University of Khartoum

Faculty of Engineering

Department of Agricultural Engineering

This Thesis is a Partial Fulfilment of the Degree of Bachelor of Science

in Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of

Khartoum

Determination of Fuel Properties and Engine Performance of

Ethanol/Gasoline Blends

for Spark Ignition Engine

Prepared by:

Mathani Yusuf Hassan

Mohammed Abd Elazeem Hussien

Hind Izzeldin Osman

Supervisor:

Dr. Abd Elmutalib Fadel Almula

July 2010

Dedication

Without you I couldn't go left or right

Lose my sight

Our great mothers

Without you life would be darkness

World has no hope no light

Our fathers

To whom that they made our life colorful

Our friends

To all special people in our life

………………………….

With all love

Mohamed, Mathani and Hind

i

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We are heartily thankful to our supervisor

Dr Abdu El Mutalib F. Khierallah

Whose encouragement, guidance and support from the initial to the final

level enabled us to complete this project

It is a pleasure to thank who made this thesis possible

Mustafa

Special thanks to

Khartoum University Faculty of engineering and Architecture

Department of Agriculture Engineering

Lastly, we offer our regards and blessings to all of those who supported us in

any respect during the completion of the project.

TABLE OF CONTENS

Acknowledgment ………………………………………………… i

Arabic abstract …………………..……………….………….….... 2

English abstract ………………………………………………..….. 3

Chapter One

1 INTRODUCTION ……………………………………….…… 4

1.1 Background ……………………………………………….…… 4

1.2 Statement of objective ………………………………..……… 7

Chapter Two

2 LITERATURE REVIEW………………………..………… 8

2.1 Ethanol production ……………...…………...………………. 10

2.1.1 Ethanol Manufacturing Process ………..…...……..………… 12

2.1.1.1 Fermentation ………..……………………………..…….…… 12

2.1.1.2 Distillation ………………………………………….…...…… 13

2.2 Bio-ethanol Fuel Properties………………………..………… 14

2.3 Fuel properties definitions ………………………...………… 16

2.3.1 Density, API & Specific gravity …………………..………… 17

2.3.2 Viscosity …………………………………………..………… 17

2.3.3 Flash and fire point ………………..………………………… 18

2.3.4 Cloud and Pour Point ………………………………………... 19

2.3.5 Octane rating …………………….…………..……………… 19

2.3.6 Heat value ………………………………….………………... 21

2.3.7 Fuel Volatility …...………………….……………………...… 22

2.3.7.1 Distillation ………………………….………………………... 22

2. 4 Engine Performance and Emissions .………………………... 24

2.5 Ethanol Production in Sudan………...……………...……… 27

2.5.1 Sugar cane …………………………..…..……….......……... 27

2.6 Kenana Ethanol Project ….………………………………… 28

Chapter Three

3 MATERIALS AND METHODS…………………....……… 29

3.1 Material………………………………………..……………. 29

3.1.1 Fuel blends material ……………………………..………… 29

3.1.2 Fuel Properties equipment …………………….…………… 30

3.1.2.1 Viscometer …………………………………….…………… 30

3.1.2.2 Hydrometer ……………………………………….………… 30

3.1.2.3 Flash and fire point ………….…………………….………… 30

3.1.2.4 Cloud and pour point ……..………………………………… 30

3.1.2.5 CFR Engine (Cooperative Fuels Research)….……………… 33

3.1.2.5.1 Specification …………………………..…………………… 33

3.1.2.5.2 Mechanical accessories ……………….…………………… 34

3.1.2.5.3 Instrumentation ……………………..….….……...……….. 35

3.1.2.6 Bomb Calorimeter ………………………….……….…….. 36

3.1.2.6 Distillation device ………………………….………..…….. 36

3.1.3 Engine test…………….…………………………………… 38

3.2 Method………………….…………………………………… 43

3.2.1 Blends preparation ……………….………….……………… 43

3.2.2 Fuel abbreviation …………………………….……………… 43

3.2.3 Fuel properties determination ………….…….……………… 43

3.2.3.1 Density measurement ………………….………..…………… 44

3.2.3.2 Viscosity determination …………………….……………...… 44

3.2.3.3 Gross Heating Value measurement…………….…….…..…… 45

3.2.3.4 Measuring Octane rating ……………………….…….….…… 45

3.2.4 Performance Tests ………………..…………….…….….…… 47

3.2.4.1 Test procedure ………………………………….…….….…… 47

3.2.4.2 Power calculation ……………..……………….…….….…… 49

3.2.4.3 Torque calculation……. ……………………….…….….…… 49

3.2.4.4 Brake thermal efficiency ……………………….…….….…… 50

Chapter Four

4 RESULT AND DISCUSSION ……………..……………… 51

4.1 Density and API Gravity ………………………………..…… 51

4.1.2 Fire and Flash Point ……………………………………….… 53

4.1.3 Heat of Combustion ……………………………………….… 54

4.1.4 Cloud point ………………….……………………………..… 55

4.1.5 Kinematic Viscosity..……….………..………….…………… 56

4.1.6 Octane number ………………….……..…………….…….… 58

4.1.7 Distillation ………………….……..……………………….… 60

4.2 Engine performance ……….……..……………………….… 61

4.2.1 Power output ………………….……..………………………. 61

4.2.2 Engine torque ………………….……..………………………. 62

4.2.3 Fuel Consumption Rate (L/h)....……..……………………….. 62

4.2.4 Specific Fuel Consumption (L/KW.h)……………………….. 64

4.2.5 Brake Thermal Efficiency …….……..………………………. 64

4.2.6 Speed ………………….……..…………….………………… 65

Chapter Five

5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION……..………… 67

REFERENCES ……………………………………………………… 69

APPENDEX A ……………………………………………………… 70

APPENDEX B ……………………………………………………… 75

APPENDEX C ……………………………………………………… 81

APPENDEX D ……………………………………………………… 85

LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter two

FIGURE 2.1 Ethanol Manufacturing Process …………………………… 14

FIGURE 2.2 Distillation curves of gasoline …………………………...… 24

Chapter three

FIGURE 3.1 Cannon-Fenske opaque viscometer ……………………….. 31

FIGURE 3.2 Hydrometer ………………………………………………… 31

FIGURE 3.3 Pensky-Martens cup …………..…………………………… 32

FIGURE 3.4 Apparatus for Cloud Point Test …………………….……… 32

FIGURE 3.5 CFR Engine (Cooperative Fuels Research)………………… 36

FIGURE 3.6 Bomb Calorimeter ……………..……………………...…… 37

FIGURE 3.7 Distillation device …………..…….…………………...…… 37

FIGURE 3.8 Hond EMS 3000…………………………..………..……… 40

FIGURE 3.9 Tachometer………………………………………………… 40

FIGURE 3.10 Variable electrical loader………………….……….……… 41

FIGURE 3.11 Ammeter…………………………………………………… 41

FIGURE 3.12 Voltmeter…………………………………………………… 42

FIGURE 3.13 Electric balance 3 Kg……………………….……………… 42

FIGURE 3.14 Layout electric circuit diagram…........................................... 48

FIGURE 3.15 Engine performance Test setup …......................................... 49

Chapter four

FIGURE 4.1 Blends densities versus ethanol pourcentage ……………… 52

FIGURE 4.2 Blends API gravity versus ethanol percentage ……...……… 53

FIGURE 4.3 Blends heat values versus ethanol percentage.……………… 55

FIGURE 4.4 Blends kinematic viscosity versus ethanol percentage……… 57

FIGURE 4.5 Blends Octane Number versus ethanol percentage ………… 60

FIGURE 4.6 Distillation curves blends and gasoline ………………..…… 61

FIGURE 4.7 Power output Vs. loads curves ………………..……..…… 62

FIGURE 4.8 Torque Vs. loads curves ………………………………..… 63

FIGURE 4.9 Fuel consumption Vs. loads curves …………..….….…… 63

FIGURE 4.10 Specific fuel consumption Vs. loads curves……..…….…… 64

FIGURE 4.11 Brake thermal efficiency Vs. loads curve……..……….…… 65

FIGURE 4.12 Speed Vs. loads curves …………….………………….…… 66

List of tables

Chapter two

TABLE 2.1 Properties of Ethanol alcohol ……………………………… 16

TABLE 2.2 Existing Sugar Capacities …………………….…………… 27

TABLE 2.3 Sudan Grand Sugar Plan 2014…………………….……...… 28

TABLE 2.4 Kenana’s Ethanol Capacity and Product Specifications …….. 28

Chapter three

TABLE 3.1 Tested Fuels Samples Abbreviation………………………… 43

Chapter four

TABLE 4.1 Mean density and API gravity of tested blends ……………… 52

TABLE 4.2 Flash point and fire point of tested blends …………………… 54

TABLE 4.3 Mean gross heat content of tested blends …….….…………… 55

TABLE 4.4 Cloud point of tested blends ……………….………………… 56

TABLE 4.5 Kinematic viscosity of tested blends ………….……………… 57

TABLE 4.6 Octane number of tested blends ………….……...…………… 59

1

Abstract

Fuel properties of Ethanol/Gasoline blends were studied and compared with pure

gasoline fuel. Those blends were named E10, E15, E20, and E25. The performance of a

constant speed, single cylinder spark ignition engine with these blends was tested.

Fuel properties test results showed that blends densities and kinematics viscosity

were found to increase continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of ethanol

while API gravity and heat value decreased with decreasing percentage of ethanol

increase. Furthermore, cloud point, flash and fire points were found to be higher than

gasoline fuel. The tested blends Octane rating based Research Octane Number (RON)

increased continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of ethanol.

The power output and torque producing for blends increased in E10 and E20, and

decrease in E15 and E25 at low loads. The fuel consumption rate and specific fuel

consumption decreased for blends. Break thermal efficiency for blends was a slight

variation compared to gasoline fuel. The performance with tested blends showed diverse

results due to difference in fuel properties.

2

المـــــلخص

. يثاىه ع اىبسي ، وقارخها ع وقىد اىبسي اىصافيإل اخييطحج دراست خصائض

اىاميتوقذ حج حجربت أداء . E25 وE20 وE15وE10 اىخيطاث حسيج حجو

. اىذاخييشخعاه إل حرك رو اسطىات واحذة يعو بافيبسرعت ثابخت

اىنياحينيتزوجتهها واىخيطاثوقذ أظهرث خائج اخخباراث خصائض اىىقىد أ مثافاث

، بيا اخفضج اىقيت ع زيادة سبت اإليثاىه وبشنو خطيحسداد بصىرة سخرة

قطت عالوة عيى رىل وجذ أ . ع اخفاض سبت اإليثاىه APIاىحراريت و اىثقو

عذالث األومخي .ماج أعيى وقىد اىبسي اىـغيت وقطت اىىيط و اإلشخعاه

في اىخيطاث ازدادث بصىرة (RON)اىخخبرة اىبيت عيى أساش رق بحث األومخي

.سخرة وخطيت ع زيادة سبت اإليثاىه

E20 واىسيج E10 اىسيج ازدادث فيىيخيطاثاىقذرة اىاحجت واىعس باىسبت

عذه اسخهالك . اىخفط عذ اىخحيوE25 واىسيج E15 اىسيجواخفضج في

ىسيج هاألداء . جيع اىخيطاث اىخخبرة اخفط في ىعياىىقىد واسخهالك اىىقىد اه

ىقذ أظهر أداء اىاميت عذ . اىخخبر أظهر خائج خخيفت سبت إلخخالف خصائض اىىقىد

.إسخخذا عياث اىىقىد اىخخبرة خائج خبايت سبت ىإلخخالف في خىاص اىىقىد

3

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

A steady growth in world population has taken place in tandem with ever-

increasing per capita energy consumption. Moreover, population has grown

geometrically in the last 1,000 years, placing additional pressure on energy resources. To

satisfy the ever-increasing demand, humanity has made use of different energy sources,

and the relative importance of these resources has differed between industrialized and

developing countries.

