdunwas evacuated. Many buildings were hit bythe artillery bombardment, and even moredestroyed by the fires that raged often fordays. Firefighters did their best to controlthe blazes, but large numbers of houseshad wooden frames and burned easily.
FORT DOUAUMONTVerdun was protected by three rings of fortifications. FortDouaumont, in the outer ring, was the strongest of theseforts. It was built of steel and concrete and surrounded byramparts, ditches, and rolls of barbed wire. But althoughthe fort itself was strong, it was defended by just 56 elderlyreservists. The fort fell to the Germans on 25 February.
LE POILUThe French slang for aninfantry soldier was le poilu,or “hairy one”. Les poilusbore the brunt of theGerman attack, enduringthe muddy, cold, and wetconditions and sufferingdreadful injuries fromshellfire and poison gas.
GENERAL PETAINGeneral Henri-Philippe Pétaintook command of the Frenchforces of Verdun on 25February, the same day as theloss of Fort Douaumont. Heorganized an effective defenceof the town and made sure
the army was properlysupplied. His rallying cry,
"Ils ne passeront pas!"(They shall not pass!),
did much to raiseFrench morale.
Machine-gun postExposed concrete
fort wall
Haversack
Horizon-blueuniform
Double-breastedgreatcoat
Lebel rifle
Steel helmet
Thick boots withputtees wrappedaround the legs
Background picture: Ruined Verdun cityscape, 1915
43
SURROUNDING VILLAGESThe village of Ornes was one ofmany French villages attacked andcaptured during the German advanceon Verdun. The devastation was sogreat that this village, along witheight others, was not rebuilt after thewar, but is still marked on maps as asign of remembrance.
LEGION D’HONNEURIn recognition of the suffering
experienced by Verdun’s people,French president Raymond
Poincaré awarded the city the Légiond’Honneur. The honour is usually
presented to men and women,military and civilian, for bravery.
THE MUDDY INFERNOThe countryside around Verdun is wooded and hilly, withmany streams running down to the River Meuse. Heavyrainfall and constant artillery bombardment turned thislandscape into a desolate mudbath, where the bodies ofthe dead lay half-buried in shell craters and men wereforced to eat and sleep within centimetres of their fallencomrades. This photograph shows the “Ravine de lamort”, the Ravine of the Dead.
ALBERT JOUBAIRE FRENCH SOLDIER, VERDUN, 1916
“What a bloodbath, what horridimages, what a slaughter. I just
cannot find the words toexpress my feelings. Hellcannot be this dreadful.”
AT CLOSE QUARTERSFighting at Verdun was particularlyfierce, as both sides repeatedly
attacked and counter-attacked thesame forts and strategic areas
around the city. Advancingattackers were assaulted byhails of machine-gun firefrom the enemy within theforts. The open ground was so exposed that it wasimpossible to retrieve thedead, and corpses were leftto rot in the ground. Theforts were also riddled with underground tunnelswhere both sides engagedin vicious hand-to-handcombat. Many dramaticfilms have been madeabout the war, and thisphotograph comes fromone such film.
Laurel-leaf wreath
Oak-leaf wreath
Head of Marianne,symbol of France
44
Gas attackON THE AFTERNOON of 22 April 1915, French-Algerian troops near theBelgian town of Ypres noticed a greenish-yellow cloud moving towardsthem from the German front. The cloud was chlorine gas. This was the firsttime poison gas had been used effectively in war. As it reached the Alliedline, many soldiers panicked, for they had no protection against its chokingeffects. Over the next three years, both sides used gas – the Germansreleased about 68,000tonnes, the British andFrench 51,000 tonnes.The first gas clouds
were released from canisters and blownby the wind towards the enemy, but thiscaused problems if the wind changedand blew the gas in the wrong direction.More effective were gas-filled shells,which could be targeted at enemy lines.In total, 1,200,000 soldiers on both sideswere gassed, of whom 91,198 diedterrible deaths.
EARLY WARNINGThe first anti-gas masks were crude
and often ineffectual, as theseinstructional drawings from a British
training school show. Basic gogglesprotected the eyes, while mouth-pads
made of flannel or other absorbentmaterials were worn over the mouth.
Chemicals soaked into the padsneutralized the gas.
Black veilrespirator
Gas alarmwhistle
Air tubeALL-IN-ONEBy the middle of the war,both sides wore fully
protective helmets, whichconsisted of face masks,goggles, and respirators. These protected the eyes,
nose, and throat from thepotentially lethal effects of gas.
GASSED!The full horror of being blinded
by gas is caught in Gassed, apainting from real life by theAmerican artist John Singer
Sargent. Led by their sightedcolleagues, the blinded soldiersare slowly shuffling towards adressing station near Arras in
northern France in August 1918.
Flannelrespirator
Chemical filter to
neutralize gas
British anti-gasgoggles
British “Hypo” helmet
Britishsmallboxrespirator
GAS SHELLSGas shells contained liquid gas,which evaporated on impact.Gases caused a range ofinjuries depending on theirtype. Gases such as chlorine,diphosgene, and phosgenecaused severe breathingdifficulties while benzylbromide caused the eyes towater. Dichlorethylsulphideburned and blistered the skin,caused temporary blindness and,if inhaled, flooded the lungs andled to death from pneumonia.
45
Lachrymatory Diphosgene& Sneezing
Oil
Diphosgene MustardOil
Phosgene &Diphosgene
HAND SHRUNK When exposed to some kinds ofgas, a glove like the one abovewill shrink to the size of theglove above, right. This is whathappens to a person’s lungswhen exposed to the same gas.
Ordinary glove
Gloveshrunkenby gas
Germangas mask
Canvas-covered
respirator
Eyes notprotected
ANIMAL WELFAREEvery living creature
was vulnerable to gas,including the many
thousands of horses usedby both sides to transport
men, equipment, andsupplies. Here, both
German rider and horsehave got their gas maskson, although the horse’s
eyes remain unprotectedand vulnerable.
UNDER ATTACKThe first effects of gas werefelt on the face and in theeyes, but within seconds itentered the throat. Soldierscoughed and choked as the gas swirled aroundthem. The longterm effectsdepended on the type ofgas used – some soldiersdied very quickly, otherswere blinded for life or suffered awful skinblisters, while some died a lingering death as theirlungs collapsed and filledwith liquid. The onlyprotection was to wearcombined goggles andrespirator. Major TracyEvert photographed these American soldiers in1918. They are posing toillustrate the ill effects offorgetting their gas masks.The photograph was usedwhen training new recruits.
WHEN PEOPLE THINK today of WorldWar I, they picture the fighting in thetrenches along the Western Front. Buton the other side of Europe, a verydifferent war took place, betweenGermany and Austria-Hungary on oneside and Russia on the other. This warwas much more fluid, with great armiesmarching backwards and forwards acrossmany hundreds of kilometres. Both theAustro-Hungarian and Russian armieswere badly led and poorly equipped, andboth suffered huge losses. In 1915 alone,the Russians lost two million men, of
whom one million were taken prisoner. The German army, ably led by General Hindenburg, was far moreeffective. By the end of 1916, despite someRussian successes, the Germans werein full control of the entire EasternFront. The Russians weregreatly demoralized and thisled, in part, to the RussianRevolution the followingyear, 1917.
INITIAL SUCCESSDuring 1914 the Russian army conqueredAustria-Hungary’s eastern province ofGalicia, inflicting huge defeats on theAustro-Hungarian army. But, in 1915,German reinforcements (above) pushed theRussians back into their own country.
MASURIAN LAKES, 1914In September 1914, the Russian First Armyhad marched to the Masurian Lakes in East Prussia. It was in danger of beingsurrounded as the Second Army had been the previous month at Tannenberg.German troops dug trenches and otherdefences (above) and attacked theRussians, who soon withdrew, sustainingmore than 100,000 casualties. By the end of September, the Russian threat toGermany was over.
The Eastern Front
TANNENBERG, 1914In August 1914, Russia’s First and Second armies invaded EastPrussia, Germany. The Russians did not disguise their messages incode, so the Germans knew what toexpect. The Second Army was soonsurrounded at Tannenberg and wasforced to surrender on 31 August,with the loss of 150,000 men and all of its artillery (above).
47
The Italian FrontOn 23 May 1915, Italy joined the war on the side of theAllies and prepared to invade its hostile neighbour, Austria-Hungary. Fighting took place on two fronts – north andeast. Italy fought against the Italian-speaking Trentinoregion of Austria-Hungary to the north, and along theIsonzo River to the east. The Italian army was ill-preparedand under-equipped for the war, and was unable to breakthrough the Austrian defences until its final success at theBattle of Vittorio-Veneto in October 1918.
Below: Russian troopsmarching to defend thenewly captured city ofPrzemysl in AustrianGalicia
UNWILLING TO FIGHTBy the end of 1916, many Russian soldiers were refusing tofight. They were badly treated, ill-equipped, poorly led,and starving. They saw little reason to risk their lives in awar they did not believe in. Officers had to threaten theirtroops to make them fight, and mutinies were common,although many thousands simply deserted and went home.
