MONARAGALA DISTRICT

Physical/Environment

Names of Students

V. S. Attanpola

R. H. C. Dabrera

A. A. M. Irfan

A. M. P. D. M. Abeyweera

Luke Bott

Section 1

Data – Found

Areas and topographical features of the region

Areas of region, Provinces and Districts and inland waters Areas of Divisional Secretary Divisions Areas of Local Authorities Topographical features of the region Water Falls within the region Rivers, streams, waterways and natural storages of the region Soil types of the region Slope Reservoirs, dams, etc

Land use ownership

Land use by DS divisions (e.g. residential, commercial, industrial, mixed use, public, etc)

Protected areas

Resources

Resources (mineral, construction materials, etc) by DS division, district Sites of mineral processing and excavation DS division, district, province,

region

Environment

Area of forest DS divisions district, province, region Area wild life reserves DS divisions district, province, region Production of timber district , province, region Forest cover

Data - Not Found

Areas and topographical features of the region

Mean annual and monthly air temperature at observation stations (Last 50 years)

Mean monthly minimum and maximum air temperature at observation stations (Last 50 years)

Mean annual and monthly rainfall at observation stations (Last 50 years) Catchment areas, water table Wind patterns

Land use ownership

Land ownership by DS divisions, districts, public/private Land values – public/private

Resources

Availability of raw materials by DS division, district

Environment

Transit bird life DS divisions district, province, region State of sanitation Storm water drainage system (Manmade and natural) Sewerage system Solid waste disposal Wildlife corridors

Note: Data regarding fauna was available for the whole province itself

Solid Waste & Sewerage data & analysis is covered by the infrastructure group

Section 2

a. Key information / points relevant to a regional plan

During the data collection phase it was discovered that the Monaragala District is faced with a multitude of environmental problems. Nevertheless, the following issues have been listed as the most relevant points in regard to developing the Uva Province Regional Plan:

Human-wildlife conflict, in particular elephants and monkeys, is occurring more readily as the demand for land becomes increasingly competitive and animals are forced to migrate to new areas

Chena cultivation, encroachment of forest reserves, deforestation and mono-cropping (sugar cane and tobacco) are causing serious soil erosion and sedimentation of lower regions.

Illicit gem mining activity, most notable in the AGA divisions of Buttala, Monaragala, Badalkumbura, Medagama and Bibile, is exacerbating environmental problems. Sedimentation of lower water bodies and degradation of sensitive areas is increasingly evident.

Survey results showed that 43.10 percent of participants were dissatisfied with the current conservation / protection measures in place for the Monaragala District.

b. Opportunities

Observational and theoretical research has allowed the group to identify what it believes to be as the ‘opportunities’ for the Monaragala District. Minimal consideration has been given to the environmental impacts each option may impose on the region, instead the list focuses on what may be possible for the district in the near future:

The district possesses a diverse collection of fauna and flora which can be found in any one of its forest or wildlife reserves. If managed appropriately, this asset has the potential to attract many international tourists which will help boost the local and national economy.

The agricultural potential of the region is grossly underutilized. The region possesses rich soils and surplus water resources which could see its production of rice, sugar cane and vegetables double. If this were to occur, then more sustainable farming practices would have to be enforced by the government or local authorities.

Many areas located within the district withhold valuable minerals and resources. If the government could enforce and monitor appropriate mining practices it could then have the potential to extract and export minerals around the world.

c. Ideas and recommendations

When conducting group discussions it was identified in several instances that water resources, specifically the quality of these resources, did not seem to be considered as a fundamental part in the natural environment. In several of the surveys, it was noted that water contamination was considered a significant problem for many of the areas. However, in spite of this finding no visible action was witnessed in order to extinguish, or even ameliorate, this issue. Solid waste was being dumped in random locations; effluent was directed anywhere providing it was away from the site; and, stormwater drains and channels where left obstructed, causing a collection of stagnated water. Based on our empirical findings and group collaboration, it is requested that more attention be focused on water management for the Uva Region Provincial Plan.

d. Recommendations for future work/ investigations

The following points have been listed as areas which would ‘ideally’ need further attention/ investigation prior to developing the regional plan:

Water quality testing of the up-land and lower-land regions. This will help determine the urgency and necessity of implementing water management processes

The district houses some unique fauna and flora, however, the details of these species and the locations they reside is not very detailed

Chena cultivation is causing serious environmental degradation. More recent and concrete information is required to help mitigate the practice

Recording the migration patterns of wildlife (elephants, birds, etc.). This will facilitate planning and will encourage sustainable integration of animals and humans which reside in close proximity.

Environment is…

In general, the environment is considered as the surrounding and here what basically been covered is the same, mainly Natural Environment and Built Environment.

Natural Environment in the sense, system which the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect an organism in a natural manner is considered. Discussion of this environment is carried out in four distinct categories of Geomorphology, Geology, Hydrology, and Biology.

Built environment is discussed in terms as urban environment. The physical formation & structural compatibility is discussed in the built environment section.

Environment sector attempts to understand the regime the frame work is fitted in.