Petroleum formed a quantum leap in the field of energy and became a vital

source; but the studies of 18,000 petroleum fields around the world revealed that

petroleum will begin to recede within the next five years due to the limited quantities of

petroleum in the world and the increasing rates of consumption. The production of

petroleum began to recede since 2005, while the demand increases by 2% annually.

Obviously this indicates that there is shortage which will reach up to 40% by the year

2020, thus leading to increase in petroleum prices. With the harmful effects of petroleum

on the environment in mind, scientists and researchers resorted to finding new forms and

sources of energy to resolve the problem of petroleum being the traditional fuel. So

4

people will search for alternative energy source, for example: solar energy, wind energy,

hydroelectric energy and bio-fuel.

Bio-fuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass.

The term covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Bio-fuels are gaining

increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as petroleum price spikes

and the need for increased energy security. Bio-fuel is a fuel made from ethanol alcohol

that used as a total or partial replacement for gasoline runs in spark ignition engine. It can

be produced in large commercial quantities by fermenting the sugar or starch portion of

raw material and thus the crops used for ethanol production vary by region- such as sugar

cane, maize, grains, sugar beet, etc, it release CO2 when burned in internal combustion

engines, they differ from fossil fuels partly because their use reduces the net emission of

carbon dioxide and other gases associated with global climate change and partly because

they are biodegradable. The main benefits identified in connection with CO2 emission is

usually explained by the theory of carbon recycling. When plants develop, they capture

carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in order to facilitate photosynthesis necessary for

their growth. Carbon dioxide and water in presence of light captured by chlorophylls

produce oxygen and sugar glucose. Glucose converted to cellulose builds plant tissue or

is stored as starch. Starch crops and the resulting cellulosic biomass provide feedstock for

bio-fuel production. Whilst green plants operate as carbon sinks absorbing atmospheric

carbon dioxide, the net CO2 output of bio-fuel is theoretically zero. Accordingly the

released returns to carbon cycle, meaning that bio-fuel may also be considered carbon

neutral. So it is an environmentally friendly alternative to petroleum. Although it is easy

5

to manufacture and process, it is expensive to do research and used by human, but it will

not be expensive anymore when the petroleum price is high enough.

Utilization of renewable sources of energy available in Sudan is now a major

issue in the future energy strategic planning for the alternative to the fossil conventional

energy to provide part of the local energy demand. Sudan's renewable portfolio is broad

and diverse, due in part to the country's wide range of climates. It has a long history in

renewable energy utilization like many of the African leaders. Sudan has a very unique

geographical location and an area of about one million square miles. Bordering nine

African countries, and also distinguished by its fertile land, heavy rains and the

availability of water resources River Nile, Blue Nile, White Nile, Bahr Al- Arab and

underground water, over and above the Sudan enjoys the third largest industrial basis in

Africa after South Africa and Egypt. Although the utilize capacities are low ranged

between 20-25 %.

Sugar industry in Sudan will be the base for production of ethanol from sugar

plenty molasses. Kenana the world's largest integrated cane sugar manufacturing plant

will be the focus of ethanol production. Hundred million liters would be considered a

possible ethanol production capacity due to an increase in production capacity in the

Sudan together with the production capacity of the White Nile sugar factory and the

existing production capacities of the other cane sugar production factories such as

Assalaya, Sennar, El-Guneid and Halfa. To date the arrangements to introduce ethanol in

Sudan as fuel for cars, generators and motorcycles engines is limited. Consequently, the

6

use of the ethanol as fuel at present should be advocated strongly for research and

development as well as a quick and subsidized market introduction (i.e. tax credit

exception).

1.2 Statement of Objective:

The purpose of this study is to determine fuel properties and engine performance of

Ethanol /Gasoline blends for spark ignition engine. Specific objectives were:

- To determine properties of blends such as density, API gravity, viscosity, cloud

point, flash and fire point, heat value and compare them with those of gasoline

fuel.

- To determine Octane rating based on Research Octane Number (RON) for blends

and compares them with those of gasoline fuel.

- To evaluate engine performance on Ethanol/Gasoline blends compared to

gasoline fuel; performance parameters being: power output, engine torque, fuel

consumption rate, specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency.

7

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Ethanol:

Ethanol ethyl alcohol (ETOH) made from grains or other plants, is produced by

fermenting and distilling grains such as corn, barley and wheat. Another form of ethanol,

called bio-ethanol, can be made from many types of trees and grasses, and it is an

alcohol-based alternative fuel that is blended with gasoline to produce a fuel with a

higher octane rating and fewer harmful emissions than unblended gasoline.

Chemistry:

The chemical formula for ethanol is CH₃CH₂OH. Essentially, ethanol is ethane with a

hydrogen molecule replaced by a hydroxyl radical, -OH, which is bonded to a carbon

atom.

Structure of ethanol molecule (All bonds are singles bonds)

Glucose (a simple sugar) is created in the plant by photosynthesis.

8

6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂

During ethanol fermentation, glucose is decomposed into ethanol and carbon dioxide.

C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2 C₂H₅OH + 2 CO₂ + heat

During combustion ethanol reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and

heat:

C₂H₅OH + 3 O₂ → 2 CO₂ + 3 H₂O + heat

After doubling the combustion reaction because two molecules of ethanol are produced

for each glucose molecule, and adding all three reactions together, there are equal

numbers of each type of molecule on each side of the equation, and the net reaction for

the overall production and consumption of ethanol is just:

Light → heat

The heat of the combustion of ethanol is used to drive the piston in the engine by

expanding heated gases. It can be said that sunlight is used to run the engine.

Ethanol may also be produced industrially from ethene (ethylene). Addition of water to

the double bond converts ethene to ethanol:

CH₂=CH₂ + H₂O → CH₃CH₂OH

This is done in the presence of an acid which catalyzes the reaction, but is not consumed.

The ethene is produced from petroleum by steam cracking.

2.1 Ethanol Production

9

Ethanol is a form of renewable energy that can be produced from agricultural

feedstocks. It can be made from very common crops such as, potato, wheat, barley, sugar

beet and sugar cane. Sugar crops such as sugar cane, sugar beets and sweet sorghum are

extracted to produce a sugar-containing solution that can be directly fermented by yeast.

Starch feedstock; however must be carried through and additional conversion step.

A.R. Navarro, et al. (2000) studied a concentration-incineration process of vinasse

that has been in use for several years in order to deal with pollution resulting from the

industrial production of ethanol by fermentation and distillation. However, as vinasse

concentration had a high energy demand, a bio-concentration method with no energy

consumption. Vinasses was used instead of water in the preparation of the fermentation

medium and repeatedly recycled. A final solid concentration of 24% dry matter was

produced, an amount that positively modifies the energy balance of the concentration-

incineration process. A decrease of 66% in nutrients addition, 46.2% in fresh water and

50% in sulfuric acid requirement was achieved together with an improvement in the

efficiency of the fermentation. The final vinasse had a significant amount of non-volatile

by-products of commercial importance such as glycerol. A mathematical model is

proposed for the prediction of the final solids concentration in vinasse under various

working conditions. (1)

Farid Talebnia et al. (2004) investigated the performance of encapsulated

Saccharomyces cerevisiae CBS 8066 in anaerobic cultivation of glucose, in the presence

and absence of furfural as well as in dilute-acid hydrolyzates. The cultivation of

encapsulated cells in 10 sequential batches in synthetic media resulted in linear increase

10

of biomass up to 106 g/L of capsule volume, while the ethanol productivity remained

constant at 5.15 (±0.17) g/L.h (for batches 6-10). The cells had average ethanol and

glycerol yields of 0.464 and 0.056 g/g in these 10 batches. Addition of 5 g/L furfural

decreased the ethanol productivity to a value of 1.3(±0.10)g/L.h with the encapsulated

cells, but it was stable in this range for five consecutive batches. On the other hand, the

furfural decreased the ethanol yield to 0.41-0.42 g/g and increased the yield of acetic acid

drastically up to 0.068 g/g. No significant lag phase was observed in any of these

experiments. The encapsulated cells were also used to cultivate two different types of

dilute-acid hydrolyzates. While the free cells were not able to ferment, the hydrolyzates

within at least 24 hours. The encapsulated yeast successfully converted to glucose and

mannose in both of the hydrolyzates in less than 10 hours with no significant lag phase.

However, the hydrolyzates were too toxic; the encapsulated cells lost their activity

gradually in sequential batches.

Dimple K. Kundiyana et al. (2006) studied ethanol production from sweet

sorghum in the United States. Sweet sorghum has the potential to be used as a renewable

energy crop, and has become a viable candidate for ethanol production. The idea to use

sweet sorghum for commercial ethanol production is not new. But previous barriers to

commercialization of this process have been the high capital costs involved in ensilage

and fermentation at a central processing plant that may be operated only seasonally. In

order to diminish the high capital investment necessary in a central processing facility,

the proposed process involves in-field production of ethanol from sweet sorghum. The

process includes a newly designed field harvester capable of pressing and collecting the

juice, large storage bladders for fermentation, and a mobile distillation unit for ethanol

11

concentration. In order to achieve in-field ethanol fermentation in large bladders, one of

the remaining questions is whether fermentation can take place in the environment with

no process control. The focus of the current research was to evaluate the effects of yeast

type, pH adjustment, and nutrient addition on fermentation process efficiency.

Also, it was found that the engine performance improves as the percentage of ethanol

increases in the blend within the range studied.

2.1.1 Ethanol Manufacturing Process:

Ethanol can be made synthetically from petroleum or by microbial conversion of

biomass materials through fermentation. In 1995, about 93% of the ethanol in the world

was produced by the fermentation method and about 7% by the synthetic method. The

fermentation method generally uses two steps namely fermentation and distillation (see

Figure 2.1). (3)

2.1.1.1 Fermentation:

At this point the starch has been broken down to the simple sugar glucose and is

now in a form which microorganisms called yeasts can feed on. Yeasts, in metabolizing

glucose, produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. As with the enzymes, yeasts have an

optimum temperature range. The mash is transferred to the fermentation tank and cooled

to the optimum temperature (around 80 - 90°F). Care has to be taken to assure that no

infection (other organisms that compete with the yeast for the glucose) occurs.

2.1.1.2 Distillation:

12

Distillation separates the ethanol from the beer, which is mostly water and

ethanol. (In some alcohol plants, distillation takes place in one, very tall column; the

process diagrammed above uses two separate columns, a stripper column and a rectifying

column).

Ethanol boils at 172°F (at sea level), while water boils at 212°F. By heating the

beer to 172°F, the ethanol can be boiled off and the vapour captured and condensed to

produce 192-proof (96 percent) ethanol concentration producible by conventional

distillation. 200-proof (anhydrous) alcohol (which is required for blending gasohol) can

be obtained through additional dehydration steps. Lower-grade ethanol (170-190 proof)

can be used by itself in vehicles modified for alcohol use.

13

Source: Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, CO

80401.