THE ISONZO The Isonzo River formed a naturalboundary between the mountains ofAustria-Hungary and the plains ofnorthern Italy. Between June 1915 andAugust 1917, the two sides fought 11inconclusive battles along the riverbefore the Austrians, with Germansupport, achieved a decisive victoryat Caporetto in December 1917.
ITALIAN ALPINISTSAll but 32 km (20 miles) of the640-km (400-mile) Italian frontierwith Austria-Hungary lay in theItalian Alps. Both sides usedtrained alpine troops tofight in mountainousterrain. Every mountainpeak became a potentialobservation post or gunemplacement.
48
FIGHTING DURING World War I was not restricted just to Europe.German colonies in Africa were overrun by French, British, and SouthAfrican forces, while Germany’s colonies in China and the Pacific wereinvaded by Japanese, British, Australian, and New Zealand forces. Oneof the major conflicts took place in the Middle East. Here, the TurkishOttoman Empire controlled Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), Palestine,Syria, and Arabia. British and Indian troopsinvaded Mesopotamia in 1914 and finallycaptured Baghdad in 1917. Meanwhile, alarge British force, under General Allenby,captured Palestine and, in the last weeks ofthe war, the Syrian capital of Damascus.In Arabia, Bedouin soldiersunder the guidance ofT.E. Lawrence rosein revolt againsttheir Turkishrulers andwaged a guerrillacampaign for anindependent Arab state.
LAWRENCE OF ARABIAThe British soldier T.E. Lawrence is a romantic, almost legendary figure known as Lawrence of
Arabia. Lawrence first visited the Middle East in1909, and learned to speak Arabic. In 1914 he becamean army intelligence officer in Cairo, Egypt. Later, heworked as liaison officer to Emir Feisal, leader of the
Arab revolt against Ottoman Turkish rule. Lawrencehelped the Arabs to become an effective guerrilla force,
blowing up railway lines, attacking Turkish garrisons,and tying down an army many times their own size.
SPINE PADThe British army was concernedthat soldiers fighting in the desertmight get heatstroke. Theytherefore issued spine pads toprotect the soldiers’ backs from thesun. The weight and discomfort ofthe pad would have done little tokeep the body cool.
RETURN JOURNEYBritish soldier T.E. Lawrence’srifle was one of the many British riflescaptured by the Turks at Gallipoli in 1915. It was then given by the Turkish WarMinister, Enver Pasha, to the Arab leader, EmirFeisal, who in turn presented it to Lawrence in December 1916.
Lawrence’s rifle
Arab flintlock pistol
Lawrence’s initials
War in the desert
49
FLY SWATThe British army made sure its
personnel were issued withevery necessity for desert
warfare, including fly swats!
SAND SHOESWalking across soft, shifting sand in
regular army boots was very tiring. TheseBritish wire sand shoes were worn overthe boot and tied in place with webbingstraps. They helped spread the soldier’s
weight, so he did not sink in the sand.
MARCH TO BAGHDADTurkish-held Mesopotamia was rich inoil, which Britain needed to supply hernavy with fuel. In November 1914 Britainsent troops to protect her interests in the oil fields of Basra in Mesopotamia.The commander, General Townshend,then decided to advance up the TigrisRiver towards Baghdad. But his menwere ill-prepared for a long campaign,and in April 1916 their garrison at Kut al-Amarah was forced to surrender toTurkish troops, seen here crossing apontoon bridge in Baghdad. The Britishfinally captured Baghdad in March 1917.
Leather loopSwat made of perforated,flexible leather
Webbing strap
Wire strap
FIGHTING IN PALESTINEIn early 1917, Britain opened a new front againstOttoman Turkey. British troops invaded Palestineand, after early failures, General Allenby capturedand entered Jerusalem on 11 December 1917 (left).After a pause, fighting resumed in autumn 1918.British troops pushed north towards Damascus,while an Arab army under Lawrence continued toattack the Turks in the desert. Both armies enteredDamascus on 1 October 1918. Within a month,Ottoman Turkey had surrendered.
Signpost from acrossroads in Jerusalem
German signcelebrating the fall
of the Kut
PIGEON POSTOver 500,000 pigeons were used during the war to carry messages between intelligence agents andtheir home bases. The pigeons were dropped byparachute into occupied areas. Agents collectedthe pigeons at drop zones and looked after themuntil they had information to send home. Whenreleased, the birds flew home to their lofts withmessages attached to their legs.
IN MINIATUREPigeons could not carry much weight, so messageshad to be written on small pieces of paper. Thismessage, in German, is written on a standard“pigeon post” form used by the German army.Long messages could be photographed with aspecial camera that reduced them to the size of a microdot – that is 300 hundred times smallerthan the original.
SECRET INKInvisible ink was used to conceal
messages written on paper. Theinvisible message could be read later
when the paper was treated with achemical to make the words visible.
EDITH CAVELLEdith Cavell was born in England and worked as a governess inBelgium in the early 1890s before training in England as a nurse.In 1907 she returned to Belgium to start a nursing school inBrussels (above). When the Germans occupied the city in August1914 she decided to stay, accommodating up to 200 Britishsoldiers who also found themselves behind enemy lines. TheGermans arrested her and tried her for “conducting soldiers tothe enemy”. She was found guilty and executed by firing squadin October 1915. Cavell was not a spy, but her execution didprovide a powerful propaganda weapon for the Allies.
German invisible inkand sponge
BUTTON MESSAGECoded messages could bewritten in the smallest andmost unobtrusive of places. Duringthe war, messages were stamped on to theback of buttons sewn on to coats or jackets.
Coded message onback of button
Front of button
50
EspionageBOTH SIDES SUSPECTED the other of employinghundreds of spies to report on enemy intentionsand capabilities. In fact, most espionage workconsisted not of spying on enemy territorybut of eavesdropping on enemycommunications. Code-breaking orcryptography was very important asboth sides sent and received codedmessages by radio and telegraph.Cryptographers devised highly complexcodes to ensure the safe transit of their ownmessages while using their skills to intercept and breakcoded enemy messages. Such skills enabled Britishintelligence to decipher the Zimmermann telegram fromBerlin to Washington sent in January 1917, leading to theentry of the USA into the war in April 1917.
Corselet made oflinen and paddedto protect bird
Lightweight, butstrong, string attachesparachute to bird
Invisible inkbottle
READING THE ENEMYArmy intelligence officers, such as this British soldier,
played a vital role in examining and understandingcaptured enemy documents. Painstaking reading ofevery piece of information enabled the intelligenceservices to build up a reasonably complete picture
about enemy preparations for an attack. They couldalso assess the state of civilian morale, and pass that
information on to the military high command.
Cigars slit openin search ofhidden messages
Compass
Rolled-up map of France
HIDDEN MESSAGESNot every spy remained undetected.Two agents from the Netherlandssent to Portsmouth, England, to spyfor Germany pretended to be cigarimporters. They used their orders for imported Dutch cigars as codesfor the ships they observed inPortsmouth Harbour. They werecaught and executed in 1915.
MATA HARIDutch-born Margaretha Zelle was a famous dancer who used the stage-name Mata Hari. She had many high-ranking lovers, which enabledher to pass on any confidential information she acquired from themto the secret services. In 1914, while dancing in Paris, she wasrecruited by the French intelligence service. She went to Madrid,where she tried to win over a German diplomat. He double-crossed her with false information and on her return to Franceshe was arrested, tried, and found guilty of being a Germanagent. She was executed by firing squad in October 1917.
AID TO ESCAPEThis tin, supposedly containing ox
tongue, was sent to British LieutenantJack Shaw at the German Prisoner of
War Camp, Holzminden in 1918. Itcontained maps, wire cutters, andcompasses to help Shaw arrange a
mass escape from the camp.
POCKET CAMERASmall cameras hidden in a
pocket or disguised as a fobwatch were used to take
clandestine photographs.This spy camera saw
service in German EastAfrica (now Tanzania).
Shutter release
Cameralens
Lens cap
51
Lead weights tomake the tin the
correct weight
52
Tank warfareTHE BRITISH-INVENTED tank wasa major mechanical innovationof the war. British tanks firstsaw action in September 1916,but these early tanks were notvery reliable. It was not untilNovember 1917, at the Battle ofCambrai, that their full potential wasrealized. At Cambrai, the Germandefences were so strong that anartillery bombardment would havedestroyed the ground and made itimpossible for the infantry to cross.Instead, fleets of tanks flattenedbarbed-wire, crossed enemy trenches,and acted as shields for the advancinginfantry. Tanks played a vital role inthe allied advances throughout 1918.
German A7V tank
British Mark V tank
Carried crewof eight men
BRITISH MARK I HEAVY TANKThe first tank to fight in battle wasthe British Mark 1 tank. Forty-ninewere ready to fight at the Battle ofthe Somme on 15 September 1916,but only 18 were reliable enough totake part in the battle itself.
A7V TANKThe only German tank built duringthe war was the huge A7V, a33,500-kg (33-ton) machine withsix machine guns and a crew of 18.Only 20 A7Vs were constructed,and their appearance in spring1918 was too late in the warto make any real impact.