Topographical features

The Monaragala district is located within a transitional zone that transforms from the central highlands to flat lowlands. There are three terrain types identified within the landscape:

Highly mountainous terrain which covers the western boundary towards Badulla and Ratnapura districts; the elevation is between 550 to 1400 metres and the underlain parent rocks belong to highland series

Hilly, steep and rolling terrain which is situated between the western boundary area [above (a)] and undulating and flat terrain [below (c)] within an elevation range of 160 to 550 metres

Undulating and flat terrain which covers the broad eastern and southern plain, occupying about three fourths of the district. The elevation is below 160 metres and this terrain is underlain by Vijayan series according to the geological formation.

Slope/ gradient/ contours

The general gradient of the district is from the northwest and west towards the north, east and south. Over 60 percent of the district is less than 30 meters. Slopes are gentle in the north, east and south, increasing in elevation as it moves to the west. There are isolated pockets of high slopes caused by steep sided mountains, particularly in the central position of the western hill country

Catchment areas and Drainage (Rivers, streams, waterfalls and reservoirs/ tanks)

There are seven river basins located within the Moneragala District. The rivers originate in the west central highlands and flow towards the east, southeast and south. Most of these rivers originate outside the district boundary and strengthen the volume by several tributaries within the district and then flow outside the district into the Indian Ocean. These drainage basins are:

Heda oya – covers 59,050 hectares of land which represents 10.4 percent of the districts land area. This basin has excess water and good soil conditions for paddy cultivation, however, there are some conflicting land uses

Kubukkan oya – covers 112,930 hectares which equates to 20.4 percent of the districts land area. This is the second largest river basin in the district and also has excess water and good soils for paddy cultivation.

Wila oya – covers 24,860 hectares which equates to 4.4 percent of the districts land area. The basin has excess water and good soils for lowland cultivation.

Menik Ganga – This is the largest river basin within the district. It covers 117,480 hectares of land which is 20.8 percent of the districts land area. The river basin has excess water and good soils for lowland cultivation.

Kirindi oya – covers 60,500 hectares of land; makes up 10.7 percent of the districts land area. On the southern boundary of the river Kirindi oya has subjected to a major diversion scheme with a large reservoir. Several studies have suggested that there could be water deficiencies that may restrict the possibility of additional irrigation.

Malala oya; - this is the smallest river basin within the district; it covers 11,400 hectares which equates to 2.0 percent of the districts land area. It has minimal water excess and is considered moderate for lowland cultivation.

Walawe – covers 64,500 hectares which represents 11.4 percent of the districts land area. This is the third largest basin in the district. Despite a major reservoir located in the western boundary, there exists a water deficiency which will limit future irrigation development.

All of the above river basins have annual flows that fluctuate according to the volumes produced by seasonal rains and dry spells.

Climate

The dry zone environment of Monaragala is heavily determined by the seasonal cycles of rain. There are generally two rainy seasons referred to as Maha (main) rain season and Yala (minor) rain season. The two seasons extend from early October to

late January and from late March to late May respectively. Corresponding to these rainy seasons are two long and short dry seasons: June to September and February to March.

Total rainfall in the district ranges from 1328 mm to 1821 mm (50-72 inches) annually. Over 84 percent of rain is received during the seven rainy months of October to January and March to May inclusive. There are also minor but significant regional differences in the amount and distribution of annual rainfall within the Dry Zone. The Dry Zone is characterized not only by an uneven spread of rain over the year but also by very high variability in each month’s rainfall from year to year. Table 2.1 shows the mean monthly rainfall of nine stations in or near the district with coefficient of variation. The coefficient of variation is normally considered the best measure of rainfall variability.

Table 2.1 illustrates that as the mean monthly rainfall drops so does its reliability. For any given year the rainfall pattern is erratic and hard to forecast. The areas of high rainfall (i.e. western water part) benefit from northeast and southwest Monsoonal rains. Maha season corresponds to northeast monsoon period while Yala falls within southwest monsoon period. According to the readings of ten meteorological stations (including Maha Illuppalluma) the mean number of Maha and Yala seasons is 92 and 50 days respectively.

Table 2.1 – Mean monthly rainfall of nine stations in the district

Month Mean rainfall (mm) Coefficient of Variation

(%)January 125 86February 93 91March 130 91April 210 68May 104 87June 25 135July 36 141August 34 135September 58 104October 208 52November 309 39December 190 66Total 1522 (60 in.) 22

Mean daily temperatures of the district vary little over the year as the altitude within the vast low country of the district does not exceed 91 metres (300 ft) above sea level. The temperature varies from 26 degree Celsius (79 F) in January to 29 C (84 F) in June. Nevertheless, there is a high average diurnal temperature range of 8.9 degrees Celsius (16 F). The mean annual relative humidity in the district varies from

75 (day) to 86 (night) percent. This is according to the closest readings taken by the Hambantota station in 1990.

Note: No station exists in the Monaragala district to collect rainfall or temperature data.

Land use

Land use in the Monaragala District consists of a combination of traditional irrigated and rain-fed agriculture. Plantation crops were originally introduced by Colonial rule, and more recently by the Sri Lankan Government. The traditional three phase land use pattern, this being tank (wewa), homestead (Gangoda), and rain-fed Highland (Chena), changed into more commercial agriculture (tea, rubber, coconut and minor export crops like coffee and cocoa) the more it moved into the wet zone. Within the intermediate and dry zone the production of sugar cane was introduced. This transformed most of the traditional Chena areas and scrub jungles into sugar cane estates and out-growers plots.