Figure 2.1: Ethanol Manufacturing Process

2.2 Bio-ethanol Fuel Properties:

R. J. Dinu et al (2001) studied opportunities for matching wood chemical and

physical properties to manufacturing and product requirements via genetic modification

have long been recognized. Exploitation is now feasible due to advances in trait

measurement, breeding, genetic mapping and marker, and genetic transformation

technologies. With respect to classic selection and breeding of short-rotation poplars,

genetic parameters are favourable for decreasing lignin content and increasing specific

14

gravity, but less so for increasing cellulose content. Knowledge of functional genomics is

expanding, as is that needed for eventual application of marker-aided breeding, trait

dissection, candidate gene identification, and gene isolation. Research on gene transfer

has yielded transgenic poplars with decreased lignin and increased cellulose contents, but

otherwise normal growth and development. Until effective marker-aided breeding

technologies become available, the most promising approach for enhancing ethanol fuel

and fibre production and processing efficiencies centres on selecting and breeding

poplars for high wood substance yields and genetically transforming them for decreased

lignin and increased cellulose contents

J. Yamin (2006) investigated the effect of ethanol addition to low octane number

gasoline, in terms of calorific value, octane number, compression ratio at knocking and

engine performance. Locally produced gasoline (octane number 87) was blended with

five different percentages of ethanol, namely 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% on volume

basis. The properties of the respective fuel blends were first determined. Then they were

tested in an engine. It was found that the octane number of gasoline increases

continuously and linearly with ethanol percentages in gasoline. Hence, ethanol is an

effective compound for increasing the value of the octane number of gasoline. Also, it

was found that the engine performance improves as the percentage of ethanol increases in

the blend within the range studied.

Recently, the oxygenated and Octane enhancing benefits of ethanol have been

highlighted as a potential substitute for Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE). MTBE has

been shown to be highly toxic.

15

Table 2.1 Properties of Ethanol alcohol

46.07

Molecular wt.

0.789 kg/L Density

1.19 mm2/s at 20C Viscosity

78.4°C Boiling temperature

27000 (kJ/ kg) Heat value

-114.3°C Solve temperature

15H+ citrus temperature

2.3 Fuel properties definitions:

The internal combustion engine was invented more than one hundred years ago, and

numerous improvements have been made since its invention. The development of fuels

paralleled the development of the engine. Many standards concerning the required

properties of engine fuels and tests for measuring those properties have been set. Most of

the standards were developed through the cooperative efforts of the American Society for

Testing Materials (ASTM), the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and the

American Petroleum Institute (API). Only the most important of the many standards will

be discussed here. Some standards apply to only one type of fuel. For instance, fuel

viscosity is relevant only to CI engine fuels. Other standards, such as heating value, apply

to all types of fuels.

16

2.3.1 Density, API & Specific gravity:

Specific gravity is a measure of the density of liquid fuels. It is the ratio of the

density of the fuel at 15.6 C to the density of water at the same temperature. The density

of water at 15.6 is 1 kg/L, so the specific gravity of a fuel is equal to its density in kg/L.

Density of liquids decreases slightly with increasing temperatures. Therefore, densities

must be measured at the standard temperature of 15.6 C or must be corrected to that

temperature.

The API (American Petroleum Institute) has devised a special scale for gravities. It is

expressed in API degrees and is calculated as follows:

API = (141.5/S.P)−131.5

Where:

SG = specific gravity of fuel at 15.6 C.

In general high API gravity implies high octane number of fuel.

2.3.2 Viscosity:

Kinematic viscosity is measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid under

gravity, it is important to note that viscosity critically depends on temperature and

numerically value of viscosity has no significance or meaning unless the temperature of

the test is specified. So in determining any viscosity of fuel the temperature during the

test must always be state. ASTM D445 is a standard test procedure for determining the

17

kinematics viscosity of liquids. It provides a measure of the time required for a volume of

liquid to flow under gravity through a calibrated glass capillary tube. The kinematics

viscosity is then equal to the product of this time and a calibration constant for the tube.

The dynamic viscosity can be obtained by multiplying the kinematics viscosity by the

density of the fluid. The viscosity must be high enough to ensure proper lubrication of the

injector pump. If viscosity is too low, the fuel will flow too easily and will not maintain a

lubricating film between moving and stationary parts in the pump. If viscosity is too high,

the injectors may not be able to atomize the fuel into small enough droplets to achieve

good vaporization and combustion. Injection line pressure and fuel delivery rates also are

affected by fuel viscosity.

2.3.3 Flash and fire point:

The flash point varies with fuel volatility but is not related to engine performance.

Rather, the flash point relates to safety precautions that must be taken when handling a

fuel. The flash point is the lowest temperature to which a fuel must be heated to produce

an ignitable vapour-air mixture above the liquid fuel when exposed to an open flame. At

temperatures below the flash point, not enough fuel evaporates to form a combustible

mixture. Insurance companies and governmental agencies classify fuels according to their

flash points and use these points in setting minimum standards for the handling and

storage of fuels. Gasoline's have flash points well below the freezing point of water and

can readily ignite in the presence of a spark or flame.

18

The fire point is the lowest temperature at which application of an ignition source

causes the vapours of a test specimen of the sample to ignite and sustain burning for a

minimum 5 sec under specific conditions of test.

2.3.4 Cloud and Pour Point:

As a liquid is cooled, a temperature at which the larger fuel molecules begin to form

crystals is reached. With continued cooling, more crystals form and agglomerate until the

entire fuel mass begins to solidify. The temperature at which crystals began to appear is

called the cloud point, and the pour point is the highest temperature at which the fuel

ceases to flow. The cloud point typically occurs between 5 and 8 C above the pour point.

Cloud and pour points become important for heavier fuels in the higher boiling ranges.

Although the pour ability of gasoline is not a problem, SAE provides guidelines for

specifying pour points of diesel fuel.

2.3.5 Octane rating:

Octane rating is a measure of the knock resistance of gasoline. Knock is avoided in

a spark-ignition engine when burning starts at the spark plug and a flame front sweeps

smoothly across the combustion chamber to consume the fuel. Knock occurs when the

end gases–the gases ahead of the flame front–ignite spontaneously and generate a rapid,

uncontrolled release of energy. The quick release causes a sharp rise in pressure and

pressure oscillations, which may lead to an audible ping or knock.

19

The octane number of a fuel is measured in a test engine, and is defined by

comparison with the mixture of iso-octane and heptane which would have the same anti-

knocking capacity as the fuel under test: the percentage, by volume, of iso-octane in that

mixture is the octane number of the fuel This does not mean that the petrol contains just

iso-octane and heptane in these proportions, but that it has the same detonation resistance

properties. Because some fuels are more knock-resistant than iso-octane, the definition

has been extended to allow for octane numbers higher than 100.

The octane number given automotive fuels is really an indication of the ability of the

fuel to resist premature detonation within the combustion chamber. Premature detonation,

or engine knock, comes about when the fuel/air mixture ignites spontaneously toward the

end of the compression stroke because of intense heat and pressure within the combustion

chamber. Since the spark plug is supposed to ignite the mixture at a slightly later point in

the engine cycle, pre-ignition is undesirable, and can actually damage or even ruin an

engine.

The ASTM has developed two different methods for measuring octane ratings of

gasoline. Both methods use the same CFR engine, but different operating conditions. The

motor method is more severe and results in a lower octane rating than does the research

method. The Research Octane Number (RON) is typically about eight numbers higher

than the Motor Octane Number (MON) for a given gasoline sample. Many service

stations now post an anti-knock index on their pumps. The anti-knock index is simply the

numerical average of the RON and MON.

20

2.3.6 Heat value:

The heating value of a fuel is a measure of how much energy we can get from it on

a per-unit basis, be it pounds or gallons. When comparing alcohol to gasoline, it's obvious

that ethanol contains only about 63% of the energy that gasoline does. Mainly because of

the presence of oxygen in the alcohol's structure. But since alcohol undergoes different

changes as it's vaporized and compressed in an engine, the outright heating value of the

ethanol isn't as important when it's used as a motor fuel.

The fact that there's oxygen in the alcohol's structure also means that this fuel will

naturally be leaner in comparison to gasoline fuel without making any changes to the jets

in the carburettor. This is one reason why we must enrich the air/fuel mixture (add more

fuel) when burning alcohol by increasing the size of the jets, which we'll discuss further

in another section.

The purpose of fuels is to release energy for doing work. Thus, the heating value of

fuels is an important measure of their worth. Heating values can be measured by burning

the fuel in a bomb calorimeter. The combustion creates water and energy from the fuel is

used to convert that water to vapour in the bomb. The heating value measured by the

bomb is therefore called the lower, or net, heating value of the fuel. The gross , or higher

heating value is found by adding to the net heating value the latent heat of vaporization of

the water created in combustion. When engine efficiencies are calculated, it is important

to state whether the higher or lower heating value of the fuel is used in the calculation.

Published heats of combustion are usually higher heating values and are therefore often

21

used to calculate engine efficiencies. (Goering 1989). Heat of combustion is normally

expressed in kilojoules per kilogram.

2.3.7 Fuel Volatility:

Fuels must vaporize before they can burn. Volatility refers to the ability of fuels

to vaporize. Fuels that vaporize easily at lower temperatures are more volatile than are

fuels that require higher temperatures to vaporize. Reid vapour pressure and distillation

curves are both indicators of fuel volatility. Distillation curve gives a more complete

picture of fuel volatility.

2.3.7.1 Distillation:

Is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a

boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process,

and not a reaction. Commercially, distillation has a number of applications. It is used to

separate crude oil into more fractions for specific uses such as transport, power

generation and heating. (6)

Distillation was introduced to medieval Europe through Latin translations of Arabic

chemical treatises in the 12th century. In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus

Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi (The Book of the Art of Distillation) the

first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much

expanded version. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major

English compendium of practice, though it has been claimed that much of it derives from

22

Braunschweig's work. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial

rather than bench scale of the operation.

.

In general results of distillation tests are plotted as shown in Figure 2.2 the curves are

especially important for gasoline, and three points on the distillation curve are of special

interest. The points T10, T50, and T90 refer, respectively, to the temperatures on the curve

at which 10%, 50%, and 90% of the fuel has been distilled. For the easy starting of a

gasoline engine in winter conditions, the T10 temperature must be sufficiently low to

allow enough fuel to evaporate to form a combustible mixture. The T50 point is associated

with engine warm-up: a low T50 temperature will allow the engine to warm up and gain

power quickly without stalling. The T90 temperature is associated with the crankcase

dilution and fuel economy: if the T90 temperature is too high, the larger fuel molecules

will condense on the cylinder liners and pass down into the lubricating oil in the

crankcase instead of burning. Gasoline volatility is adjusted by petroleum refiners to suit

the season and location (see SAE Recommended Practice J312 [SAE, 1999a] in the

References and Suggested Readings). (6)

23

Source: off-Road Vehicle engineering principles St.Joseph, Mich: ASAE (American

Society of Agricultural Engineering).

Figure 2.2 Distillation curves of gasoline

2.4 Engine Performance and Emissions

Suri Rajan et al. (1982) investigated miscibility characteristics of hydrated ethanol

with gasoline as a means of reducing the cost of ethanol/gasoline blends for use as a

spark ignition engine fuel. For a given percentage of water in the ethanol, the

experimental data showed that a limited volume of gasoline can be added to form a stable

mixture. Engine experiments indicate that, at normal ambient temperatures, a

water/ethanol/gasoline mixture containing up to 6 volume % of water in the ethanol

constitutes a desirable motor fuel with power characteristics similar to those of the base

gasoline. As a means of reducing the smog causing components of the exhaust gases,

such as the oxides of nitrogen and the unburnt hydrocarbons, the water/ethanol/gasoline

mixture was superior to the base gasoline. (7)

0

50

100

150

200

250

0 50 100 150

TEM

PER

ATU

RE

ºC

PERCENT DISTILLED

Distillation curves of gasoline

TYPICAL WINTER GASOLINE

TYPICAL SUMMER GASOLINE

24

T. K. Bhattacharya et al. (2001) studied a constant speed; direct-injection diesel

engine rated at 7.4 kW was tested on diesel fuel and four different ethanol-1-butanol-

diesel micro emulsions. The stable and homogeneous micro emulsions were obtained by

mixing 160, 170, and 180 Proof ethanol-1-butanol-diesels in 1:2.5:5.5 as well as 180.