Stabilizer wheels
Toughenedleather
skull cap
PROTECT AND SURVIVELeather helmets, faceguards,and chainmail mouthpieceswere issued to British tank crewsto protect their heads. The visorsgave protection against particlesof hot metal which flew off theinside of the hull when the tankwas hit by a bullet.
Leathervisor
Chainmailmouthpiece
Total weight of28,450 kg (28 tons)
Equipped withtwo 6-pounderguns and fourmachine guns
53
BRITISH MARK V TANKThe British Mark V tank first sawaction in July 1918. It was equippedwith two 6-pounder guns and fourmachine guns, and had a crew ofeight. Its advanced system of gearsand brakes allowed it to be driven andcontrolled by only one person.
DRIVING A TANKThe first British tanks were driven
by two people, each controllingone track. They had a limited
range of 40 km (24 miles) and their tracks brokeregularly. Later tanks
were driven by a singleperson and were more
manoeuvrable androbust. However, they
were still vulnerable toenemy shellfire, and
often broke down, as here during theBritish assault on
Arras in April 1917.
Machine-gunport
CROSSING THE TRENCHESA tank could cross a narrow trench easily,
but it could topple into a wide one. To solvethis problem, the British equipped their
tanks with circular metal bundles that couldbe dropped into a trench to form a bridge.
Here, a line of Mark V tanks are moving into attack German trenches during
autumn 1918.
INSIDE A TANKLife inside a tank was very unpleasant.The tank was hot, fume-ridden, and badlyventilated, making the crew sick or evenfaint. The heat was sometimes so great in light tanks that it exploded theammunition.
Driver’s visor
Driver’sentry hatch
The driver and gunnerwere squashed in thefront of the tank
Lid for driver’sentry hatchRear entry hatch
Six men sat aroundthe engine manningthe gunsSix-cylinder engine
Ironcaterpillartrack
WHEN WAR broke out in Europe in August 1914,the USA remained neutral. The country was
deeply divided about the war, as many of itscitizens had recently arrived from Europeand were strongly in favour of one side orthe other. When German U-boats started to sink American ships, however, public
opinion began to turn against Germany. InFebruary 1917, Germany decided to attack
all foreign shipping to try to reduce supplies toBritain. It also tried to divert US attention fromEurope by encouraging its neighbour, Mexico, toinvade. This action outraged the US government,and as more US ships were sunk, PresidentWilson declared war on Germany. This was now a world war.
INFANTRYEQUIPMENTA US infantrymanwent to the Western Frontprepared for every eventuality. Aroundhis waist he wore a cartridge belt filledwith ammunition, a water bottle, and a basic first aid kit. On his back hecarried a heavy pack with a bayonet,an entrenching tool, a blanket, and his personal kit, which included a mess tin and essential toiletries.
54
UNCLE SAMThe artist James MontgomeryFlagg used himself as amodel for Uncle Sam, a cartoon figure intended torepresent every American.The portrait was based onKitchener’s similar pose forBritish recruiting posters (seepage 14). Beneath hispointing finger were thewords “I WANT YOU FORTHE US ARMY”.
SS LUSITANIAOn 7 May 1915 the passenger shipSS Lusitania was sunk off the coastof Ireland by German torpedoesbecause the ship was suspected ofcarrying munitions. The ship wasbound from New York, USA, toLiverpool, England. Three-quartersof the passengers drowned,including 128 US citizens. Theirdeath did much to turn the USpublic against Germany andtowards the Allies.
British medalsuggesting the
attack on SSLusitania was
planned
Waterbottle
Cup
Shavingkit
Mess tin
BeltAmmunitionpouch
Field-dressingpouch
Water-bottle
carrier
The US enters the war
Ammunitionclip
Scabbard
PRESIDENT WILSONWoodrow Wilson was a distinguishedacademic before he
was elected president of the USA in 1912. As awar leader, he was principled and strong, but he was too idealistic and failed to get Congressto support the post-war peace treaty or the new League of Nations, which was designed to prevent another world war. In 1919 Wilsonwon the Nobel Peace Prize for his work in bringing peace to Europe.
Filter box
Trench knife
Knuckledusterhandle
Fielddressing
Shavingbrush
Mess tin
Strap
Gas maskTube
Eyepiece
55
Haversack
Entrenchingtool
Blanket orgreatcoat roll
M1905Springfield
bayonet
Assembled kit, USInfantry Equipment
FOR HEROISMInstituted byPresidential Order in1918, the DistinguishedService Cross wasawarded for extremeheroism againstan armedenemy.
KEEPING IN TOUCHLike their colleagues inother armies, many USsoldiers had hardly left
their home town or statebefore, and few had ever
travelled abroad.Stationed in France, in a
country where they couldnot speak the language,
many became deeplyhomesick. They wrote
often to their family andfriends, and waited forletters, postcards, andfood parcels in return.
Securing strap forpack contents
GUN FIREThe US First Army saw its firstmajor action on 12–16 September1918 at St Mihiel, south of Verdun,France, as part of a combined Allied attack against German lines. Here an artillery crew fires a75-mm (2.9-in) field gun as a spentshell-case flies through the air.
Headpiece
FOR MUCH OF the war on the Western Front,the two sides faced each other in rows ofheavily fortified trenches. These massivedefences were very difficult to overcome, soengineers found ways of undermining them.The British army recruited coal miners and“clay-kickers”, who used to dig tunnels forLondon Underground. The Germans had their own miners. Both excavated tunnels andmines deep under enemy lines and packedthem with explosives, ready to be detonatedwhen an attack began. Counter-mines werealso dug to cut into and destroy enemy mines
before they could be finished. The opposing miners sometimesmet and fought in undergroundbattles. Vast mines were explodedby the British at the Battle of theSomme on 1 July 1916, but theirmost effective use was underMessines Ridge at the start of the Battle of Passchendaele.
Under enemy lines
TO THE RESCUEA gas attack or a shellburst near a mine tunnelentrance could fill the minewith fumes, suffocating the men working inside.This German breathingapparatus was kept onstandby for use by rescue parties.
OXYGEN RELIEFThis British breathing apparatus issimilar to the German equipment onthe left. Compressed oxygen containedin the breathing bags was releasedthrough the air tubes to help the miner breathe.SAPPERS AT WORK
British artist David Bomberg’s paintingshows members of the Royal Engineers,known as sappers, digging and reinforcingan underground trench. Sappers ensuredthat trenches and tunnels were properlyconstructed and did not collapse.
Straps to holdmouthpiecein place
Nose clip
Air tube
Breathing bagwas carried on chest
Air from oxygencylinders carriedon the backentered thebreathing bagthrough this valve
Air tubes
Background picture: One of manyBritish mines explodes under
German lines at the Battle of theSomme, 1 July 1916
WATERLOGGEDThe water table around Ypres was
very high, so the trenches were builtabove ground by banking up earth
and sandbags. Even so, the trencheswere constantly flooded. Pumping
out mines and trenches, as theseAustralian tunnellers are doing at
Hooge, Belgium in September 1917,was an essential, never-ending task.
MUDDY QUAGMIREHeavy rainfall and constant shelling at Passchendaele created a deadlymudbath. Many injured men died as they were unable to lift themselvesclear of the cloying mud. Stretcher bearers were barely able to carry thewounded to dressing stations. The British poet Siegfried Sassoon wrote that “I died in hell – (They called it Passchendaele)”.
PasschendaeleDuring 1917, the British planned a massive attack
against the German front line around Ypres,Belgium. They aimed to break into Belgium andcapture the channel ports, stopping the Germansubmarines from using them as a base to attack
British shipping. The Battle of Messines began on 7June 1917. After a huge artillery bombardment, 19
mines packed with 1 million tons of explosive blew up simultaneously under the German lines on Messines Ridge. The noise could be heard in
London 220 km (140 miles) away. The ridge wassoon captured, but the British failed to take quickadvantage. Heavy rainfall in August and October
turned the battlefield into a muddy marshland. Thevillage and ridge of Passchendaele were eventually
captured on 10 November 1917, only to be lostagain the following March. In summer 1918, the
Allies re-captured and kept the ground.
“It is horrible. You often wishyou were dead, there is no
shelter, we are lying in water... our clothes do not dry.”
GERMAN SOLDIER, PASSCHENDAELE, 1917
Below: British troops moving forwardover shell-torn ground during the
Battle of Passchendaele.
58
The final yearIN EARLY 1918, the war looked to be turningin favour of Germany and her allies. Russia
had withdrawn from the war, enablingGermany to concentrate her efforts onthe Western Front, and US troops hadyet to arrive in France in any greatnumbers. A vast offensive in Marchbrought German troops to within 64 km(40 miles) of Paris. But behind the lines,Germany was far from strong. TheAllied blockade of German ports meantthat the country was short of vitalsupplies. The railway network wascollapsing through lack of maintenanceand food was short. Strikes and evenmutinies became common. Elsewhere,Ottoman Turkey and Bulgaria collapsedin the face of Allied attacks, while theItalians scored a decisive victory againstAustria-Hungary. By early November,Germany stood alone. On 7 November,a German delegation crossed the frontline to discuss peace terms with theAllies. The war was almost over.