Source: Land Use Division of Monaragala

Paddy covers 10,260 hectares of land to which it cultivates over 71 percent during the maha season and 20 percent during the yala season.

Total extent of land under permanent crops amounts to 25,910 hectares. This includes 800 hectares of Tea, 2,190 hectares of Rubber, 4,170 hectares of Coconut, and minor export crops of coffee (215 ha), cocoa (681), and cashew (847 ha).

Table 2.5 Summary of land uses in Monaragala District

Land Use Area (hectares) PercentNational Parks 145,000 25.6Grassland and Savannah 141,500 25Forest Reserves 46,100 8.1Non-agricultural uses (roads, buildings)

3,240 0.6

Permanent crops 25,910 4.6Paddy 10,260 1.8Other food groups (mainly Chena)

12,955 2.3

Cultivable but not cultivated

5,668 1.0

Other uses (inc. wasteland, abandoned Chena and recent sugar cane)

167,465 29.6

Inland water bodies 7,902 1.4

Total 566,000 100

Soil condition

Based on topographical and climatic variation in the region, there are two main soil types identified for the Monaragala District: Reddish Brown Earth (BE) and Red Yellow Padzolic (YP) soils. The Reddish Brown Earth is found within the Dry and Semi-dry Intermediate areas whilst the Red Yellow Padzolic soils are found in the wet and semi-wet intermediate areas. Within these two soil groups eight solid units are identified (DPA-CIDA study 1982). The characteristics of these soil units are briefly described in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3 – Major characteristics of different soil units

Soil unit Distribution/ occurrence

Drainage class

PH range

Depth Texture Liaitat ions

Reddish Brown

Dry zone crest upper and aid slopes of undulating to hilly areas

Well to imperfectly

Slightly acid to neutral

1-1.5a Moderately fine

Erodability low moisture ranges and availability

Low Humin Credy

Abandoned tank areas, lower slopes and valley bottoms

Poorly Slightly acid to alkaline

Deep Moderately fine

Poor drainage low permeability and readiness to flooding

Solidized Solonetz

Low lying areas

Poorly Slightly acidic

1-1.5a Moderately course

Poor drainage salinity and alkalinity

Non Calcic Brown

Crests & slopes of undulating

Well to imperfectly

Lightly to mediu

>1a Medium Low moisture holding

terrain in large extents

m acid capacity erodability and low fertility

Lemature Brown Loams

Steep, eroded slopes in intermediate zone

Well Neutral to slight acid

<1a Moderately fine

Higher erodability

Alluvial soils

Adjacent to river streams & flood plains

Wellto imperfectly

Acid to alkaline

1a Heavy Flooding hazard

Red Yellow Podzolic

Intermediate zone

Well Acidic Shallow

Moderately fine

Slipping sliding & erosion hazard

Mountain Regozols

Intermediate zone

Well Acidic Shallow

Medium Slipping sliding & erosion hazard

Source- Monaragala District Report

Environmental sensitive areas

Flora and fauna / Wild life

The Monaragala District withholds a diverse range of fauna, including six endangered and two threatened animal species. The endangered species are the elephant, leopard, Red face Malkoha, Estuarine Crocodile, Bengal Monitor and Python. The threatened list includes the Purple Faced languor and the Togue Macaque (International Union for the Conservation of Nature and National Reserves and the US Fish and Wildlife Service).

Dependant on their feeding patterns and water requirements elephants are observed as having seasonal migration patterns. During the dry period elephants tend to congregate closer to perennial stream, tanks/ reservoirs and riverine forests. During the wet season they generally disperse and enter highland areas for feeding.

There are also a number of endemic animals located in Monaragala which include fish, amphibians, reptiles and mammal species. A majority of the 251 resident bird species found in the country are also found in the district during the winter period. Up to 75 other bird species migrate to the area from Europe and other northern countries.

Vegetation/ Forest cover

The district is covered by a considerable extent of natural reserves and forests. Estimates reveal that approximately one-third of total area in the district is covered by natural forests under natural parks and/or sanctuaries which are not available for human development. Moreover, approximately 25 percent of the land is covered by different types of grassland. The total natural forest area in 1982 was reported to be 160,000 hectares, this equates to 28 percent of the total land area. More than one-third of the land area in the district is under natural forests and protected reserves (Table 2.4).

The total extent of land under protection in the district exceeds 158,070 hectares with proposed areas covering an additional 11,900 hectares.

Mainly due to human activities, the natural forest cover has been drastically diminished; it is estimated that 70 percent of forest has been cleared during the 1950-1980 period. This is comparable to the diminution of the forest on the whole island which reported 44 percent of forests cover in 1956 to a mere 28 percent in 1980. Activities such as Chena production, logging and informal development have caused forest reserves to quickly diminish (16,000 ha. / year).

The main concentrations of forest are classed as Tropical, Dry, And Evergreen and Mixed Forest which has developed as a secondary climax after a long period of earlier civilization based around irrigated agriculture. Since then, the forest area has been disturbed by Chena agriculture and in more recent times by large scale illicit

felling. Generally, the natural forest is divided into three vegetation classes: High forest; Riverine or Gallery Forest and Dry Scrub.