Proof ethanol-1-butanol-diesel in 1:2:3 proportions. The characteristic fuel properties

such as relative density, kinematics viscosity and gross heat of combustion of the micro

emulsions were found to be close to that of diesel fuel. The power-producing capability

of the engine was found similar on diesel fuel and the micro emulsions. The emission of

CO was found to be marginally lower but that of unburnt hydrocarbons and NO X were

higher on micro emulsions. An engine durability test of 310 h was successful.

Xiao-Guang Yan et al. (2002) investigated the effect of ethanol blended gasoline

fuels on emissions and catalyst conversion efficiencies in a spark ignition engine with an

electronic fuel injection (EFI) system. The addition of ethanol to gasoline fuel enhanced

the octane number of the blended fuels and changes distillation temperature. Ethanol

could decrease engine-out regulated emissions. The fuel containing 30% ethanol by

volume could drastically reduce engine-out total hydrocarbon emissions (THC) at

operating conditions and engine-out THC, CO and NOx emissions at idle speed, but

unburned ethanol and acetaldehyde emissions increase. Pt/Rh based three-way catalysts

are effective in reducing acetaldehyde emissions, but the conversion of unburned ethanol

was low. Tailpipe emissions of THC, CO and NOx have close relation to engine-out

emissions, catalyst conversion efficiency, engine's speed and load, air/fuel equivalence

ratio. Moreover, the blended fuels could decrease brake specific energy consumption.

25

Jun Wanga et al. (2004) studied the emission characteristics from a four-stroke

motorcycle engine using 10% (v/v) ethanol–gasoline blended fuel (E10) at different

driving modes on the chassis dynamometers. The results indicated that CO and HC

emissions in the engine exhaust were lower with the operation of E10 as compared to the

use of unleaded gasoline, whereas the effect of ethanol on NOX emission was not

significant. Furthermore, species of both unburned hydrocarbons and their ramifications

were analyzed by the combination of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS)

and gas chromatography/flame ionization detection (GC/FID). This analysis showed that

aromatic compounds (benzene, toluene, xylene isomers (o-xylene, m-xylene and p-

xylene), ethyltoluene isomers (o-ethyltoluene, m-ethyltoluene and p-ethyltoluene) and

trimethylbenzene isomers (1, 2, 3-trimethylbenzene, 1, 2, 4-trimethylbenzene and 1, 3, 5-

trimethylbenzene) and fatty group ones (ethylene, methane, acetaldehyde, ethanol,

butene, pentane and hexane) were major compounds in motorcycle engine exhaust. It was

found that the E10-fueled motorcycle engine produces more ethylene, acetaldehyde and

ethanol emissions than unleaded gasoline engine does. The no significant reduction of

aromatics was observed in the case of ethanol–gasoline blended fuel.

J.Basanavičiaus (2006) investigated experimentally and compared the engine

performance and pollutant emission of a SI engine using ethanol–gasoline blended fuel

and pure gasoline. The results showed that when ethanol is added, the heating value of

the blended fuel decreases, while the octane number of the blended fuel increases. The

results of the engine test indicated that when ethanol–gasoline blended fuel is used, the

engine power and specific fuel consumption of the engine slightly increase; CO emission

decreases dramatically as a result of the leaning effect caused by the ethanol addition; HC

26

emission decreases in some engine working conditions; and CO2 emission increases

because of the improved combustion.

2.5 Ethanol Production in Sudan

Sudan is rich of fertile land a lot of water from irrigation and wide range of

climates which leads to different crops and this is helpful to produce many thinks like

ethanol the most important crop to produce ethanol is sugar cane.

2.5.1 Sugar cane

Processing of cane sugar will be the base for production of ethanol. Kenana the

world's largest integrated cane sugar manufacturing plant will be the focus of ethanol

production. An increase in production capacity in the Sudan together with the production

capacity of the White Nile sugar factory and the existing production capacities of the

other cane sugar production factories like Assalaya, Sennar, El-Guneid and Halfa. 100

million liters would be considered a possible ethanol production capacity

Table 2.2: Existing Sugar Capacities

Estimated ethanol capacity (liter) Project

65,000,000 Kenana sugar company

40,000,000 Sudanese sugar company

40,000,000 White Nile sugar company

145,000,000 Subtotal

27

Table 2.3: Sudan Grand Sugar Plan 2014

Estimated ethanol capacity (liter) project

90,000,000 Western White Nile projects

380,000,000 Gazira Scheme projects

470,000,000 Subtotal

615,000,000 Grand total

2.6 Kenana Ethanol Project:

The ethanol plant of the stated capacity will required around 1.5 MWh which can

easily be supplied by the exiting KSC power house without the need for any additional

investment in power generation equipment. Eight high capacity steam boilers are

available in the factory. Kenana has a storage capacity of 55.000 MTs molasses an

ethanol plant of around 50 million litters will required a molasses storage capacity of

around 60,000 MTs Kenana’s exiting storage capacity is considered enough to enable the

plant to operate continuously during the off-crop period. The factory has adequate well

fenced and protected land characterized by suitable gravel base for laying the necessary

foundation establishing the ethanol plant.

Table 2.3: Kenana Ethanol Capacity and Product Specifications

Capacity 66 million liter ethanol annually

Product specification of Anhydrous alcohol

Alcohol degree 99.8% min by weight

Specific mass 20 c max 0.795 kg /L

Appearance clear, free of material in suspension

Row material Molasses

28

CHAPTER III

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Fuel properties experiments were carried out in Center Petroleum

Laboratories (CPL), Ministry of Petroleum and laboratories of Petroleum and Gas

engineering department university of Khartoum. while engine performance tests were

carried out in Power and Machinery, Agricultural Engineering department at Faculty of

Engineering, University of Khartoum.

3.1 Materials:

3.1.1 Fuel Blends Materials

- Gasoline (benzene): Gasoline was a volatile, flammable liquid obtained

from local fuel petroleum station.

- Ethanol: ethanol was color less alcohol having concentration of 98.3%

and extracted from sugar molasses. The ethanol sample was Kenana Sugar

Company product. (2)

- The tested sample blends was prepared by adding ethanol alcohol up to

25% to pure gasoline to run small engine. During this quick function test

to this ratio there was no sign of water phase separation or any engine

modification.

29

3.1.2 Fuel Properties equipment:

3.1.2.1 Viscometer:

Cannon-Fenske Opaque Viscometer, glass capillary type, having model No. H50

and Calibration Factor of C = 0.004142, C = 0.003114 (see Figure 3.1).

3.1.2.2 Hydrometer:

A glass hydrometer is calibrated and read at liquid level the density or API gravity,

(see Figure 3.2).

3.1.2.3 Flash and fire point:

Pensky-Martens cup apparatus consisted of the test cup, heating plate; test flame

applicator; heater and thermometer (see Figure 3.3).

3.1.2.4 Cloud and pour point:

Test Jar, clear, cylindrical glass, flat bottom, 33.2 to 34.8-mm outside diameter and

115 and 125-mm height. The inside diameter of the jar may range from 30 to 32.4 mm

within the constraint that the wall thickness be no greater than 1.6 mm. The jar should be

marked with a line to indicate sample height 546.3 mm above the inside bottom. (see

Figure 3.4)

30

Figure 3.1: Cannon-Fenske opaque viscometer

Figure 3.2: A Hydrometer for measuring density

31

Figure 3.3: Pensky-Martens cup apparatus

Figure 3.4: Cloud Point Test Apparatus

32

3.1.2.5 Cooperative Fuels Research (CFR) Engine

The engine test was using a standardized single cylinder, four-stroke cycle,

variable compression ratio and carbureted for the determination of Octane Number. It is

manufactured as a complete unit by Waukesha Engine Division, Model CFR F-1

Research Method Octane Rating Unit. (See Figure 3.5)

3.1.2.5.1 Specifications

Test Engine: CFR F-1 Research Method Octane Rating Unit with cast iron, box

type crankcase with flywheel connected by V-belts to power absorption electrical motor

for constant speed operation.

Cylinder type: Cast iron with flat combustion surface and integral coolant jacket

Compression ratio Adjustable 4:1 to 18:1 by cranked worm shaft and worm wheel drive

assembly in cylinder clamping sleeve.

Cylinder bore (diameter), in 3.250 (standard)

Stroke, in 4.50

Displacement, in 37.33

Lubrication Forced lubrication, motor driven pump,

plate type oil filter, relief pressure gauge

on control panel

33

Cooling

Evaporative cooling system with water

cooled condenser, Water shall be used in

the cylinder jacket for laboratory locations

where the resultant boiling temperature

shall be 100 1.5°C Water with

commercial glycol-based antifreeze added

in sufficient quantity to meet the boiling

temperature requirement shall be used

when laboratory altitude dictates

3.1.2.5.2 Mechanical accessories:

Fuel system (Carburetor)

Single vertical jet and fuel flow control to

permit adjustment of fuel-air ratio

Ignition Electronically triggered condenser discharge

through coil to spark plug

Ignition timing Constant 13° before TDC

Multiple fuel tank system with selector valving.

Intake air system with controlled temperature.

34

3.1.2.5.3 Instrumentation:

Critical Instrumentation:

Knock Measurement System Detonation pickup (sensor), a detonation meter to

condition the knock signal, and a knockmeter

Detonation Pickup Model D1 (109927) having a pressure sensitive

diaphragm, magnetostrictive core rod, and coil.

Detonation Meter

Signal Cables

Non-Critical Instrumentation:

Temperature Measurement Temperature Controller.

- Cylinder Jacket Coolant Thermometer.

Engine Crankcase Lubricating Oil Temperature

Indicator.

Pressure Measurement - Crankcase Internal Pressure Gage

(pressure/vacuum gage).

Exhaust Back Pressure Gage.(2)

35

Figure 3.5: Cooperative Fuels Research (CFR) Engine

1.1.2.5 Bomb Calorimeter

Record calorimeter complied with PARR 1266 (ASTM D240) standards, France (See

Figure 3.6).

3.1.2.7 Distillation device

The device is measuring distillation in manual method (ASTM D 86) (See Figure 3.7)

36

Figure 3.6: Recording Bomb Calorimeter

Figure 3.7: Distillation device

37

3.1.3 Engine Test:

Generator Honda EMS 3000

Honda EMS 3000 electric generating set consisted of single cylinder gasoline

engine and a 3.0 kW (2.8 kW for 50 Hz) alternating current generator Figure (3.8)

Table 3.1: Generator Specifications:

Generator model Honda EMS 3000

type 4- stroke

Stroke 95 mm

Bore 76 mm

Displacement 272 cc

Voltage (AC) 220 V

Frequency 50 Hz

Rated output 2.5 kVA

Max output 2.8 kVA

Phase 1

Digital Tachometer:

A digital model SYSTEMS tachometer indicated directly the engine speed in

revaluation per minute (See Figure 3.9). It had operating range (60- 100, 000) with

accuracy ±(0.05% 1 digit).

38

Variable electrical loader (damming load):

A dead load (15A- 220/110V) was used as an external load for generator. The

load was varied and adjusted by means of a turning wheel connected to the loader (See

figure 3.10)

Ammeter:

(0-15A) was connected in series generator to reads current output from generator.

(See figure 3.11)

Voltmeter:

High impedance OTC digital Voltmeter model MY-67 MASTECH, AC/DC Volt-

ohm measurements. It was connected across the variable loader to measure voltage drop.