NEW LEADERIn 1917, Vladimir Lenin, the leader of theBolshevik (Communist) Party, became thenew ruler of Russia. He was opposed to thewar, and ordered an immediate cease-firewhen he came to power.
THE LUDENDORFF OFFENSIVE On 21 March 1918 General
Ludendorff launched a huge attackon the Western Front. He hoped to
defeat Britain and France before USreinforcements could arrive. Theattack took the Allies by surprise
and Germany advanced by almost64 km (40 miles) by July, but at the
heavy cost of 500,000 casualties.
8 January US President Wilson issues 14 Points for Peace3 March Treaty of Brest-Litovsk –Russia leaves the war21 March Vast German Ludendorff
offensive on the Western Front15 July Last German offensivelaunched on Western Front18 July French counter-attackbegins on the Marne
8 August British launch offensive near Amiens12 September Americans launchoffensive at St Mihiel14 September Allies attack
Bulgarians at Salonika25 September Bulgaria seeks peace27 September British begin to breach Hindenburg Line
Russia pulls outThe Russian government becameincreasingly unpopular as the warprogressed. The army wasdemoralized by constant defeats, andby early 1917, there was large-scalefraternization with German troopsalong the Eastern Front. InFebruary 1917, a revolutionoverthrew the Tsar, but thenew government continuedthe war. A second revolutionin October brought theBolshevik Party to power. Acease-fire was agreed withGermany, and in March1918 Russia signed theTreaty of Brest-Litovsk andwithdrew from the war.
German and Russian troops celebrating the cease-fire on the Eastern Front, 1917
French and British troops in actionduring the Ludendorff Offensive
59
THE LAST DAYSBy 5 October, the Alliedarmies had breached theentire Hindenburg Line andwere crossing open country.Both sides suffered greatcasualties as the Germanarmy was pushed steadilyeastwards. The British andFrench recaptured townsand cities lost in 1914,including Lille (left), and byearly November 1918 theyrecaptured Mons, wherethey had fired the first shotsof the war in August 1914.By now, the German retreatwas turning into a rout.
BATTLE OF THE MARNEOn 18 July 1918, French and US forces, led by General Foch,counter-attacked against theGerman advance on the RiverMarne, east of Paris. They stoppedthe German offensive in its tracksand began to push the Germansback eastwards. By 6 August, theGermans had lost 168,000 men,many buried where they fell onthe battlefields (left). The tide ofbattle had at last turned decisivelyin favour of the Allied armies.
CROSSING THE LINEOn 8 August 1918 a massive British
offensive began near Amiens. TheGerman army was increasinglyshort of men and vital supplies,
including food, so gave littleresistance. The Allied troopscontinued to push forwards
towards the heavily fortifiedHindenburg Line. On 29
September, the British 46th NorthMidland Division captured thebridge at Riqueval, over the St
Quentin Canal. They posed for acelebratory photograph, becausethey had broken the Line at last.
Many French children didnot remember life before
the German occupation oftheir towns and cities
French childrenmarch alongsidethe Allied army
28 September German commanderLudendorff advises the Kaiser to seek peace as army crumbles1 October British capture OttomanTurkish-held Damascus
6 October German governmentstarts to negotiate an armistice21 October Czechoslovakia declares its independence24 October Italian army begins
decisive battle of Vittorio-Venetoagainst Austria-Hungary29 October German fleet mutinies 30 October Ottoman Turkey agreesan armistice
4 November Austria-Hungaryagrees an armistice9 November The Kaiser abdicates11 November Armistice betweenGermany and the Allies; war ends
Background picture:German troops
advancing at the Somme, April 1918
French soldiersidentifyingGerman deadbefore burial
60
Armistice and peaceAT 11 AM ON THE 11th day of the 11th month of 1918,the guns of Europe fell silent after more than four yearsof war. The problems of war were now replaced by theequally pressing problems of peace. Germany had askedfor an armistice (cease-fire) in order to discuss a possiblepeace treaty. She had not surrendered but her soldierswere surrendering in hordes and her navy hadmutinied. The Allies wanted to make sure that Germanywould never go to war again. The eventual peace treatyre-drew the map of Europe and forced Germany to paymassive damages to the Allies. German armed forceswere reduced in size and strength and Germany lost a great deal of land and all of her overseas colonies.
CARRIAGE TALKSOn 7 November 1918, a German delegation headed by agovernment minister, Matthias Erzberger, crossed thefront line to meet the Allied commander-in-chief, MarshalFoch, in his railway carriage in the forest of Compiègne.At 5 a.m. on 11 November, the two sides signed anarmistice agreement to come into effect six hours later.
VIVE LA PAIX!In Paris (below), French, British, and
American soldiers joined Parisians in animpromptu procession through the city.
In London, women and children danced in the streets while their men prepared
to return from the front. In Germany, the news was greeted with a mixture of shock andrelief that the fighting was at last over.
DISPLACED PEOPLEMany refugees, like theseLithuanians, were displacedduring the war. The end ofhostilities allowed thousandsof refugees – mainly French,Belgians, Italians, andSerbians whose lands hadbeen occupied by the CentralPowers – to return home totheir newly liberatedcountries. In addition, therewere as many as 6.5 millionprisoners of war who neededto be repatriated. Thiscomplex task was finallyachieved by autumn 1919.
SPREADING THE NEWSNews of the armistice spread aroundthe world in minutes. It was reportedin newspapers and typed out intelegrams, while word-of-mouth
spread the joyous news to eachand every member of the
local neighbourhood.
61
THE VICTORIOUS ALLIESThe negotiations in Paris weredominated by French premierGeorges Clemenceau(supported by General Foch),British premier David LloydGeorge, Italian premier VittorioOrlando – seen here with hisforeign minister, GiorgioSonnino – and the US presidentWoodrow Wilson. Together theBig Four, as they becameknown, thrashed out the maindetails of the peace settlement.
THE TREATY OF VERSAILLESThe peace treaty that ended the war was signed inthe Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles nearParis, on 28 June 1919. Sir William Orpen’s paintingshows the four Allied leaders watching the Germandelegates sign the treaty ending German imperialpower in Europe, just 48 years after the GermanEmpire had been proclaimed in the same hall.
THE PEACE TREATIESThe Treaty of Versailles was signed by
representatives of the Allied powers andGermany. The Allies signed subsequent treaties
elsewhere in Paris with Austria in September1919, Bulgaria in November 1919, Turkey in
April 1920, and Hungary in June 1920. By then, anew map of Europe had emerged.
SIGNING THE TREATYThese soldiers watching the signing of the Treaty of Versailles had waited along time for this moment. The Allies first met their German counterparts inJanuary 1919. The Americans wanted a fair and just treaty that guaranteeddemocracy and freedom to all people, while both France and to a lesser extentBritain wanted to keep Germany weak and divided. Negotiations almostbroke down several times before a final agreement was reached in June 1919.
GeneralFoch
GeorgesClemenceau
DavidLloyd
George
VittorioOrlando Giorgio
Sonnino
The Treaty of Versailles
62
Background picture:Poppies in the battlefields
of northern France
THE UNKNOWN SOLDIERMany of the dead were so badly disfigured that it was impossible to identifythem. Plain crosses mark their graves. Thousands more just disappeared,presumed dead. Both France and Britain ceremoniously buried one unknownwarrior – at the Arc de Triomphe, Paris, and Westminster Abbey, London.
Many soldierspainted to pass
the time
AFTERCAREThe war left thousands of soldiers disfigured and disabled. Reconstructive surgery helped repairfacial damage, while masks and prosthetics wereused to cover horrible disfigurements. Artificiallimbs gave many disabled soldiers some mobility.
But the horrors of the war remained withmany soldiers for the rest of
their lives.
Some soldiers stayedin nursing homes forthe rest of their lives
The cost of the warTHE COST OF THE First World War in human livesis unimaginable. More than 65 million menfought, of whom more than half were killed or injured – 8 million killed, 2 million died of illness and disease, 21.2 million wounded,and 7.8 million taken prisoner or missing. In addition, about 6.6 million civiliansperished. Among the combatant nations,with the exception of the USA, there wasbarely a family that had not lost atleast one son or brother; somehad lost every male member.Entire towns and villages
were wiped off the map, and fertile farmlandwas turned into deadly bogland.Financially, the economies of Europewere ruined, while the USAemerged as a major worldpower. Not surprisingly, at theend of 1918, people hoped theywould never again have toexperience the slaughter anddestruction they had livedthrough for the past four years.
ONE LIFEA soldier stands on Pilckem Ridgeduring the Battle of Passchendaelein August 1917. The crudely madecross indicates a hastily dug grave,but many soldiers were engulfedby the mud and their gravesremained unmarked.
63
FOR GALLANTRYEvery combatant nation awarded
military and civilian medals to honourbravery. Five million Iron Crosses were
given to German soldiers and their allies.Over two million Croix de Guerre were
issued to French soldiers, military units,civilians, and towns, and 576 Victoria
Crosses, Britain’s highest award, werepresented to British and Empire troops.
VictoriaCross (V.C.)