The high forest class presents a distinct stratification with a total of 56 different species (Hunting 1982) which are relatively unproductive. Of the identified species 10 species form 78 percent of the stands. In order of occurrence these species are Weera (Drypetes Sepiaria – 23%), Kanumella (Diospyros ovalifolia), Wetland (Pterospermum cenescens), Palu (Manilkara hexandra), Halmilla (Berrya Cordifolia), Kuma (Gleniea Umjuga), Burutha (Chloroxylon swietenia), Kaya (Memecylon spp), Renai (Alseodaphne semecarpiyfolia), Panakka (Plenrostylia opposite) and Kaluwara (Dispyrous ebenum – only 2%).

Name of the Forest Extent (ha)Madagama Kohokumburakanda

AlanakandaChittapitadeniyaKinnarabova

2,675.00

Rattadeniya 260.00Polgahapitiya 350.00Pubbarakinagoda 1,000.00Moragolla 1,200.00Thimbiriyakanda 375.00Meellagama 1,100.00

ThungaltotaKandalandaDevalayagodaSeethalakaduraBadiyava Akkara 90TharapolaThittavalkiula

1,200.00

GodigamuvaAluthvelaGalahabedda

360.00

PallethaonaKahatiyanvalaKahagalamadaGirahelakanda

2,275.00

Bibila Dorapodakanda 1,400.00Arangalakanda 400.00Kuruvkothakanda 360.00PitakumburaHamapolaThotillakatiyaMaldamambe

3,500.00

PuvakkeleKanavegallaIlukapathanaGoonawela

3,000.00

UssagalaMakulessaMalwatta

1,000.00

BulupitiyaSeravaPerana

3,800.00

Karandugala 3,200.00Uraula 3,300.00RathugalaMeeattalawaUdadaduwaNelliyadda

3,500.00

RatmalgahaellaBingodaKobbeketiya

3,100.00

Iginiyagalakanda 300.00Monaragala Diggala

Degalaraba1203.00

Suduvathuraara 1791.70KarapinchagalaMukalana

45.00

Lollehela 450.00Millakele 150.00

Bandaravadiya 95.00Aagare 280.00Daragodakele 320.05Maduhelakanda 491.00Wanthibbagoda 175.00Mahagodayaya 25.00Iththekatuwa 600.00Maragala 3,800.00Silbarakanda 288.00Kudagodakanda 100.00Beralihela 120.00

Badalkumbura Walmeethalawa 1,790.00Dunhindayaya 86.00Diggala 1,050.00Egodakadura 360.00Giragammanakanda 120.00Kahavathukanda 650.00Bulugalakelaya 120.00Walasella 12.00Meegahayaya 35.00Sooriyagasella 20.00Nelligolla 8.00Madugolla 80.00Ginikatukanda 40.00Haiyagolla 60.00Karagaskadura 105.00Millagastanna 60.00Rajagallena 10.00Hapugasroda 10.00

Medulla Dummalahela 100.00Kahagollathalava 400.00KobbevaThalkota

1,600.00

Galbokka 1,200.00Wanthibbagoda 150.00Meegaskapalla 100.00Mahabedda 800.00Alpitiyakanda 200.00Kithulahela 1,200.00Muthukandiya 150.00KoongallaKirivalgoda

300.00

Lunuthibbahela 150.00Alupathgala 150.00Pitathalawa 30.00Gonathalawa 500.00Galkanda 20.00

Ginipugoda 10.00Buttala Namandiya 963.00

Rahathankanda 381.00Budugallena 2,614.00Ulugalaminipura 2,000.00Maligavila 3,500.00Poramadilla 200.00Kukurampola 80.00

Wallawaya Thumkemhela 1,270.00Gampanguva 274.00Weerasekaragama 357.00Kuruminigala 460.00Wandinahelakanda 782.00Bogahapathala 565.00Siyambalagunaya 1,973.00Wandama 1,500.00Ulkanda 50.00Kurugama 2,535.00Weherayaya 295.00Kalukanda 1,456.00Devagirikanda 4,376.00

Thanamalwila SeenakkuvaBeralihela

2,635.96

Kumaragama 600.00Mahaweva 750.00Nikaweva 650.00Rathambalawa 1 18,583.40Rathambalawa 2 2,917.54Kotawehera mankada 9,227.58Kahakurullanpalassa 10,046.90Unakanda 10,948.34

Katharagama KandasurindugamaSeenukkuwaBeralihela

15,524.91

Wadihitikanda 9,102.90Sella katharagama 800.000Kochchapathana 350.00

Sevanagala Elsonkanda 800.00Punchiweva 20.00

Siyambalanduwa Guruhela 288.00Haddagoda 180.00Kadurugoda 54.00Hiripitiya 30.00Walahapathana 288.00Namaluva 108.00Degalhela 900.00Maragala 576.00

Lollehela 72.00Welihela 90.00Udathalagogoda 40.00Kudagoda 30.00Uragoda 216.00Chiminigalakelaya 6,300.00Wandahelakelaya 3,250.00Warahitiyanakelaya 2,880.00Pahatha aravakelaya 3,780.00Roonattagalakelaya 7,875.00Siyambalawakelaya 5,850.00Weheragodakelaya 2,250.00Kotiyagala 4,950.00Goviduhela 936.00Sadakebella 180.00Muthukandiya 46.00Bovalakelaya 126.00Danakiriyakelaya 1,674.00Namalhelakelaya 36.00Hevenarawakelaya 38.00Meeyagalakelaya 36.00Newgala sugaladevikelaya 54.00Total (ha) 210,987.00

Table 2.4 – Protected Reserves in Monaragala District

National Parks and Reserves

Size within the District (ha)

Status

Yala National Park 69,420 ExistingGaloya 30,210 ExistingSellaka Oya Sanctuary 12,630 ExistingAmpara Sanctuary 4,000 ExistingUda Walawe National Park

18,800 Existing

Lunugamvehera National Park

20,500 Existing

Wildlife CorridorsLunugamvehera – Uda Walawe

4,650 Existing

Sellaka Oya 5,000 ExistingYala-Lahugala 2,250 Existing

Bakinigahawela Forest Res.