(See figure 3.12)

Electric Balance:

Electric balance used to measure weight for range between (0-3) kg as shown in

(See figure 3.13)

39

Figure 3.8: Honda EMS 3000

Figure 3.9: Tachometer

40

Figure 3.10: Variable electrical loader

Figure 3.11: Ammeter

41

Figure 3.12: Voltmeter

Figure 3.13 Electric Balance (3 kg capacity)

42

3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Blends preparation:

90%, 85%, 80% and 75% (vol. basis) gasoline were mixed with 10, 15, 20 and

25% Ethanol respectively; all blends visually appeared to be homogenous mixture with

no distinct phase separation.

3.2.2Fuel abbreviation

For simplicity fuel abbreviation system were presented as shown in Table 3.1

Table 3.1: Tested Fuels Samples Abbreviation

No Fuel Symbol

1 100%gasoline (reference fuel) gasoline

2 90%gasoline +10% ethanol (98.3% Conc. ) E10

3 85%gasoline +15% ethanol (98.3% Conc. ) E15

4 80%gasoline +20% ethanol (98.3% Conc. ) E20

5 75%gasoline +25% ethanol (98.3% Conc. ) E25

3.2.3 Fuel properties determination:

Properties of tested fuels were determined in accordance with ASTM and DIN

procedures for petroleum products.

43

3.2.3.1 Density measurement:

The density of each tested sample was measured by hydrometer (ASTM D287); the

simplest formula for density is mathematically expressed as:

S.G = 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐝 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂

𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂 ……… (3.1)

API = (141.5/S.G) − 131.5 ...……. (3.2)

Where: S.G = Specific gravity.

API = American Petroleum Institute.

3.2.3.2 Viscosity determination:

Viscometer were used for determining viscosity of the fuel (ASTM D445), the

simplest formula for Kinematic viscosity is mathematically expressed as:

V = 𝑉₁ + 𝑉₂

2 ...……. (3.3)

V₁ = t₁*C₁ …….. (3.3a)

C1= 0.004142

V₂ = t₂*C₂ ……… (3.3b)

C2=0.003114

44

Where: V=Viscosity mm2/sec @ 20C.

t1, t2: time in second.

3.2.3.3 Gross Heating Value measurement:

PARR 1266 and (ASTM D240) standards were use for measuring heat of

combustion. A bomb calorimeter (Record) was used for this test. The calorific value of

the sample was determined by equating the heat generated to heat transfer to calorimeter.

3.2.3.4 Measuring Octane rating:

The test procedure for determining octane rating by CFR engine was as follows:

Preparing Reference Fuel No. 1:

Prepare a fresh batch of a PRF (primary reference fuels, for knock testing,

isooctane,n-heptane, volumetrically proportioned mixtures of isooctane with n-heptane,

or blends of tetraethyl lead in isooctane that define the octane number scale.) blend that

has an O.N. estimated to be close to that of the sample fuel, then introduce Reference

Fuel No. 1 to the engine Position the fuel-selector valve to operate the engine on

Reference Fuel No. 1 and perform the step-wise adjustments required for determining the

fuel level for maximum K.I and Record the equilibrium knockmeter reading for

Reference Fuel No. 1.

45

Preparing Reference Fuel No. 2:

Select another PRF blend that can be expected to result in a knockmeter reading

that causes the readings for the two reference fuels to bracket that of the sample fuel, the

maximum permissible difference between the two reference fuels is dependent on the

O.N. of the sample fuel, Prepare a fresh batch of the second PRF blend. Introduce

Reference Fuel No. 2 to the engine, and repeat the same steps of reference fuel NO.1.

Checking Guide Table Compliance:

Check that the cylinder height, compensated for barometric pressure, used for the

rating is within the prescribed limits of the applicable guide table value of cylinder height

for the sample fuel O.N. At all O.N. levels, the digital counter reading shall be within

20 of the guide table value. The dial indicator reading shall be within 0.014 in. of the

guide table value.

Starting the engine:

The fuel sample was poured into one of the blow carburetor. The selector value

was turned to fill up the blow, after the fuel system was purged; the key switch and starter

were turned and pressed, respectively.

Fuel sample octane number:

The octane rating of the tested sample at octane rate was obtained by interpolation

from a guide curve. A guide curve for this purpose was prepared by blends of n-heptane

and isooctane the air rate values for these blends were determined. Entering these values

46

into a coordinate system, a curve showing the dependence of air rate upon octane number

was obtained.

Calculation of O.N.:

O.N.S = O.N.LRF + K.I.LRF – K.I.S

𝐾.𝐼.𝐿𝑅𝐹−𝐾.𝐼.𝐻𝑅𝐹 (O.N.HRF – O.NLRF) …………. (3.4)

Where:

O.N.S = octane number of the sample fuel.

O.N.LRF = octane number of the low PRF.

O.N.HRF = octane number of the high PRF.

K.I.S = knock intensity (knockmeter reading) of the sample fuel.

K.I.LRF = knock intensity of the low PRF.

K.I.HRF = knock intensity of the high PRF.

3.2.4 Performance Tests

3.2.4.1 Test procedure:

The experiments were carried out using Kenana Ethanol/Gasoline blends. Honda

EMS3000 single cylinder, spark ignition gasoline engine (Honda Co. Ltd. Japan) with

specifications as shown in Table (3.1). Experimental apparatus included four major

systems, i.e., the engine system, power measurement system, engine speed system

measurement and fuel consumption measurement.

47

Extensive testing starting with warming by pure gasoline for 15 min at no load

before tests on the selected fuels blends was conducted. This typical engine was

commonly used in agricultural operations such as lift irrigation, milling, chaff cutting,

and threshing, and is used as the prime mover in electric generators, The performance

tests of the engine on ethanol/gasoline fuel were conducted at no-load, 25%, 50%, 75%

and 100% load as per Indian Standard IS:10000 (Part VIII):1980. The engine speed was

set at constant 2200 rpm at no-load condition without modification on all fuel blends

tests. Then engine was then gradually loaded to determine the power developed at

different loads and the corresponding fuel consumption. After engine had reached steady

state, engine speed; current load and voltage drop were recorded from tachometer,

ammeter and voltmeter, respectively. Fuel consumption was measured on weight with

electric balance and stop watch.

The total time of experiment was about 2 hour for up-loading (increase the load

from 0-100%).The data were recorded every 5. After each stabilization period the load

was varied to get other sets of readings.

48

1. AC generator 2. Voltmeter (0-300V)

3. AC Ammeter (0-15A) 4. Variable load (15 A 220/110 V)

Figure (3.14): Layout electric circuit diagram

Figure 3.15: Engine performance Test setup

(4)Variable

load

(2)

V

(3)

A

(1)

AC generator

49

3.2.4.2 Power calculation:

P = V * I ………………. (3.5)

Where power P is in watts, voltage V is in volts and current I is in amperes

3.2.4.3 Torque calculation:

Engine torque was determined by the following equation:

P= 2 π N T/60 ……………………….(3.6.a)

T = 60 P/2 π N ……………………..(3.6.b)

Where N is speed in RPM and T is engine torque in N.m.

3.2.4.4 Brake Thermal Efficiency Determination

The brake thermal efficiency of the selected tested fuels was determined by the

following formula:

).7.3......(..........3600

).7.3....(......................

bhgq

P

aP

PoutETB

ff

in

in

Where B.T.E = Brake thermal efficiency

1P = Power output.

fq = Fuel consumption (L/hr)

f = Fuel density (kg/L)

hg = Gross (Higher) heating value of fuel.

50

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of fuel properties determination and engine performance are presented

and discussed below:

4.1 Fuel Properties

4.1.1 Density and API gravity

Table 4.1 shows average values of density and API gravity for blends at

temperature of 15oC. From the result in appears that the blend densities where found to

vary from 0.7400 kg/L for gasoline to 0.7571 kg/L for E25. It was 0.05 % lighter than

gasoline for E10 but 1.26 %, 1.87% and 2.25% heavier than gasoline fuel for E15, E20

and E25, respectively. Figure 4.1 shows the plot of densities and ethanol percentage in

the blends. Blends densities increase linearly as the ethanol percentage increased and is

expressed in the following formula:

Y=0.0008X+0.7373 with R2=0.8476 (4.1)

The API gravity of blends varied between 57.510 to 55.21 degrees. The gasoline

fuel API gravity was lighter being 59.53 degrees. Figure 4.2 shows the plot of API

gravity and ethanol percentage in the blend. The blends API gravity decreased linearly as

ethanol percentage increased and is expressed in the following formula:

Y= -0.167X+59.314 with R2=0.9604 (4.2)

51

In general the densities and API gravity are within the range that can be handled by

internal combustion engine.

Table (4.1): MEAN DENSITY AND API GRAVITY OF TESTED BLENDS:

Fuel blend Density, kg/L API gravity degree

Gasoline 0.7400 59.530

E10 0.7396 57.10

E15 0.7495 57.09

E20 0.7541 55.95

E25 0.7571 55.21

Figure 4.1: Blends densities versus Ethanol percentage.

0.735

0.74

0.745

0.75

0.755

0.76

0% 10% 20% 30%

DEN

SITY

Kg/

L

ETHANOL%

DENSITY

DENSITY

Линейная (DENSITY)

52

Figure 4.2: Blends API gravity versus Ethanol percentage

4.1.2 Flash and Fire point

Table 4.2 shows values of flash and fire points for blends. From the results, it

appears that the blends flash point for E20 and E25 were 29.2 and 30 C, respectively.

The fire points were found to be 29, 29.1, 30 and 32 C for E10, E15, E20 and E25,

respectively. However, E10, E15 and gasoline started to fire without determining its flash

point. The flash point varies with fuel volatility but is not related to engine performance.

Rather, the flash point relates to safety precautions that must be taken when handling a

fuel. Blends flash and fire points according to their values above far the standards values

for the handling and storage of gasoline fuels which having flash point below the freezing

point of water.

54.555

55.556

56.557

57.558

58.559

59.560

0% 10% 20% 30%

AP

I , d

eg

ETHANOL%

API

API

Линейная (API)

53

Table 4.2: FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT OF TESTED BLENDS:

Fuel blend Flash Point C Fire Point C

Gasoline _ 25.0

E10 _ 29.0

E15 _ 29.1

E20 29.2 30.0

E25 30.0 32.0

4.1.3 Heat of Combustion

Table 4.3 shows values of gross heat content for the fuels tested. The gross heat

content for blends decrease by 0.127%, 0.4%, 0.53% and 0.61% compared to gasoline

fuel (47.09 MJ/kg) for E10, E15, E20 and E25, respectively. Figure 4.3 shows the plot of

blends heat values and ethanol percentage. Blends heat value decreased linearly as the

percentage of ethanol increased and is expressed in the following formula:

Y= 0.0125X + 47.108 with R2=0.9465 (4.3)

The decreased of heat values present in the blends were due to ethanol that having

lower heat value of 29.70 MJ/kg.

54

Table 4.3: MEANS GROSS HEAT CONTENT OF TESTED BLENDS:

Fuel blend Heat value, MJ/kg

Gasoline 47.09

E10 47.03

E15 46.90

E20 46.84

E25 46.80

Figure 4.3: Blends heat values versus Ethanol percentage

4.1.4 Cloud Point

Table 4.4 shows values of the cloud points for the blends. From the results, it appears

that the ethanol /gasoline blends cloud point for gasoline is -22 C and above 8 C for

E10, E15, E20 and E25, respectively. The cloud point typically occurs between 5°C and

8°C above the pour point. Cloud and pour points become important for heavier fuels in

46.75

46.8

46.85

46.9

46.95

47

47.05

47.1

47.15

0% 10% 20% 30%

HEA

T V

ALU

E K

j/K

g

ETHANOL%

HEAT VALUE

HEAT VALUE

Линейная (HEAT VALUE)

55

the higher boiling ranges. Thus, although the pour-ability of gasoline is not a problem,

but it was specified in the guideline of fuel properties standards .