PrussianIron Cross
French Croix de Guerre
MEMENTOSA profusion of flowers, including red Flanders poppies,grew along both sides of the Western Front. Soldiers, such as Private Jack Mudd of the 214 Battalion of the LondonRegiment (above), would press them as mementos to sendhome to their loved ones. Mudd sent this poppy to his wife Lizzie before he was killed, in 1917, in the Battle ofPasschendaele. Canadian doctor, John McCrae, wrote thepoem In Flanders Fields after tending wounded soldiers nearYpres in 1915. His mention of poppies in the poem inspiredthe British Legion to sell paper poppies to raise money forinjured soldiers, and as a sign of remembrance for the dead.
WAR MEMORIALSThe entire length of the WesternFront is marked with graveyardsand memorials to those who losttheir lives in the war. At Verdun,the French national mausoleumand ossuary (burial vault) atDouaumont (below) containsthe remains of 130,000unidentified French andGerman soldiers. There are410 British cemeteries in theSomme valley alone.
Did you know?BITE-SIZED FACTS
On the morning of 1 July 1916 the Allies began their offensive on the Somme. The preceding
artillery barrage lasted a week. Somepeople on the south coast of Englandactually heard two of the mines explode.
Every British soldier was givenarmy-issue boots in time to wear them in. From the Somme
onwards, each soldier also had his ownsteel helmet. Specialist items, such asrubber waders, were kept as communalstores – handed from one unit to another.
Flame throwers were first used bythe Germans. They fired jets offlame as far as 40 m (131 ft).
The nation with the largest armywas Russia. It mobilized 12 milliontroops. Over three-quarters were
killed, wounded, or went missing in action.
At first British tanks were splitinto “males” and “females”.Male tanks had cannons, while
females had heavy machine guns.
The first prototype tank, “LittleWillie”, was built in 1915. It carrieda crew of three and had a top
speed of 4.8 km/h (3 mph).
Tunnellers laid mines on theWestern Front. Sometimesunderground fights broke out, if
they dug into an enemy tunnel by mistake.
Food was prepared in field kitchensthat could be several kilometresbehind the front line. It was
impossible to take transport into thetrench, so food was carried to the front on foot.
Prague-born Walter Trier(1890–1951) produced politicalcartoons. One famous work shows
Europe in 1914 on the eve of World War I,with the national leaders squabbling andthreatening each other.
The Pool of Peace is a 12-m (40-ft)deep lake near Messines, Belgium. It fills a crater made in 1917 when
the British detonated a mine containing41,325 kg (40 tons) of explosives.
Some soldiers wore knitted helmetscalled balaclavas to stay warm inwinter. Balaclavas are named after
the battle where they were first worn – the Battle of Balaclava, which took placeduring the Crimean War (1854).
Messenger dogs carried orders tothe front line in capsules strappedto their bodies. Dogs also helped
military communications in another way –some of them were trained to lay downtelegraph wire!
British Army clothing, left to right:a warm coat for transport drivers;
a flameproof suit for flame throweroperators; winter camouflage for
trench raiding; and flying clothing
A German messenger dog laying telegraph wire
Map of Europe in 1914 by Walter Trier
Filling a Thermos container that kept
the food hot
64
65
QWho was “Big Bertha”?
ABig Bertha was a 43,700-kg (43-ton)howitzer used by the Germans in
World War I. Its designer, Gustav Krupp,named the weapon after his wife. BigBertha was more mobile than the previous420-mm (16.5-in) howitzer; it could betransported to its firing position by tractor.Even so, it took its crew of 200 men sixhours or more to assemble it. Big Berthawas a formidable weapon. It could fire a1,000-kg (2,200-lb) shell a distance of 15 km(9.3 miles). Big Bertha’s first successes wereat Liege in Belgium. The 12 forts ringingthe city were destroyed in three days.
QWhy did soldiers keep animals?
AMost animals that travelled with thearmy had a job to do. Mules, horses,
and camels were kept as draft or packanimals to transport heavy supplies.
Messenger dogs and pigeons carriedimportant communications. Away from thefront line, some soldiers kept animals forfood – rabbits for the cooking pot or hensfor their eggs. Some animals were keptsimply to keep up morale. Dogs, forexample, were popular, but one group of South African soldiers had an impala as their lucky mascot!
QHow did soldiers camouflagethemselves?
AWorld War I was the first majorconflict in which soldiers made use
of camouflage. They wore khaki uniformsthat blended in with the background. Somesnipers made camouflaged suits out ofpainted sacking. Steel helmets were oftenpainted with matt paint mixed with sandor sawdust so that they would not reflectthe light; other times they were smearedwith mud or covered with sacking fromsandbags. Soldiers also used sacking or netting to hide their equipment from the reconnaissance aircraft patrolling theskies, but blending in was not the onlycamouflage possibility. The disruptivepatterns painted on to battleships alsoworked – just as a zebra’s stripes canconfuse a lion.
QHow did soldiers know whento put on their gas masks?
AThere were soldiers on lookoutduty night and day. These
sentries used whatever they couldfind to raise the alarm – bells,rattles, whistles, or just theirown voice. When the soldiersheard the alarm they put ontheir gas masks as quicklyas they could – hopefullybefore the deadly gas drifted towardsthe trench.
QWhy were tanks called tanks?
AWhile it was being developed, thetank was known as a “landship”.
However, there were fears that this namewas too obvious. Before long, a Germanspy might become curious about why so many of these objects were beingproduced, and the Germans might catch on to the new invention. The British had to come up with a believable name. Theydecided that, with its rectangular body-shape, perhaps it could be passed off asa water storage tank. At first, they chosethe name “water carrier” – until someonenoticed that this would be abbreviated to “WC”. In the end they decided on“tank” instead.
QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS
Modern-day camouflage
Soldiers with their rabbits and chickens
Metal bellsounds the alarm
A sentry on duty
Sentry wearsmask to protectfrom gas attack
Key people and placesSO MANY PEOPLE played an important role inplanning or fighting World War I. It is impossible tocover them all, but here are a few of them, togetherwith a checklist of some of the key battle sites.
IMPORTANT PERSONALITIES
ALEXEI BRUSILOV(1853–1926)With his “Brusilovoffensive” of 1916,General Brusilovbroke Austro-Hungarian lines. He took command ofRussian armies on the
Eastern Front in 1917.
LUIGI CADORNA(1850–1928)
The general in charge of theItalian army was Luigi Cadorna. His onlysuccess was the recapture of Gorizia in 1916.
FERDINAND FOCH (1851–1929)Artillery specialist Ferdinand Fochsuccessfully led the French at the Marne.By 1918 he was co-ordinating all the Alliedforces on the Western Front.
ANTHONY FOKKER (1890–1939)Dutch designer Anthony Fokkerdeveloped the first fighter plane with aforward-facing synchronized machine gun.His Fokker Eindecker gave Germany theedge in the early part of the war. Fokker
produced 40 different aircrafts during the war.
66
Anthony Fokker withhis Fokker D1
aircraft
RENÉ FONCK (1894–1953)Frenchman René Fonck was theAllies’ most successful fighter pilot.He shot down 75 enemy planes.
DOUGLAS HAIG (1861–1928)The general in charge of British troops on the Western Front was Sir DouglasHaig. He ordered the offensives at theSomme and Passchendaele, as well as the final, successful Allied offensive.
PAUL VON HINDENBURG (1847–1934)Early in the war, Paul von Hindenburgsuccessfully led the Germans against theRussians. By 1916, he commanded allGerman land forces. His Hindenburg Line,created in 1917, withstood attack till 1918.
JOSEPH JOFFRE (1852–1931)When the war broke out, Joseph Joffrebecame Commander of the French army. He planned attacks on the WesternFront but, after heavy losses, was replacedin 1916.
T.E. LAWRENCE (1888–1935)Known as Lawrence of Arabia, T.E. Lawrence worked for Alliedintelligence in the Middle East. He led
an Arab revolt againstthe Turks, which hewrote about in hisbook The Seven Pillarsof Wisdom.
RITTMEISTER VON RICHTHOFEN(1892–1918)Known as the Red Baron, this Germanaviator shot down 80 planes – more thanany other World War I pilot. He died afterbeing shot down near Amiens.
MAXIMILIAN VON SPEE (1861–1914)German admiral Maximilian von Spee sanktwo British cruisers off Chile. He diedwhen his own ship, the Scharnhorst, wentdown near the Falkland Islands.
GABRIEL VOISIN (1880–1973)French-born Gabriel Voisin was an aircraftdesigner. He is famous for his Voisin III(the first Allied plane to shoot down anenemy) and his Voisin V bomber, whichwas armed with a cannon.
MARGARETHA ZELLE (1876–1917)Dutch-born Margaretha Zelle was betterknown as Mata Hari. She always deniedbeing a double agent, but it is possible that she spied for both the French andGermans. The French executed her in 1917.
Propellerrotation wassynchronizedwith gunfire
Russian General Brusilov
GeneralFerdinandFoch
GeneralJoseph Joffre King
George Vof Britain
President RaymondPoincaré of France
General SirDouglas Haig
Aircraft designer Gabriel Voisin (right)
67
MAJOR BATTLES
AMIENSIn August 1918, General Rawlinson led hissuccessful Allied offensive to recapture theAmiens Line. On the first day, the Alliesadvanced 12 km (7.5 miles).