220 Existing

Daragoda Forest Reserve 470 ExistingNamakandiya Forest Res. 430 ExistingWedihitikandra Forest Res.

760 Existing

Bibilehela Forest Res. 690 ExistingArcheological Reserves

Buduruwagala, Wellawaya

n/a Existing

Habassa n/a ExistingMaligawila, Okkampitiya n/a ExistingDambegoda, Okkampitiya

n/a Existing

Galebadde n/a ExistingPasohimaramaya, Hambegamuwa

n/a Existing

Budugalage n/a Existing

Timber plantations

Forest Plantation in Monaragala District (only production plantation - ha)

Teak 3580.61Acacia Auriculiformis 85.50Pinus Caribaea 2.40Eucalyptus Camaldulensis 609.70Swietenia Macrophylla (Mahogany) 42.00Azadirachta Indica (Magosa) 312.40Albizzia Molucanna (Albizia) 17.00Eucalyptus Grandis 141.30Mixed Hardwood 73.50Total 4862.01

Mineral resources

Minerals are valuable natural resources and are finite and non-renewable. They constitute the vital raw materials for many basic industries and are a major resource for development. Monaragala district is rich with several types of mineral deposits. These include feldspar, gold, graphite, magnasite, mica, vein quartz, quarts and gem.

Monaragala has granite deposits in substantial amounts, suitable for processing into cut and polished stones. The color, grain structure, hardness and strength of granite is suitable for the international market. Dimension Stones, Polished Granite Slabs and Tiles, Rough Granite Block, Tomb Stones, Wall Cladding, Monuments and Rock Ornaments are the main products which have high market from the countries like Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Italy, UK, Thailand and Belgium.

Environmental issues / problems

The major environmental problems for the Monaragala District are soil erosion, Chena cultivation, encroachment of forest and water resources, deforestation, mono-cropping of sugar cane and tobacco and gem mining. As a result of the dominancy these cultivations, land demand has increased, & encroachment on reserves has leveled up its severity. Wild life conflicts is been occurred as a process of these actions.

Soil erosion

Soil erosion has been identified as a very widespread and acute problem affecting the district. In the mountainous region of the north-western part of the district, mass movement, gully and rill erosion have occurred causing serious degradation. In addition, clearing of land and burning of vegetation before monsoonal rains have caused further erosion. It is estimated that 5-20 tonnes of soil per hectare of land is being transported by water movement annually. This is causing sedimentation of water bodies (tanks, rivers, canals) which is leading to increased flooding in some low-lying areas.

Chena cultivation

Chena cultivation is damaging the natural environment as a result of the farmers illegally cultivating the land and having a lack of understanding in sustainable practices. It is a major factor in soil erosion and deforestation for the district. The practice is reportedly becoming more widespread and harmful to the environment as the traditional nature of Chena disappears. With the increased pressure on land the long fallow (crop-free) has become non-existent, being shortened from 15 years to 2-5 years. This has resulted in Chena cultivation to be no longer an appropriate system for production.

The people who practice Chena cultivation have been described as the poorest section of the community. They are ‘typically those of population pressure constraining a viable form of Chena cultivation, increasing costs of inputs and constraining market conditions for their output (poor terms of trade), weak supportive services, poor quality of inputs, indebtedness, lack of employment opportunities and poor social services. All of these factors increase economic and financial burdens on the poor household, inducing them to encroach on marginal lands and catchment areas, exploit timber and other resources for added income, intensify cultivation without conservation and adequate nutrient replacement, and engaged in other potentially environmentally hazardous practices’ (MODES: 28-29).

Encroachment of reserves

Forest and water reserves are continually threatened by Chena cultivators and informal development as a result of a growing population in the district. Many of the river and canal reserves, including the forest reserves have been encroached and cultivated by either Chena crops or cash crops such as sugar cane and tobacco. This is also occurring in the western and central (hilly) areas where there are steep slopes and hill tops.

Deforestation

The next most widespread environmental problem affecting Monaragala District is the deforestation of the land. Chena cultivation, logging and continued encroachments have accelerated soil erosion, resulting in the loss of valuable, nutrient-rich topsoil. The continuous occurrence of soil erosion causes further reduction in natural vegetation as the denuded surface is not capable of regenerating the original forest cover, thus resulting in weed invasion or stripped soil. Deforestation can also cause earth slips, drying up of water bodies and siltation of lower regions. Moreover, deforestation can cause a reduction in soil moisture which will in the long run create negative changes to the micro-climatic conditions.