Table 4.4: CLOUD POINT OF TESTED BLENDS:

Fuel blend Cloud point C

Gasoline -22

E10 > 8

E15 > 8

E20 > 8

E25 > 8

4.1.5 Kinematic Viscosity

The results in Table 4.5 illustrate the kinematic viscosity of blends at 30⁰ C. They

were found to be 10.4%, 15.3% , 23.3% and 30.9% more viscous than gasoline fuel

(0.4872mm2/s) for blends fuel E10% , E15% , E20% , E25% , respectively. Figure 4.4

shows the plot of blends kinematic viscosity and ethanol percentage. Blends kinematic

viscosity increased linearly as percentage of ethanol increase and is expressed in the

following formula:

Y = 0.006 X + 0.4814 with R2=0.9868 (4.4)

Viscosity is a measure of the flow resistance of a liquid. Fuel viscosity is an

important consideration when fuels are carbureted or injected into combustion chambers

by means of fuel system. If viscosity is too low, the fuel will flow too easily and will not

maintain a lubricating film between moving and stationary parts in the carburetor or

pump. If viscosity is too high, may not be able to atomize the fuel into small enough

56

droplets to achieve good vaporization and combustion. In general the blends viscosities

were within acceptable range for spark ignition engine.

Table 4.5: KINEMATIC VISCOSITY OF TESTED BLENDS:

Fuel blend Kinematic Viscosity, mm2/s

Gasoline 0.4872

E10 0.5383

E15 0.5619

E20 0.6007

E25 0.6380

Figure 4.4: Blends kinematic viscosity versus Ethanol percentage

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0% 10% 20% 30%

KIN

EMA

TIC

VIS

CO

STY

mm

²/s

ETHANOL %

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY

Линейная (KINEMATIC VISCOSITY )

57

4.1.6 Octane number

The results in Table 4.6 show the octane number They were found to be 4%,

5.4%, 8.08%, and 6.33% higher than gasoline fuel (93.2) for blends fuel for E10% ,

E15% , E20% , E25%, respectively. Figure 4.5 shows the plot of Octane Number and

ethanol percentage in the blend. Blends Octane Number increased linearly as percentage

of ethanol increased and is expressed in the following formula:

Y = 0.2927 X + 93.862 with R2=0.9868 (4.5)

The octane rating is a measure of the knock resistance of gasoline. Yamin et al.

(2006) investigated the effect of ethanol addition to low Octane Number gasoline, in

terms of calorific value, Octane Number, compression ratio at knocking and engine

performance. They blended locally produced gasoline (Octane Number 87) with five

different percentages of ethanol, namely 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% on volume basis.

They found that the Octane Number of gasoline increases continuously and linearly with

ethanol percentages in gasoline. They reported that the ethanol was an effective

compound for increasing the value of the Octane Number of gasoline. Also, they found

that the engine performance improves as the percentage of ethanol increases in the blend

within the range studied.

Many additives have been developed to improve the performance of petroleum

fuels to increase knock resistance and raise the octane number. Fuel refiners were able to

use a wide variety of lower octane hydrocarbons in gasoline and then use TEL (tetraethyl

lead) and MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether) additives to boost octane ratings to

acceptable levels. More recently, the oxygenated and octane enhancing benefits of

58

ethanol have been highlighted as a potential substitute for Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether

(MTBE), an oxygenated additive used to enhance octane and also reduce CO emissions.

However, TEL poisons the catalysts in catalytic emission control systems, and MTBE has

been shown to be highly toxic even in small quantities when it contaminates groundwater

Table 4.6: OCTANE NUMBER OF TESTED BLENDS:

Fuel blend Octane number

Gasoline 93.2

E10 97.1

E15 98.6

E20 101.4

E25 99.5

59

Figure 4.5: Blends Octane Number versus Ethanol percentage

4.1.7 Distillation:

The results in Figure 4.6 shows the distillation for gasoline and blends fuel E10%,

E15%, E20%, E25%. Three points were taken on the distillation curve to compare the

distillation between Gasoline and the blends. The points T10, T50, and T90 refer,

respectively, to the temperatures on the curve at which 10%, 50%, and 90% of the fuel

has been distilled. At T10 the gasoline temperature is 60oC when 10% was distilled, the

blends fuel E10%, E15%, E20% and E25% decrease by 13.3%, 12.8%, 12.1% and 12.5%

respectively form gasoline temperature. The blends decrease by 22.5%, 25.5%, 24.2%

and 22.4% respectively for T50 when gasoline temperature at 50% distilled is 950C, and

increase by 11.7%, 10.3%, 9.7% and 11.4% at T9o when gasoline temperature at 90%

distilled is 1450C.

9293949596979899

100101102

0% 10% 20% 30%

OC

TAN

E N

UM

BER

ETHANOL%

OCTANE NUMBER

OCTANE NUMBER

Линейная (OCTANE NUMBER)

60

Figure 4.6: Distillation curves blends and gasoline

4. 2. Engine performance

Engine performance test results on Ethanol/Gasoline blends were presented on

Appendix C and D. For comparisons of engine performance, loading at no-load, 25% and

50% was consider low loads while loading at 75% and 100% was consider high loads.

4. 2.1 Power Output:

Fig 4.7 and Table C.1 (Appendix D) illustrate power output versus loads for

various Ethanol/Gasoline blends. The engine power output increase at low loads by

5.14%, and 6.67% for E10 and E20 respectively, and decrease by 4.36%,3.02% for E15

and E25, respectively comparing with gasoline while at high loads decrease by 10.39%,

13.61%, 10.15% and 16.84% for E10, E15, E20 and E25 respectively .

020406080

100120140160180200

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Tem

pe

ratu

re°C

Distilled%

Distillation

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

61

Figure 4.7: Power output Vs. loads curves comparing various

Ethanol/Gasoline blends

4.2.2 Engine Torque

Fig 4.8 and Table C.2 (Appendix D) represent mean engine torque versus loads

curve comparing various Ethanol/Gasoline blends. The engine torque increased at low

loads by 3.01% and 6.8%, for E10 and E20 respectively and decreased by 3.69% and

6.29% for E15 and E25 comparing with gasoline while at high load increased by 6.6%

for E15 and decreased by 6.67%, 7.69% and 11.88% for E10, E20 and E25 respectively.

4.2.3 Fuel Consumption Rate (L/h):

Fig.4.9 and Table C.3 (Appendix D) represent mean engine fuel consumption

versus loads for various ethanol/gasoline blends. The fuel consumption rate decreased at

low loads by 10.52%, 22.05%, 17.29% and 10.16% for E10, E15, E20 and E25

respectively, comparing with gasoline while at high loads decreased by 16.38%,

29.69%,16.3% and 8.43% for E10, E15, E20 and E25 respectively.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

PO

WER

(K

W)

LOADS

Power Vs Load

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

62

Figure 4.8: torque Vs. loads curves comparing Ethanol/Gasoline blends

Figure 4.9: Fuel consumption Vs. loads curves comparing Ethanol/Gasoline blends

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

Torq

ue

(N.m

)

Load

Torque Vs Load

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

CO

NSU

MP

TIO

N(L

/h)

LOAD

Consumption Vs Load

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

63

4.2.4 Specific Fuel Consumption (L/KW.h):

Fig.4.10 and Table C.5 (Appendix D) represent mean engine brake specific fuel

consumption versus loads for various blends. The specific fuel consumption decreased at

low loads by 15.28%, 20.41%, 24.25% and 8.46% for E10, E15, E20 and E25,

respectively, comparing with gasoline while at high loads increased by 9.59% for E25

and decreased by 1%, 6.44%, 18.56%, and 6.96% for E10, E15 and E20 respectively.

4.2.5 Brake Thermal Efficiency

The mean brake thermal efficiency of blend is illustrated in Fig. 4.11 and Table

C.6 (Appendix D). The brake thermal efficiency increased at low loads by 14.93%,

18.53%, 21.55% and 6.54% for E10, E15, E20 and E25 respectively, compared with

gasoline, while at high load increased by 6.41%, 11.74% and 6% for E10, E15 and E20

and decreased by 10.69% for E25.

Figure 4.10: Specific fuel consumption Vs. loads curves comparing ethanol-gasoline

blends

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

S.F.

C (

L/K

W.h

r)

LOAD

S.F.C Vs Load

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

64

Figure 4.11: Brake thermal efficiency Vs. loads curves comparing Ethanol-

gasoline blends

4.2.6 Speed

Fig.4.12 and Table C.4 (Appendix D) represent mean speed versus loads for

blends. Throughout the test, the engine speeds were found to be increased at low loads

by 4.24% for E10, comparing with gasoline and decreased by 2.5%,1.01% and 3.12% for

E15,E20 and E25 respectively while for at high loads decreased by 4.18%, 12.89%,

12.07%, and 5.73% for E10, E15, E20, and E25 respectively.

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

7%

8%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

B.T

.E

LOAD

B.T.E Vs Load

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

65

Figure 4.12: speed vs. loads curves comparing gasoline with Ethanol

During engine testing, the ethanol produce by Kenana blended to gasoline up to

25% ethanol ratio without blends phase separation or engine practical operations

problems encountered. However, extra ethanol ratio engine will faced problem on

starting and operation. All the selected blends were successfully run on the constant

speed small spark ignition engine for 10 hours. The operation of the engine was found to

be satisfactory on the selected blends with no sign of engine trouble. The external visual

inspection on engine components after testing showed no coking and wears signs.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

SPEE

D(r

pm

)

LOAD

Speed Vs Load

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

66

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions could be drawn from this study work:

1. Fuel properties of tested Ethanol/Gasoline blends such as density and

viscosity increased continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of

ethanol while API gravity and heat value decreased with decreasing

percentage of ethanol increase. Furthermore, cloud point, flash and fire

points were found to be higher than gasoline fuel.

2. The tested blends Octane rating based Research Octane Number (RON)

increased continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of ethanol.

3. The tested blends developed higher power and fuel consumption rate with

increase brake thermal efficiency.

4. Ethanol fuels can be use as alternative fuel for gasoline engine up to 25%

blends without engine modification.

67

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the results obtained during this study work it can be suggested that:

1- Comprehensive and extensive testing on fuel properties, engine performance and

emissions of ethanol/gasoline blends on spark ignition engine should be tested for

long time.

2- Research and collaboration should be carried out in with sugar industry and GIAD

motors regarding using ethanol as alternative for spark ignition engines.

68

REFERENCES

1. A.R.Navarro, M. del C. Sepúlveda and M. C. Rubio.2000,Bio-concentration of

vinasse from the alcoholic fermentation of sugar cane molasses Paper No.

312764.

2. ASTM International, Standard Specification for Denatured Fuel Ethanol for

Blending with Gasoline for Use as Automotive Spark Ignition Engine Fuel1.

Designation: D 4806 – 01a.

3. Ethanol Production using a Soy Hydrolysate-Based Medium or a Yeast

Autolysate-Based Medium.2008, Ethanol Production

( http://www.freepatentsonline.com). 23 January, 2008

4. Jun Wang and Man-Qun Linba.2004, Influence of ethanol–gasoline blended fuel

on emission characteristics from a four-stroke motorcycle engine. bTianjin

Motorcycle Technical Center, Tianjin 300072, PR China.

5. Lynd, L.R., et al., Fuel ethanol from cellulosic biomass. Science, 1991. 251: p.

1318-1323

6. Mr.Victor MENDIS (Experimental Study on Ethanol and its Blends with

Gasoline as a Motor Fuel).

7. Suri Rajan and Fariborz F. Saniee.2001, Water—ethanol—gasoline blends as

spark ignition engine fuels. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901,

USA.