CAMBRAIGeneral Haig took the Germans bysurprise in November 1917 when heattacked them at Cambrai, France. At first,the Allies gained good ground, but withina fortnight the Germans had regained theirposition. The estimated casualties were45,000 British soldiers and 50,000 Germans.
GAZAGeneral Dobell led a British attack onTurkish-held Gaza in March 1917. The port was a strategic target, on the way toPalestine. The British took the Turks bysurprise, but were soon forced to retreat.They eventually captured Gaza inNovember, after weakening its defenceswith bombardment from offshore ships.
HELIGOLAND BIGHTIn August 1914, two British light cruisersand 25 destroyers attacked German shipsnear the naval base on Heligoland in the North Sea. In the battle that followed,the British sank three cruisers and a destroyer.
JUTLANDMay 1916 saw the war’s only major seabattle, off the Danish coast of Jutland. Both sides claimed victory. The Germansinflicted the heaviest losses, but the Britishhad maintained control of the North Sea.
Tanks pass through Meaulte, France,during the Amiens offensive
MONSThe British Expeditionary Force met theadvancing German army at Mons, France,in August 1914. Although the Germanssuffered heavy losses, they managed toforce back the British to the River Marne.
PASSCHENDAELEThe Battle of Passchendaele, Belgium,began in July 1917. First, the Allies spent 10 days bombarding the Germans. Thenthey advanced, but were slowed down bytorrential rains. The Allies finally took theridge of Passchendaele in November.
SOMMEJuly 1916 saw the start of the Battle of theSomme, France. On the first day, the Britishsuffered 58,000 casualties. Despite this, the Allies continued their offensive untilNovember. When it was finally called off,the Allies had suffered 620,000 casualtiesand the Germans an estimated 500,000 casualties.
VERDUNThe Germans attacked the French garrisontown of Verdun in February 1916. Initiallythey outnumbered the French five to one,but their advance halted within a week.The battle ran on for 10 months and nearlya million men lost their lives.
VITTORIO-VENETOOne of the last offensives of the war was when the Italians recaptured Vittorio-Veneto on 29 October 1918. The Austro-Hungarian forces hadretreated the day before.
YPRESThe Belgian town of Ypres was taken bythe Germans in August 1914, but theBritish recaptured it in October. During thefailed German counterattack, the Britishforces were decimated. A second battle ofYpres took place in April and May 1915and a third, Passchendaele, in 1917.
The Retreat from Mons (1927) by Lady Elizabeth Butler
A British field kitchen at the Somme, 1916
A British dressing station at Cambrai
68
Find out moreTHERE ARE MANY WAYS you can find out more about World War I.Ask older generations of your family if they remember stories aboutrelatives who fought in the war. There are personal accounts online,too, plus lots of other information. Try your library for specialistbooks on the topic and visit war museums. As well as vast collectionsof fascinating objects, these often have interactive displays. Televisiondocumentaries also bring the war to life with real or reconstructedfootage. Finally, remember there is a wealth of old war films, that will give you a feel for what life was like.
THE TANK MUSEUMFans of tracked
vehicles should head to Bovington, Dorset,
to see the world’slargest tank collection.A key attraction is the
first tank prototype,Little Willie. The
museum also has aprogramme of special events.
ANZAC DAYIf you are in Australia or New Zealandon 25 April, you will be able to takepart in Anzac Day. There are paradesand ceremonies to mark the lives of the thousands of Australian and New Zealand soldiers who died at Gallipoli, Turkey, in 1915.
ARC DE TRIOMPHEOriginally built by Napoleon to celebrate the victories ofhis armies, the Arc de Triomphe in Paris, France, nowkeeps the memory of the millions of soldiers killed inWorld War I. Its flame of remembrance is rekindled each
day and, in November 1920, the body of an unknownsoldier was buried under the monument. He is thereto symbolize the soldiers who died in the war.
REMEMBRANCE DAYEveryone can play a part
in commemorating thesacrifices of soldiers andcivilians during World War I. Each year, on the Sunday nearest to 1 November, services are held at local andnational war memorials.
Poppysymbolizesremembrance
French tricolour(national flag) isflown each yearon 11 November
Anzac veteranwears wartime
medals anddecorations
69
USEFUL WEBSITES
• Easy-to-navigate site on all aspects of the war www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/FWW.htm
• A multimedia site about World War I www.firstworldwar.com
• First-person accounts, sound files, movies, and animations, plus a curriculum-related kids’ areawww.bbc.co.uk/history/war/wwone/index.shtml
• Online collection of 100 paintings to mark the warwww.art-ww1.com/gb/visite.html
AUSTRALIAN WAR MEMORIAL,CANBERRA, AUSTRALIA• Gallipoli gallery with life-size
reconstructions and diorama• Western Front exhibition depicting trench
warfare, including video footage• “Lone Pine Tree” grown from a seed sent
from Gallipoli by a soldier to his mother
HISTORIAL DE LA GRANDE GUERRE,PERONNE, FRANCE• Thousands of wartime artefacts, with themes
including children and prisoners• Collection of war paintings by German
artist Otto Dix• Offers a 60-km (37-mile) “Circuit of
Remembrance” – a tour of key battle sites in northern France
IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUM, LONDON, UK• World War I tank, plus a dedicated gallery
with firearms, uniforms, posters, medals, and other memorabilia in themed areas
• Walk-through “Trench Experience” withsights, sounds, and smells that bring the Battle of the Somme to life
• Access to its collections online atwww.iwmcollections.org.uk
THE ROYAL CORPS OF SIGNALSMUSEUM, BLANDFORD, DORSET, UK• Special area devoted to new technologies
of World War I, including the developmentof the military telephone and wireless
• Exhibits on the use of animals in war
THE TANK MUSEUM, BOVINGTON, UK• Almost 300 tanks from over 26 countries• Exhibits cover the history of tanks from
World War I to the present day
Places to visit
IMPERIAL WAR MUSEUMThis exhibit is part of theTrench Experience at theImperial War Museum,London. A combination of lights, sounds, andsmells helps visitors to understand just howterrifying and disorientatingtrench life was.
WAR MONUMENTMany artists and writers were sohorrified or moved by the war
that they felt compelled toexpress these feelings in
their work. German sculptor Kathe Kollwitz (1867–1945)
made this statue for theGerman war cemetery at
Roggevelde, Belgium. Her own son, Peter, is buried there.
WAR FILMSA great many movies havebeen made about the events of World War I. They may notalways be based on solid facts,but they are an entertainingway to get a flavour of the timeand events. One of the best is Lawrence of Arabia (1962).Directed by David Lean, itstarred Peter O’Toole (shownabove) in the title role.
Life-size modelshows armydoctor dressingwounds
Sculpture shows parentsmourning theloss of their son
ABDICATE Give up office or power.
ALLIANCE A group of allies, who haveagreed to act in co-operation. Alliedcountries often set out their shared aims in an official treaty.
ALTITUDE Height above sea level.
AMMUNITION Bullets and shells firedfrom weapons.
AMPUTATION Surgical removal of a bodypart, such as an arm or leg.
ANZAC Member of the Australian andNew Zealand Army Corps.
ARMISTICE End of hostilities. ArmisticeDay, now known as Remembrance Sunday,is commemorated each year on the Sunday closest to 11 November.
ARMS RACE Competition between nationsto build up weaponry, or armaments.
ARTILLERY Armed forces that use heavyweapons, such as cannons.
ASSASSINATION The murder of someonefor political purposes.
BATTERY The place where a cannon, or other form of artillery, is positioned.
BAYONET A blade fixed to a rifle or otherfirearm. The bayonet can be used to stab theenemy when fighting at close quarters.
BULLY BEEF Another name for corned beef.
BUNKER An underground bomb shelter.
BUTTON STICK Metal slide usedto protect a soldier’s uniform frompolish when shining their buttons.
CAMOUFLAGE Colouringdesigned to blend in with thebackground. During World War I,this was mostly limited to attemptsto conceal gun positions, althoughsome soldiers blackened their facesbefore night patrols and sniperswore camouflaged suits.
CAVALRY Originally, soldiers on horseback, but the term came to mean soldiers using motorizedtransport, such as tanks.
CLIP A means of carryingand rapidly loading rifle ammunition.
COLONY A dependency,or place, that is ruled
by a foreign nation.
CONSCIENTIOUSOBJECTOR Someone who refuses to fight
for moral reasons.
CONSCRIPT Someonewho is forced by law tofight in the army.
CONSCRIPTIONMaking people fight in the army.
CONVALESCENT Someone who has been seriously injured or ill and is slowly recovering.
CONVOY Merchant ships travellingtogether, protected by a naval escort.
CREEPING BARRAGE A line of artilleryfire creeping ahead of an infantry advance.
CRYPTOGRAPHY The study and creationof secret codes.
DETONATE To explode or cause to explode.
DYSENTERY An infection of the intestinesthat causes diarrhoea and bloody faeces.
EMPLACEMENT A mound or platformfrom which guns are fired.
ENDEMIC Found in a particular area, or among a certain group of people.
ENLIST Call or sign up to the armed forces.