It is estimated that since 1956 that the natural forest in the entire Lower Uva Province has been shrinking at an average rate of 16,000 hectares per year. This has been mainly due to Chena cultivation, logging, and development projects.

Majority of this amount (approximately 10,000 ha. per year) is supposed to be applicable to the Monaragala District.

Mono-Cropping

Mono-cropping, dominated by sugar cane and tobacco production, is causing a chain of environmental problems for the Monaragala District. No Environmental Impact Assessments were conducted for several major proposals despite the potential impact the activities can have on the environment. Many operations have caused adverse impacts for the region; one serious impact has been the forceful exclusion of wildlife from the cleared areas. This has in turn had an effect on the surrounding areas as wildlife are forced to interact with human habitats. Waste treatment and disposal is a second issue associated with the plants and processing sites.

Tobacco production is also causing a serious impact on not only the natural environment but also on the cultivated areas. Many farmers have chosen to abandon the traditional food crops in favor of tobacco cultivation. Further soil erosion and sedimentation of water courses has resulted in the conversion of cultivable land, including hill slopes and mountain tops.

Mono-cropping is widespread in the AGA divisions of Thanamalwila, Wellawaya, Buttala, Monaragala and Siyambalanduwa. This large-scale form of land use is creating further deforestation, soil erosion and fauna displacement.

Gem mining

Gem mining issues are prevalent in the AGA divisions of Battula, Monaragala, Badalkumbura, Medagama and Bibile. Both licensed and unlicensed activity has occured in the upper reaches of the river basins of Kubukkan oya and Menik ganga. The number of unlicensed miners in the district is very high, resulting in further environmental damage. Measures such as the prohibition of explosives and removal of forest, and the compulsory filling of pits have failed to ameliorate environmental problems. Clearing of forests and water contamination continue to occur in the region, leading to issues of water borne diseases and health problems. Illicit gem mining has caused deforestation (mainly in Okkampitiya and Bibile), earthslips (Badalkubura), damage to river basins and reservations (Battula and Okkampitiya), and damage to paddy fields (Medagama and Bibile).

Mining activity has caused river and canal banks to erode and collapse which has caused sedimentation downstream. The most severely affected area is Okkamptiya where more than 25,000 persons are reported to be involved in gemming operations. These activities, especially when located closely to water courses, can cause long-term environmental damage to the Moneragala District.

Environmental sanitation

Many of the serious health problems evident in the Monaragala district are derived from poor environmental conditions. Bowel disease, in particular, is caused by the inadequate quality of drinking water and the lack of sanitation facilities. Nearly two-thirds of the population has no hygienic facilities for the disposal of human waste and only 11 percent have access to safe drinking water.

Analysis of data

Analysis of data been done in order to understand the opportunities & constrains of the region in environmental terms. Also the future situation & impacts of certain changes to be occurred are projected along with the influence the region might have on its environment with the mega projects implemented in the adjoining regions & National Physical Plan.

Finally the section brings out the observed highlighted points of the region in terms of environment. All the analysis is been compared with its brother district; Badulla.

Topography of the District

Monaragala district as a general is the complete contrast of its neighboring district of the province, Badulla, in terms of the topography. Other than for few patches of high altitudes, overall the terrain is flat. Unlike Badulla, which is vulnerable to landslide in many locations, other than for few threats in places like Badalkubura, landslide is not a significant threat. Terrain is suitable for the structural development.

According to the National Bureau of Research Organization (NBRO), sloes lesser than of 60 degrees are either could be structurally developed with guidelines or supervision. More than the 90% of the terrain is less than 60 degrees.

Even though the terrain is fairly flat compared to brother district; Badulla, Monaragala itself too is in rich with mountains compared to the other regions of Sri Lanka. Mountains in the perception of structural development is a constrain, but it can be viewed as a magnet where tourists can be attracted to. Also as a tourist destination, Monaragala might not stand out among the other regions such as Eastern & Central, yet, as a region where as a stopover destination of land travelers. In such situation, mountains can be viewed as a potential fro the district. This can be further reviewed in terms of the developable land availability within the vicinity of mountains which can utilize the scenic beauty created by mountains.

Mountains

Developable Land

Climate, Soil Condition analysis

In Moneragala district mean annual rainfall spreadout mostly 750-2500 mm. some specific part of the moneragala mean annual rainfall is 2501-3000 mm. this rainfall patern is very useful for to the cultivation in Moneragala district. Moneragala district is mainly made up of rubber, cocoa and sugar cane plantations and paddy lands.

For Rubber plantation the requirement is generally well drained weathered soil consisting of laterite, lateritic types, sedimentary types, and nonlateritic red or alluvial soils. The climatic conditions for optimum growth of Rubber trees consist of a Rainfall of around 250 cm evenly distributed without any marked dry season and with at least 100 rainy days per annum temperature range of about 20˚c to 34˚c with a monthly mean of 25˚c to 28˚c(c). High atmospheric humidity of around 80% bright sunshine amounting to about 2000 hours per annum at the rate of 6 hours per day throughout the year and absence of strong winds.