8. T. K. Bhattacharya, S. Chatterjee, T. N. Mishra.2001, Performance of a Constant

Speed CI Engine on Alcohol-Diesel Microemulsions.Published in Applied

Engineering in Agriculture Vol. 20(3): 253-257.

9. Tyson, K.S., Riley, C. J., and Humpreys, K.K. 1993. Fuel Cycle Evaluations of

Biomass-Ethanol and Reformulated Gasoline; Report No. NREL/TP-463-4950,

National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Golden, CO. Vol. 1.

69

APPENDIX A

70

APPENDIX A1

EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL

API GRAVITY

Using equation (3.1) and equation (3.2)

For example E20 sample:

S.G = 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐝 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂

𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂

Density of blend @ 300C = 0.7541

Density of water @ 300C = 0.999

S.G = 𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝟒𝟏

𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗 = 0.7548

API = (141.5/S.G) − 131.5

API = (141.5/0.7548) − 131.5 deg

Therefore, API gravity for E15 sample = 55.95

71

APPENDIX A2

EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL

VISCOSITY

Using equation (3.3), (3.3a) and (3.3b)

For example E20 sample:

V1 = t1×C1

t1 = 145 sec

C1= constant = 0.004142

V1 = 145×0.004142 = 0.60059

V2 = t2×c2

t2 = 193 sec

C2 = constant= 0.003114

V2 = 193×0.003114 = 0.601002

VAV = 𝑉₁ + 𝑉₂

2 =

0.60059 + 0.601002

2

VAV = 0.6007 mm2/sec

72

APPENDEX A3

EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL

OCTANE NUMBER

Using equation (3.4)

For example E15 sample:

O.N.S = O.N.LRF + K.I.LRF – K.I.S

𝐾.𝐼.𝐿𝑅𝐹−𝐾.𝐼.𝐻𝑅𝐹 (O.N.HRF – O.NLRF)

O.N.LRF = 98

O.N.HRF = 99

K.I.LRF = 60

K.I.S = 51

K.I.HRF = 32

O.N.S = 98+ ( 60 – 51

60−32 ) × (99 – 98)

O.N.S = 98.6

73

APPENDIX A4

EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL

BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

Using equation (3.7.a) and equation (3.7.b)

3600

..

hgqP

P

PETB

in

in

out

For example E20 sample (Appendix C, table C.6)

Data:

%33.710033.7

5375.0..

33.73600

468407541.07479.0

/46840

/7541.0

/7479.0

5375.0

ETB

kWPin

kgkjhg

Lkg

hrLq

kWPout

Brake thermal efficiency of sample= 7.33%

74

APPENDIX B

DISTILLATION TABLES

75

Table 4.7.1: DISTLLATION OF TESTED GASOLINE SAMPLE:

Distillation unit Result

IBP c0 48.0

10% recovered c0 60.0

20% recovered c0 65.0

30% recovered c0 75.0

40% recovered c0 84.0

50% recovered c0

95.0

60% recovered c0

106.0

70% recovered c0

119.0

80% recovered c0

132.0

90% recovered c0

145.0

95% recovered c0

159.0

Recovery ml 98.0

Loss ml 0.5

Residue ml 1.5

76

Table 4.7.2: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 10% + GASOLINE 90%:

Distillation unit Result

IBP c0 39.8

10% recovered c0 52.6

20% recovered c0 57.9

30% recovered c0 62.1

40% recovered c0 66.1

50% recovered c0

73.6

60% recovered c0

105.5

70% recovered c0

123.4

80% recovered c0

142.6

90% recovered c0

164.3

95% recovered c0

183.1

Recovery ml 97.7

Loss ml 1.3

Residue ml 1.0

77

Table 4.7.3: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 15% + GASOLINE 85%:

Distillation unit Result

IBP c0 39.3

10% recovered c0 52.3

20% recovered c0 58.1

30% recovered c0 62.9

40% recovered c0 66.7

50% recovered c0

70.7

60% recovered c0

79.5

70% recovered c0

119.6

80% recovered c0

140.7

90% recovered c0

161.7

95% recovered c0

180.3

Recovery ml 97.7

Loss ml 1.2

Residue ml 1.1

78

Table 4.7.4: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 20% + GASOLINE 80%:

Distillation unit Result

IBP c0 36.6

10% recovered c0 52.7

20% recovered c0 59.0

30% recovered c0 63.8

40% recovered c0 68.5

50% recovered c0

72.0

60% recovered c0

74.7

70% recovered c0

107.1

80% recovered c0

137.5

90% recovered c0

160.6

95% recovered c0

180.0

Recovery ml 97.3

Loss ml 1.5

Residue ml 1.2

79

Table 4.7.5: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 25% + GASOLINE 75%:

Distillation unit Result

IBP c0 41.0

10% recovered c0 55.2

20% recovered c0 62.0

30% recovered c0 66.9

40% recovered c0 70.6

50% recovered c0

73.5

60% recovered c0

75.7

70% recovered c0

79.0

80% recovered c0

137.5

90% recovered c0

163.7

95% recovered c0

184.9

Recovery ml 96.7

Loss ml 2.0

Residue ml 1.3

80

APPENDIX C

GENERATOR TEST DATA

81

GENERATOR TEST DATA –100% GASOLINE

Table C.1

GENERATOR TEST DATA –10 % ETHONOL & 90% GASOLIN

Table C.2

Current

(A)

Voltage

(V)

Consum.

kg

Time Speed

RPM

Loads

2.40

220

0.0568

5 min

2842

No

Load

3.25

210

0.0805

5 min

2471

0.25

Load

4.00

182

0.0866

5 min

2327

0.5

Load

5.20

155

0.0975

5 min

2260

0.75

Load

6.00

130

0.1000

5 min

2230

Full

Load

Current

(A)

Voltage

(V)

Consum.

kg

Time Speed

RPM

Loads

2.5

215

0.0510

5 min

2765

No

Load

3.5

210

0.0725

5 min

2665

0.25

Load

4.1

190

0.0770

5 min

2393

0.5

Load

5.0

150

0.0800

5 min

2228

0.75

Load

5.6

120

0.0855

5 min

2075

Full

Load

82

GENERATOR TEST DATA –15 % ETHONOL & 85% GASOLINE

Table C.3

GENERATOR TEST DATA –20 % ETHONOL & 80% GASOLINE

Table C.4

Current

(A)

Voltage

(V)

Consum.

kg

Time Speed

RPM

Loads

2.4

200

0.044

5 min

2701

No

Load

3.4

205

0.0655

5 min

2514

0.25

Load

4.2

170

0.0680

5 min

2321

0.5

Load

4.9

145

0.0700

5 min

2143

0.75

Load

5.5

120

0.0815

5 min

1770

Full

Load

Current

(A)

Voltage

(V)

Consum.

kg

Time Speed

RPM

Loads

2.5

215

0.047

5 min

2813

No

Load

3.8

200

0.0685

5 min

2450

0.25

Load

4.4

180

0.0735

5 min

2355

0.5

Load

5.0

145

0.0810

5 min

2209

0.75

Load

5.6

125

0.0875

5 min

2155

Full

Load

83

GENERATOR TEST DATA –25% ETHONOL & 75% GASOLINE

Table C.5

Current

(A)

Voltage

(V)

Consum.

kg

Time Speed

RPM

Loads

2.5

215

0.0550

5 min

2660

No

Load

3.2

205

0.0700

5 min

2493

0.25

Load

3.8

185

0.0795

5 min

2377

0.5

Load

4.9

145

0.0885

5 min

2178

0.75

Load

5.3

115

0.0970

5 min

2055

Full

Load

84

APPENDIX D

CALCULATED OF ENGINE PERFORMANCE

85

Table (C.1) CALCULATED POWER OUTPUT OF GASOLINE FUEL AND

ETHANOL (KW)

Blend .4 Ethanol 25 %

Blend .3 Ethanol 20 %

Blend .2 Ethanol 15 %

Blend .1 Ethanol 10%

Gasoline 100 %

Loads

0.5375 0.5375 0.48 0.5375 0.528 No Load

0.656 0.760 0.697 0.735 0.6825 0.25 Load

0.703 0.792 0.714 0.779 0.728 0.5 Load

0.7105 0.725 0.7105 0.750 0.806 0.75 Load

0.6095 0.7 0.66 0.672 0.78 Full Load

Table (C.2) CALCULATED ENGINE TORQUE OF GASOLINE FUEL AND

ETHANOL (N.m)

Blend .4 Ethanol 25 %

Blend .3 Ethanol20%

Blend .2 Ethanol15%

Blend .1 Ethanol10%

Gasoline

100%

Loads

1.93 1.82 1.61 1.86 1.77 No Load

2.51 2.96 2.65 2.63 2.64 0.25 Load

2.82 3.21 2.94 3.11 2.99 0.5 Load

3.12 3.13 3.17 3.21 3.41 0.75 Load

2.83 3.10 3.56 3.09 3.34

Full

Load

86

Table (C.3) CALCULATED FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GASOLINE FUEL AND

ETHANOL (L/h)

Blend .4 Ethanol25

%

Blend .3 Ethanol20%

Blend .2 Ethanol15%

Blend .1 Ethanol10%

Gasoline

100%

Loads

0.871 0.7479 0.7045 0.827 0.916 No

Load

1.109 1.09 1.048 1.168 1.31

0.25

Load

1.26 1.169 1.08 1.249 1.404

0.5

Load

1.402 1.288 1.12 1.297 1.581 0.75

Load

1.53 1.392 1.13 1.38 1.62 Full

Load

Table (C.4) SPEED OF GASOLINE FUEL AND ETHANOL (rpm)

Blend .4 Ethanol25%

Blend .3 Ethanol 20 %

Blend .2 Ethanol 15 %

Blend .1 Ethanol 10%

Gasoline

100%

Loads

2660 2813 2701 2765 2842 No Load

2493 2450 2514 2665 2471 0.25 Load

2377 2355 2321 2393 2327 0.5 Load

2178 2209 2143 2228 2260 0.75 Load

2055 2155 1770 2075 2230 Full Load

87

Table (C.5) CALCULATED SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GASOLINE

FUEL AND ETHANOL (L/KW.hr)

Blend .4 Ethanol25

%

Blend .3 Ethanol20%

Blend .2 Ethanol15%

Blend .1 Ethanol10%

Gasoline

100%

Loads

1.62 1.391 1.467 1.538 1.73 No

Load

1.69 1.391 1.45 1.557 1.92

0.25

Load

1.792 1.434 1.512 1.603 1.928

0.5

Load

1.998 1.776 1.576 1.729 1.96 0.75

Load

2.51 1.988 1.712 2.053 2.076 Full

Load

Table (C.6) CALCULATED BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF GASOLINE

FUEL AND ETHANOL (L/KW.hr)

Blend .4 Ethanol25

%

Blend .3 Ethanol20%

Blend .2 Ethanol15%

Blend .1 Ethanol10%

Gasoline

100%

Loads

6.26 7.33 6.98 6.72 6 No

Load

6.00 7.11 6.80 6.51 5.40

0.25

Load

5.66 6.90 6.77 6.45 5.35

0.5

Load

5.14 5.75 6.50 5.98 5.26 0.75

Load

4.02 5.15 5.20 5.01 4.97 Full

Load

1

Abstract

Fuel properties of Ethanol/Gasoline blends were studied and compared with pure

gasoline fuel. Those blends were named E10, E15, E20, and E25. The performance of a

constant speed, single cylinder spark ignition engine with these blends was tested.

Fuel properties test results showed that blends densities and kinematics viscosity

were found to increase continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of ethanol

while API gravity and heat value decreased with decreasing percentage of ethanol

increase. Furthermore, cloud point, flash and fire points were found to be higher than

gasoline fuel. The tested blends Octane rating based Research Octane Number (RON)

increased continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of ethanol.