ENTENTE A friendly agreement orinformal alliance between nations.
EVACUATION Moving people away froma place where they are in danger.
FLOTILLA A fleet or group of small ships.
FRONT LINE The border between enemyterritories, where the fighting is.
FUSELAGE The body of an aeroplane.
GAS In the context of war, “gas” means apoisonous gas, such as chlorine, used as aweapon to choke, blind, or kill the enemy.
GRENADE A small bomb that is hurled by hand.
GUERRILLA A soldier in a guerrilla army –a small-scale outfit that practises sabotageand hit-and-run attacks. Guerrilla comesfrom the Spanish for “small war”.
Glossary
Nurses wheel convalescent soldiers around the hospital grounds
70
Small box respiratorgas mask
An intelligence officer inspects aerialphotographs of enemy trenches
HOWITZER A short gun that fired high.
INCENDIARY Describes a bomb, bullet, or other device designed to cause fire.
INFANTRY Foot soldiers.
INTELLIGENCE Useful military or politicalinformation, or the spies that gather it.
INTERROGATEQuestion someoneaggressively.
KNOT A unit for measuring aship’s speed. One knot equals 1.85 km/h (1.15 mph).
MACHINE GUN An automatic gunthat fires bullets in rapid succession.
MEDICAL ORDERLY A soldierwith some medical training, whoworks in an army medicalestablishment.
MESS TIN A soldier’s cooking pot.
MINE A large underground chamberpacked with explosives, placed underenemy lines by tunnellers.
MOBILIZATION Preparation oftroops for active service.
MORALE Strength of purpose,confidence, or faith.
MORSE CODE A code where eachletter of the alphabet is representedby a sequence of dots and dashes, or by long or short signals of light orsound. It is named after its inventor, Samuel Morse (1791–1872).
MUNITIONS Stores of weapons and othermilitary equipment.
NEUTRALITY The state of not taking sides.
NO-MAN’S-LAND An area of landbetween two opposing forces, that has not been captured by either side.
NON-COMBATANT Someone connectedwith the army but not there to fight, forexample a chaplain or army doctor.
PERISCOPE Adevice that usesmirrors to allow the
user to see thingsthat are not in hisor her direct lineof sight.
PICQUET A metal stake used to tether an
entanglement – that is, a tangle of barbedwire used to fortify the front-row trenches.
POSTHUMOUSLY After death.
PROPAGANDA Information intended toconvince people of a particular viewpoint. It may take the form of posters, broadcasts,or air-dropped leaflets, for example.
PUTTEE A strip of cloth wound around the lower part of the leg.
RECONNAISSANCE Taking apreliminary look at an area before
sending in troops, usually in orderto locate the enemy.
RECONNOITRETo survey an area
in preparation for a military advance.
RECRUIT Someone who isenlisted into the army.
REGULAR FORCES Soldierswho already belong to thearmy, rather than conscripts.
RESERVE FORCES Peoplewho are not part of the regulararmy but have received somemilitary training, and are readyto be the first extra troopsmobilized in an emergency.
RESPIRATOR A device wornover the face to prevent thewearer from breathing in poison gas.
RIFLE A long-barrelled gun,fired from shoulder level.
SEAPLANE An aircraftequipped with floats or skis
so that it can land on or take off from water.
SHELL An explosive device that is fired, for example from a cannon.
SHELLSHOCK Mental strain orillness suffered by a soldier who has fought in a war.
SHRAPNEL A type of antipersonnelprojectile that contained small shot orspherical bullets, usually of lead, along with an explosive charge to scatter the shot.
TELEGRAPH A communications devicethat transmits messages by means ofelectrical signals along a wire.
TERRORIST Someone who commitsviolent acts to bring about or draw attentionto their political aims.
TORPEDO A self-propelled underwatermissile that can be fired from a boat or submarine.
TRENCH A ditch dug by soldiers that givessome protection against enemy fire.
TRUCE An agreement to stop fighting.
U-BOAT A German submarine.
ULTIMATUM A final demand which, if it isnot met, will result in serious consequencesand a total breakdown of communication.
WAR BOND A certificate issued by agovernment in return for the investmentof a sum of money. The money raisedby the bonds helps pay for the war. It is repaid later with interest.
WAR OF ATTRITION Continuouslyattacking to wear down the enemy.
WIRELESS A communications devicethat sends messages as radio signals.
71
An American propaganda poster
German stereoscopicperiscope
British .303-in (7.7-mm) Maxim Mark 3 medium
machine gun, c. 1902
72
IndexA
aerial:reconnaissance, 24, 65warfare, 35
air aces, 35, 66aircraft, 34–35, 66aircraft carriers, 39airships, 36–37Allenby, General, 48, 49Allies, 7, 13, 29and peace, 60, 61see also individualcountries
ambulances, field, 31Amiens, 67animals, war, 22, 45, 64, 65
anti–aircraft guns, 35Anzac: 70Cove, 40, 41Day, 41, 68
armistice, 60, 70army doctors andmedical officers, 21, 29,31, 71
artillery, 25, 26–27, 29, 42,57, 70
Asquith, Herbert, 14Atatürk, Kemal, 41Australia, 12, 40, 41Austria–Hungary, 6, 7, 8, 46
auxiliary armies, 32
BCBalkans, 6Ball, Albert, 35battleships, 6Belgium, 7, 8, 10, 57Berryman, Captain, 11Big Four, 61Black Hand terrorists, 8blinded soldiers, 44, 45bombardment, 26–27, 28Bomberg, David, 56bombing raids, 34, 36bombs, 20, 34, 36Bosnia, 8breathing apparatus, 56Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of, 58
Britain, 6, 7, 8, 13army, 12, 13, 14, 15
British ExpeditionaryForce (B.E.F.), 10, 67
British Legion, 63
Bulgaria, 7, 12, 58Brusilov, General, 66Cadorna, General, 66Cambrai, Battle of, 52, 67cameras, spy, 50, 51camouflage, 39, 65, 70Canada, 12Caporetto, 47carrier pigeons, 22, 50, 65casualties 30–31, 40, 42,43, 62
Cavell, Edith, 50Chisholm, Mairi, 32Christmas, 10, 11codes, 50conscientious objectors,15, 70
conscription, 14, 70Cornwall, John Travers, 39
counter-mines, 56creeping barrage, 26, 70Croix de Guerre, 63cryptography, 50, 70
DEFDardanelles straits, 40desert war, 48–49Distinguished ServiceCross, 55
dogfights, 34Douaumont, Fort, 42HMS Dreadnought, 6dressing station, 32Eastern Europe, 12Eastern Front, 46cease-fire, 58
enlisting, 14, 70Erzberger, Matthias, 60espionage, 50–51Feisal, Emir, 48field telephone, 22fighter planes, 34Fokker D1, 66Fokker DVII, 35Sopwith F1 Camel, 34
Flagg, JamesMontgomery, 54
flame throwers, 64fleets:British, 38, 39, 66German, 7, 38, 66
Foch, General, 59, 60, 61Fokker, Anthony, 66Fonck, René, 66food, 19, 21, 23, 40, 64, 70, 71
forts, 42, 43France, 6, 7, 8army, 8, 12, 13, 42
Franz, Ferdinand,
Archduke, 8fraternization, 58French Air Service, 24front line, 16, 18, 20HMS Furious, 39
GHIGalicia, 46Gallieni, General, 11Gallipoli, 40–41, 68gas, 44–45, 65, 70, 71Gaza, 67George V, King, 7, 66Germany, 6, 7army, 8, 13declarations of war, 8and peace, 60, 61
Gorizia, 66graves, 62, 63Greece, 7grenades, 40, 70gunners, 27guns:howitzer, 26, 27, 65, 71machine guns, Britishand German, 28, 71Mark I, 10
Haig, General, 66Heligoland Bight, Battleof, 67
helmets, 26, 44, 64, 65Hindenburg:General, 46, 66Line, 59, 66