Cocoa plants respond well to relatively high temperatures with a maximum annual average of 30-32 degrees minimum average of 18-21 degrees. Variations in the yield of cocoa trees from year to year are affected more by rainfall than by any other climatic factor. Trees are very sensitive to a soil water deficiency. Rainfall should be plentiful and well distributed through the year. An annual rainfall level of between 1,500mm and 2,000mm is generally preferred. Dry spells where rainfall is less than 100mm per month should not exceed three months. A hot and humid atmosphere is essential for the optimum development of cocoa trees. In cocoa producing countries relative humidity is generally high, often as much as 100% during the day, falling to 70-80% during the night. The cocoa tree will make optimum use of any light

Land use change with time

In 1956 the district was more less a forest region than anything else as the landuse map depicts. Other than for few patches here & there of home garden, & few of the minor crops such as Coco bean, Chena, the region dominated as a forest with little

Suitable Area

District is not only cultivated in rain water, but with the rich irrigational system available. Having got the natural requirements of soil & climate suitable for the crops, potential lies within the district to develop the agricultural sector.

of agriculture. Spread out rivers throughout the district helped the little agriculture which was there.

In the space of three decades, the region has transformed itself from dense forest regime to a multi crop cultivated region. Observing the two landuse maps of 1998 & 2008 the trend of forest areas been cleared & used for different cultivations & residential purposes is witnessed. Another special observation is that the clearance rate been accelerated as the home gardens been increased.

Home garden dominancy has been started in the middle part of the region & been spread over with the time. South-East forest cover has been remained unharmed since with its attachments to the Yala sanctuary.

During the time the population too has been increased rapidly due to the development of infrastructure services & adjoining regions influence. All these has accounted to the changed landuse pattern of Monaragala district.

Significant landuse changes

Chena cultivation & other crop cultivations has been increasing in the region & as a result, the forest cover been victimized of degradation & the frequent occurrence has resulted & has been giving symptoms in different ways. One of the acute issues which have been aroused due to this forest clearance is the encroachment to the wildlife habitats. The issue has been severely affected to elephants’ life pattern as the conflict between humans have resulted even life damages to the both parties. Severity is been increasing with the time & different adaptations & tactics been used by humans to minimize the effect of elephants to their lives. In 2007, 197 elephant lives & 50 human lives were lost in the cause of this conflict. The number has increased from the previous year of 2006, from 171 of elephants & 32 of humans.

Source- Wildlife & Conservation Department-Statistics

Ministry of Environment & Natural Resources has claimed that the responsibility lies within the human as they have intervene the habitats of elephants & in the process of finding food & shelter, confusion between

two parties have occurred. The conflict been getting acute as the days go by with population growth resulting high demand for the land which people are been encroached to the habitats of elephants.

Population Growth & Sector Development Effect on Forest reserves

As it is projected, the population is expected to be increased with a certain degree of acceleration & acceleration will most probably take a bigger leap than projected with the infrastructure development. In a situation such as that, the pressure on the forest cover & other sites with environmental sensitivity will be increased. One of the measures that government have taken regarding these matters in previous occasion s in different regions are the introduction of guidelines in development of industries, through authorities such as Central Environment Authority (CEA), Wildlife Conservation Department, Forest Department etc. certain legislative powers been delegated to those authorities & ministry of Environment & Resources is major governing body.

One of the major affects of the population growth is the land encroachment with the high demand created for land for development. Improperly supervised clearance of forest has lead to as discussed not only conflicts with wild animals with their territory been approached, but also of haphazard development which has obstructed the city enhancement has caused lesser attraction. Land encroachment has been identified as one of the major environmental issues of the region & been the activities not supervised & done properly in an environmental friendly manner, has put the future of the district in dark.

Potential of Mineral resources

Over the decades a misconception has developed that environmental activism is against development, but the reality is that it opens up the eyes of the decision makers for the sustainable use of our mineral resources. Serious attempts have been made to add value to our minerals.

There is a project proposal for Mahagama vein quartz witch locate in the east of Embilipitiya in Monaragala district. And it is about the 270 km from the main commercial centre and port of Colombo and 153 km from the port of Galle. The government has decided to explore the prospect of commercial exploitation of the vein quarts for manufacture high-tech products such as fused silica, poly silicones for semiconductors, solar cells and micro chips etc. due to its high purity.

Monaragala has granite deposits in substantial amounts, suitable for processing into cut and polished stones. The color, grain structure, hardness and strength of granite is suitable for the international market. Dimension Stones, Polished Granite Slabs and Tiles, Rough Granite Block, Tomb Stones, Wall Cladding, Monuments and Rock

Ornaments are the main products which have high market from the countries like Canada, Japan, New Zealand, Italy, UK, Thailand and Belgium.

Most of the value added industries of these mineral resources eyes on the international market than the local market. The ongoing project of Hambanthota Sea port & air port are great opportunities for the district to utilize to expand these industries. The industries will create more employment opportunities & within this the technology will be improved in the region. The education system is to be take its revolution in this region with all these & during the survey, employment opportunity development & educational system development were given higher priorities. Transformation of the raw mineral to valuable product will be drag along the satisfaction level of people of the region to a higher level.