hospitals, 30, 31, 62, 70Galicia, 46In Flanders Fields, 63intelligence gathering,24–25, 50, 51, 66, 70, 71
invisible ink, 50Iron Cross, 63Iron Ration, 15Isonzo River, 47Italian Front, 47Italy, 7, 47, 58
JKLJapan, 12Joffre, General, 66Jutland, Battle of, 39, 67Kitchener, Lord, 14Knocker, Elsie, 32Krupp, 7Lawrence, T. E.(Lawrence of Arabia),48, 49, 66, 69
Légion d’Honneur, 43Lenin, Vladimir, 58letters, 19, 20, 33, 55
Lloyd George, David, 14Lomax, Canon Cyril, 20Ludendorff Offensive, 58SS Lusitania, 54
MNOmachine guns, 28, 29Marne, Battle of the, 10,24, 59, 66
Masurian Lakes, 46Mata Hari, 51, 66medals, 39, 41, 43, 55, 63medical:aid, 30, 31officers, 21, 29
Mesopotamia, 48, 49Messines Ridge, 56, 57, 64
microdots, 50mines, 56, 57, 64, 71mobilization, 8, 9, 71Moltke, General, 10Mons, 67Montenegro, 7, 12Morse Code, 22, 71Mudd, Private Jack, 63Néry, Battle of, 10New Zealand, 12, 40, 41Nicolas, Grand Duke, 12Nicolas II, Tsar, 7, 12, 58night patrols, 18, 24no-man’s-land, 11, 20, 28, 71
Ornes, France, 43Ottoman Turkey, 7, 40,41, 48, 49, 58
PRSPalestine, 48, 49Passchendaele, Battle of,56, 57, 62, 66, 67
peace terms and treaty,58, 60, 61
Pétain, General, 42pigeon post, 22, 50, 65pilots, 34poets, 19poilu, le, 18, 42Poincaré, Raymond, 43, 66
poppies, 63, 68Portugal, 7Princip, Gavrilo, 8prisoners of war, 60raiding parties, 20rations, 15reconnaissance work, 34, 36, 71
refugees, 60
remembrance, 68reserve: armies, 8, 12, 13, 71lines, 18
Richthofen, Baron von(Red Baron), 35, 66
rifles: 71Lawrence’s, T.E., 48Lebel, 13, 42Lee Enfield, 12Mauser, 13periscope, 25
Riqueval, bridge at, 59Romania, 7Royal Engineers, 56Russia, 6, 7, 8, 10Eastern Front, 46revolution, 46, 58soldiers, 12, 47, 64withdrawal from war, 58
sappers, 56Sarajevo, Bosnia, 8Sargent, John Singer, 44Schlieffen Plan, 10sea battle, 38, 39, 67seaplanes, 38, 71sentries, 18, 65Serbia, 7, 8, 12shells, 26, 27, 71classification of, 27message, 22
shellshock, 31, 71shrapnel, 27, 71Somme, Battle of the, 28, 29, 52, 56, 64, 66, 67
South Africa, 12Spee, Admiral, 66spies, 50–51SSZ (Sea Scout Zero)airship, 37
surgical kits, portable, 40
TUVtanks, 52–53, 64, 65, 68British Mark I, 52British Mark V, 52, 53crews, 52, 53, 64German A7V, 52Little Willie 64, 68
Tannenberg, 46trenches, 16–17, 18–19,20–21, 28–29, 71barbed-wire, 25duckboards, 17fire bays, 17, 18funk holes, 19gun holes, 20look-out, 21, 65officers’ dug-out, 18over the top, 28–29sign posts, 16
tanks crossing, 53undermining, 56, 57
Trentino, 47Triple Alliance, 7Turkey, see OttomanTurkey
U-boats, 38, 54, 71Uncle Sam, 54uniforms, 12, 13, 14, 15,18, 34, 64, 65, 70balaclava 64basic kits, 15, 54sand shoes, 49spine pads, 48
unknown soldier, 62, 68USA, 54–55, 58, 59, 62Verdun, 42–43, 67Versailles, Treaty of, 61Victoria Cross, 39, 63Vittorio-Veneto, Battle of, 47, 67
Voisin, Gabriel, 66
WYZWadsworth, Edward, 39war:artists, 19, 39bonds, 33, 71loans, 15memorials, 63, 68
warplanes, 34weapons, 20, 48, 70, 71Western Europe, 13Western Front, 10–11, 20,58, 64cease-fire (Armistice), 60communications, 22–23front line, 16, 18supplies, 22–23, 64transport, 22
white feathers, 16Wilhelm II, Kaiser(Emperor), 6, 7
Wilson, PresidentWoodrow, 54
women at war, 32–33Women of Pervyse, 32Women’s Army AuxiliaryCorps (W.A.A.C.), 23, 32
Women’s Land Army, 33wounded, 30–31rescuing of, 20, 21treating, 29, 32walking, 21
Ypres, Belgium, 44, 57, 67zeppelins, 36–37, 39Zimmermann telegram, 50
Dorling Kindersley and the authorwould like to thank:Elizabeth Bowers, Christopher Dowling,Mark Pindelski, and the photographyarchive team at the Imperial WarMuseum for their invaluable help; RightSection, Kings Own Royal Horse Artilleryfor firing the gun shown on page 10.Editorial assistance: Carey ScottIndex: Lynn Bresler
The publishers would also like to thank thefollowing for their kind permission toreproduce their photographs: a=above, b=below, c=centre, l=left, r=right, t=top
AKG London: 6l, 7crb, 36br, 37bl, 38cl, 38bl,41tr, 42c, 42bl, 43br, 38cl, 38bl, 41tr, 42c, 42bl,43br, 52cl, 58–59t, 60c. Bovington TankMuseum: 68ca. Bridgeman Art Library,London/New York: © Royal Hospital Chelsea,
London, UK 67tr. Corbis: 2tr, 6tr, 7tr, 20tr, 22tr,31tr; Bettmann 8tr, 26–27, 44–45c, 49bl, 55tr,35bc, 49tl, 54bl, 55t, 55br, 58–59, 61cr, 69br;Randy Faris 64–65; Christel Gerstenberg 64tr;Dallas and John Heaton 68bl; Dave G. Houser41cr; © Hulton-Deutsch Collection 66br;Michael St Maur Sheil 70–71 bckgrd; Swim Ink71tl. DK Picture Library: Andrew L. Chernack,Springfield, Pennsylvania: 3tr, 55tr; ImperialWar Museum 2cr, 13cl, 20bl, 20br, 27bc, 28cl,41c, 50bc, 51c, 70bc, 71tr, 71bl, 71br; NationalArmy Museum: 44bl; RAF Museum, Hendon:34cla, 34cl; Spink and Son Ltd: 3tl, 4tr, 43bc.Robert Harding Picture Library: 63c.Heeresgeschichtliches Museum, Wien: 8bl.Hulton Getty: 14tl, 17tl, 19br, 21br, 33tr,32–33b, 35clb, 36cra, 41c, 43t, 47cra, 50clb, 51cl,58tl, 60tl, 60b, 61tr, 61b; Topical Press Agency50cl. Imperial War Museum: 2tl, 8tl(HU68062), 9bl (Q81763), 11tr (Q70075), 10-11t(Q70232), 12clb (32002), 14bc (Q42033), 15tr(Cat. No. 0544), 15cr (Q823), 16c (Q57228), 16b(Q193), 17br (E(AUS)577), 18tr (CO2533), 18cl
(Q2953), 18cr (IWM90/62/6), 18br(IWM90/62/4), The Menin Road by Paul Nash19tr (Cat. No. 2242), 19cla, 19cr, 19clb (Q872),21tc (IWM90/62/5), 21tr (IWM90/62/3),22bca, 22bl (CO1414), 23t (Q1462), 23br(Q8477), 24tl (Q54985), 24c, 26bl (Q104), 27tl(E921), 26-27b (Q3214), 28cr, 29tr (Q1561), 29br(Q739), 28-29b (Q53), 30tr (Q1778), 30cl(Q2628), 31br (Q4502), 32l, 32c (Q8537), 33tl(Q30678), 33tr (1646), 33cr (Q19134), 35cb(Q42284), 35bl (Q69593), 34-35c, 36clb, 37(Q27488), 38tl, 38tr (PST0515), 39cr (Q20883),39br (Q63698), 40cl (Q13618), 40br (Q13281),41tl (Q13603), 41b (Q13637), 45br (Q55085),Gassed by John Singer Sargent 44-45b (1460),48cr (Q60212), 48bl, 51tr (Q26945), 52bl(Q9364), 53cr (Q6434), 53br (Q9364), 54tl(2747), Sappers at Work by David Bomberg 56cl(2708), 57tr (E(AUS)1396), 57cr (Q5935), 56-57c(Q754), 56-57b (Q2708), 58b (Q10810), 59tr(Q9534), 59b (Q9586), The Signing of Peace in theHall of Mirrors, Versailles by Sir William Orpen61tl (2856), 62tl (Q2756), 62c (Q1540), 64cla
(Q30788), 64crb (Q50671), 64bc (Q4834), 65clb(Q10956), 65br (Q609), 66tr (Q949), 66cla(Q54534), 66bl (Q66377), 67tl (Q7302), 67clb(Q9631), 67br (Q1582), 69bl (IWM 90-62-3), 70tl(Q27814), 70cr (Q26946); David KingCollection: 46bl, 47tl, 58cla. Kobal Collection:Columbia 69tl. National Gallery Of Canada,Ottawa: Transfer from the Canadian WarMemorials, Dazzle ships in dry dock at Liverpool,1921 by Edward Wadsworth 39tl. PeterNewark’s Military Pictures: 13ac, 42tr. PaPhotos: European Press Agency 65t.Popperfoto: Reuters 68br. Roger-Viollet: 9tr,9cr, 11br, 13cr, 19tl; Boyer 17bl. TelegraphColour Library: J.P. Fruchet 62c. TophamPicturepoint: 42tl, 46tl, 47br, 46–47b, 62b;ASAP 43cl. Ullstein Bild: 8–9c, 46tr.
All other images © Dorling Kindersley. For further information see: www.dkimages.com
Acknowledgements
![Great scientists [eyewitness guides] mantesh](https://img.dokumen.tips/doc/110x75/568ca6da1a28ab186d92f84a/great-scientists-eyewitness-guides-mantesh-5704be9499a47.jpg)