Urban environment

Spatial formation of the first order towns

BUTTALA IS A MONOCENTRIC FORM TOWN

BIBILE IS A LINEAR FORM TOWN

MON ARAGALA IS A MONO-CENTRIC FORM TOWN

BADALKUMBURA IS A LINEAR FORM TOWN

Urban Environment & Natural Environment compatibility

One of the significant factors of the region which seems to be carrying uniformity throughout with brother district Badulla is the, incompatibility with natural green & topography. Most of the structures do not appeal the compatibility of two distinct environments in their appearance. Most of the towns are surrounded by a ring of mountains & the background is enriched with appealing green yet, unfortunately the manmade structures are complete contrast. Unsupervised development has also indirectly supported the encroachment as, optimum use of land been not done. With generational evolutions, with different communities been evolving, the encroachment is taking place in an alarming rate. Having no proper legislative frame work to prohibit these & political force been behind the actions has dragged the issue from worse to worst. One of the major reasons for the blankness between compatibility with two distinct environments has been a result of the administrative issues.

National and intra-regional comparisons

The following section gives an overview of environmental issues, listed within the National Physical Plan and the Sabaragamuwa Region Physical Plan, which may provide some insight or assistance in planning the Monaragala district.

The National Physical Planning Policy and Plan (NPPP and NPP) clearly identifies a number of issues having a negative impact on the natural environment of Sri Lanka. These include:

Soil erosion Loss of areas that contain natural beauty / amenity Landslides Reduced water quality and supply Loss of rare ecosystems, species and biodiversity that is unique to Sri Lanka Sedimentation of reservoirs due to deforestation, development and

agricultural production in the catchment area; and, A history of no clear policy direction or implementation to protect sensitive

areas.

The above issues are also evident in areas throughout the Moneragala district.

The National Physical Planning Policy and Plan identifies two key elements in respect to protecting the environment of Sri Lanka. This includes protecting fragile areas and encouraging alternative uses, and reducing vulnerability to natural disasters. To achieve this three important ‘objectives’ have been proposed within the document. These are as follows:

Objective 1 seeks to protect the environment through limiting development in fragile areas, the Protected Area Network and areas of local and regional environmental significance. Protecting the environment, improving the water supply and economic value of the Central Fragile Area, and protecting and retaining land with environmental values are the main principles in which it aims to meet this objective.

Objective 2 seeks to ensure that the people of Sri Lanka live in areas that are safe from natural disasters and the effects of global warming including rising sea level. This seeks to develop a settlement pattern that reduces the number of people living in vulnerable areas; to ensure that urban development is located in areas free from flooding and inundation; and, to ensure that urban development is located in areas that are not prone to landslides.

Objective 5 seeks to protect water catchments, water resources and tanks to improve water quality and ensure sufficient supply of water for domestic, agricultural, industrial activities and power generation. Its principles include: to protect water supply catchments; ensure that there is sufficient water supply for agricultural, domestic, industrial and power generation uses; and, efficiently manage storm water drainage.

The abovementioned objectives are considered to be important strategies for protecting the environment on a national scale. If the Moneragala district wishes to protect its environmental assets then it is vital that it adopts a similar agenda as that identified by the National Physical Plan.

The purpose of the Sabaragamuwa Region Physical Plan (SRPP) is to provide a strategic framework which promotes the development of the province up until the year 2030. The district is generally characterized by a similar topography to that of Monaragala: it accommodates mountains, valleys and undulating land in the north, and flat, lowlands which can be found in the south and south-east. The land is also affected by similar environmental weaknesses to that of Moneragala. The chief issues include natural disasters (landslides, floods and droughts), the destruction of the natural environment through human activities, and pollution. The following is a list of the issues currently witnessed in the district:

Deforestation Forest fires Sand mining and gem mining in rivers Water pollution; fecal contamination is increasing as a result of poor sanitary

facilities and inadequate storm water drainage systems Development in inappropriate locations Poor solid waste management/ disposal Loss of biodiversity as a result of vegetation removal Natural hazards: landslides, erosion and flooding Mining hazards from substandard practices Threats to archaeological reserves, historical sites and places of natural

amenity.

The Moneragala district is currently faced with a range of environmental issues. Nevertheless, the above information has revealed that the district is not in a unique position because of this. Adjoining regions, if not the entire nation, is faced with similar problems of deforestation, water mismanagement and informal cultivation practices. It is imperative that policy development, and subsequent implementation, takes into account adjoining regions that face similar environmental issues. In doing so, planning for environmental conservation and protection will become a comprehensive process rather than sporadic and incremental practice.

Field observations

During the survey stage the following field observations were recorded and photographed:

The above photo was taken on the outskirts of the Moneragala Township. It depicts a reservoir/ tank being accessed by a water tanker. The tanker was not marked to which its use for the water is not fully known.

Cleared area of forest that now accommodates rice/ paddy fields – Moneragala Township

The integration of the natural environment with the artificial environment is not always so balanced.

Watercourses are slowly being consumed by development and polluted with waste.

Other than for few observed physical factors, during survey, things learnt about the region were the depletion of services to the interior of the region & preservation of the environment along with it. Air quality was at a considerably higher level of satisfactory with the region not been tainted with any of the polluting industries or monstrous lines of vehicles.

References

Central Environment Authority (n.d.) Monaragala Environment Report

Department of Town and Country Planning

Forest Department

Land Use Division of Monaragala [online].

Physical Plan for Sabaragamuwa Region, National Physical Planning Department, July 2006.

Physical Plan for Southern Region, National Physical Planning Department, January 2005

Nation Physical Planning Policy and Plan: Sri Lanka 2006-2030, final draft, National Physical Planning Department, May 2005

Wildlife and Conservation Department