The power output and torque producing for blends increased in E10 and E20, and

decrease in E15 and E25 at low loads. The fuel consumption rate and specific fuel

consumption decreased for blends. Break thermal efficiency for blends was a slight

variation compared to gasoline fuel. The performance with tested blends showed diverse

results due to difference in fuel properties.

2

المـــــلخص

. يثاىه ع اىبسي ، وقارخها ع وقىد اىبسي اىصافيإل اخييطحج دراست خصائض

اىاميتوقذ حج حجربت أداء . E25 وE20 وE15وE10 اىخيطاث حسيج حجو

. اىذاخييشخعاه إل حرك رو اسطىات واحذة يعو بافيبسرعت ثابخت

اىنياحينيتزوجتهها واىخيطاثوقذ أظهرث خائج اخخباراث خصائض اىىقىد أ مثافاث

، بيا اخفضج اىقيت ع زيادة سبت اإليثاىه وبشنو خطيحسداد بصىرة سخرة

قطت عالوة عيى رىل وجذ أ . ع اخفاض سبت اإليثاىه APIاىحراريت و اىثقو

عذالث األومخي .ماج أعيى وقىد اىبسي اىـغيت وقطت اىىيط و اإلشخعاه

في اىخيطاث ازدادث بصىرة (RON)اىخخبرة اىبيت عيى أساش رق بحث األومخي

.سخرة وخطيت ع زيادة سبت اإليثاىه

E20 واىسيج E10 اىسيج ازدادث فيىيخيطاثاىقذرة اىاحجت واىعس باىسبت

عذه اسخهالك . اىخفط عذ اىخحيوE25 واىسيج E15 اىسيجواخفضج في

ىسيج هاألداء . جيع اىخيطاث اىخخبرة اخفط في ىعياىىقىد واسخهالك اىىقىد اه

ىقذ أظهر أداء اىاميت عذ . اىخخبر أظهر خائج خخيفت سبت إلخخالف خصائض اىىقىد

.إسخخذا عياث اىىقىد اىخخبرة خائج خبايت سبت ىإلخخالف في خىاص اىىقىد

3

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

A steady growth in world population has taken place in tandem with ever-

increasing per capita energy consumption. Moreover, population has grown

geometrically in the last 1,000 years, placing additional pressure on energy resources. To

satisfy the ever-increasing demand, humanity has made use of different energy sources,

and the relative importance of these resources has differed between industrialized and

developing countries.

Petroleum formed a quantum leap in the field of energy and became a vital

source; but the studies of 18,000 petroleum fields around the world revealed that

petroleum will begin to recede within the next five years due to the limited quantities of

petroleum in the world and the increasing rates of consumption. The production of

petroleum began to recede since 2005, while the demand increases by 2% annually.

Obviously this indicates that there is shortage which will reach up to 40% by the year

2020, thus leading to increase in petroleum prices. With the harmful effects of petroleum

on the environment in mind, scientists and researchers resorted to finding new forms and

sources of energy to resolve the problem of petroleum being the traditional fuel. So

4

people will search for alternative energy source, for example: solar energy, wind energy,

hydroelectric energy and bio-fuel.

Bio-fuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass.

The term covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Bio-fuels are gaining

increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as petroleum price spikes

and the need for increased energy security. Bio-fuel is a fuel made from ethanol alcohol

that used as a total or partial replacement for gasoline runs in spark ignition engine. It can

be produced in large commercial quantities by fermenting the sugar or starch portion of

raw material and thus the crops used for ethanol production vary by region- such as sugar

cane, maize, grains, sugar beet, etc, it release CO2 when burned in internal combustion

engines, they differ from fossil fuels partly because their use reduces the net emission of

carbon dioxide and other gases associated with global climate change and partly because

they are biodegradable. The main benefits identified in connection with CO2 emission is

usually explained by the theory of carbon recycling. When plants develop, they capture

carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in order to facilitate photosynthesis necessary for

their growth. Carbon dioxide and water in presence of light captured by chlorophylls

produce oxygen and sugar glucose. Glucose converted to cellulose builds plant tissue or

is stored as starch. Starch crops and the resulting cellulosic biomass provide feedstock for

bio-fuel production. Whilst green plants operate as carbon sinks absorbing atmospheric

carbon dioxide, the net CO2 output of bio-fuel is theoretically zero. Accordingly the

released returns to carbon cycle, meaning that bio-fuel may also be considered carbon

neutral. So it is an environmentally friendly alternative to petroleum. Although it is easy

5

to manufacture and process, it is expensive to do research and used by human, but it will

not be expensive anymore when the petroleum price is high enough.

Utilization of renewable sources of energy available in Sudan is now a major

issue in the future energy strategic planning for the alternative to the fossil conventional

energy to provide part of the local energy demand. Sudan's renewable portfolio is broad

and diverse, due in part to the country's wide range of climates. It has a long history in

renewable energy utilization like many of the African leaders. Sudan has a very unique

geographical location and an area of about one million square miles. Bordering nine

African countries, and also distinguished by its fertile land, heavy rains and the

availability of water resources River Nile, Blue Nile, White Nile, Bahr Al- Arab and

underground water, over and above the Sudan enjoys the third largest industrial basis in

Africa after South Africa and Egypt. Although the utilize capacities are low ranged

between 20-25 %.

Sugar industry in Sudan will be the base for production of ethanol from sugar

plenty molasses. Kenana the world's largest integrated cane sugar manufacturing plant

will be the focus of ethanol production. Hundred million liters would be considered a

possible ethanol production capacity due to an increase in production capacity in the

Sudan together with the production capacity of the White Nile sugar factory and the

existing production capacities of the other cane sugar production factories such as

Assalaya, Sennar, El-Guneid and Halfa. To date the arrangements to introduce ethanol in

Sudan as fuel for cars, generators and motorcycles engines is limited. Consequently, the

6

use of the ethanol as fuel at present should be advocated strongly for research and

development as well as a quick and subsidized market introduction (i.e. tax credit

exception).

1.2 Statement of Objective:

The purpose of this study is to determine fuel properties and engine performance of

Ethanol /Gasoline blends for spark ignition engine. Specific objectives were:

- To determine properties of blends such as density, API gravity, viscosity, cloud

point, flash and fire point, heat value and compare them with those of gasoline

fuel.

- To determine Octane rating based on Research Octane Number (RON) for blends

and compares them with those of gasoline fuel.

- To evaluate engine performance on Ethanol/Gasoline blends compared to

gasoline fuel; performance parameters being: power output, engine torque, fuel

consumption rate, specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency.

7

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Ethanol:

Ethanol ethyl alcohol (ETOH) made from grains or other plants, is produced by

fermenting and distilling grains such as corn, barley and wheat. Another form of ethanol,

called bio-ethanol, can be made from many types of trees and grasses, and it is an

alcohol-based alternative fuel that is blended with gasoline to produce a fuel with a

higher octane rating and fewer harmful emissions than unblended gasoline.

Chemistry:

The chemical formula for ethanol is CH₃CH₂OH. Essentially, ethanol is ethane with a

hydrogen molecule replaced by a hydroxyl radical, -OH, which is bonded to a carbon

atom.

Structure of ethanol molecule (All bonds are singles bonds)

Glucose (a simple sugar) is created in the plant by photosynthesis.

8

6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂

During ethanol fermentation, glucose is decomposed into ethanol and carbon dioxide.

C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2 C₂H₅OH + 2 CO₂ + heat

During combustion ethanol reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and

heat:

C₂H₅OH + 3 O₂ → 2 CO₂ + 3 H₂O + heat

After doubling the combustion reaction because two molecules of ethanol are produced

for each glucose molecule, and adding all three reactions together, there are equal

numbers of each type of molecule on each side of the equation, and the net reaction for

the overall production and consumption of ethanol is just:

Light → heat

The heat of the combustion of ethanol is used to drive the piston in the engine by

expanding heated gases. It can be said that sunlight is used to run the engine.

Ethanol may also be produced industrially from ethene (ethylene). Addition of water to

the double bond converts ethene to ethanol:

CH₂=CH₂ + H₂O → CH₃CH₂OH

This is done in the presence of an acid which catalyzes the reaction, but is not consumed.

The ethene is produced from petroleum by steam cracking.

2.1 Ethanol Production

9

Ethanol is a form of renewable energy that can be produced from agricultural

feedstocks. It can be made from very common crops such as, potato, wheat, barley, sugar

beet and sugar cane. Sugar crops such as sugar cane, sugar beets and sweet sorghum are

extracted to produce a sugar-containing solution that can be directly fermented by yeast.

Starch feedstock; however must be carried through and additional conversion step.

A.R. Navarro, et al. (2000) studied a concentration-incineration process of vinasse

that has been in use for several years in order to deal with pollution resulting from the

industrial production of ethanol by fermentation and distillation. However, as vinasse

concentration had a high energy demand, a bio-concentration method with no energy

consumption. Vinasses was used instead of water in the preparation of the fermentation

medium and repeatedly recycled. A final solid concentration of 24% dry matter was

produced, an amount that positively modifies the energy balance of the concentration-

incineration process. A decrease of 66% in nutrients addition, 46.2% in fresh water and

50% in sulfuric acid requirement was achieved together with an improvement in the

efficiency of the fermentation. The final vinasse had a significant amount of non-volatile

by-products of commercial importance such as glycerol. A mathematical model is

proposed for the prediction of the final solids concentration in vinasse under various

working conditions. (1)

Farid Talebnia et al. (2004) investigated the performance of encapsulated

Saccharomyces cerevisiae CBS 8066 in anaerobic cultivation of glucose, in the presence

and absence of furfural as well as in dilute-acid hydrolyzates. The cultivation of

encapsulated cells in 10 sequential batches in synthetic media resulted in linear increase

10

of biomass up to 106 g/L of capsule volume, while the ethanol productivity remained

constant at 5.15 (±0.17) g/L.h (for batches 6-10). The cells had average ethanol and

glycerol yields of 0.464 and 0.056 g/g in these 10 batches. Addition of 5 g/L furfural

decreased the ethanol productivity to a value of 1.3(±0.10)g/L.h with the encapsulated

cells, but it was stable in this range for five consecutive batches. On the other hand, the

furfural decreased the ethanol yield to 0.41-0.42 g/g and increased the yield of acetic acid

drastically up to 0.068 g/g. No significant lag phase was observed in any of these

experiments. The encapsulated cells were also used to cultivate two different types of

dilute-acid hydrolyzates. While the free cells were not able to ferment, the hydrolyzates

within at least 24 hours. The encapsulated yeast successfully converted to glucose and

mannose in both of the hydrolyzates in less than 10 hours with no significant lag phase.

However, the hydrolyzates were too toxic; the encapsulated cells lost their activity

gradually in sequential batches.

Dimple K. Kundiyana et al. (2006) studied ethanol production from sweet

sorghum in the United States. Sweet sorghum has the potential to be used as a renewable

energy crop, and has become a viable candidate for ethanol production. The idea to use

sweet sorghum for commercial ethanol production is not new. But previous barriers to

commercialization of this process have been the high capital costs involved in ensilage

and fermentation at a central processing plant that may be operated only seasonally. In

order to diminish the high capital investment necessary in a central processing facility,

the proposed process involves in-field production of ethanol from sweet sorghum. The

process includes a newly designed field harvester capable of pressing and collecting the

juice, large storage bladders for fermentation, and a mobile distillation unit for ethanol

11

concentration. In order to achieve in-field ethanol fermentation in large bladders, one of

the remaining questions is whether fermentation can take place in the environment with

no process control. The focus of the current research was to evaluate the effects of yeast

type, pH adjustment, and nutrient addition on fermentation process efficiency.

Also, it was found that the engine performance improves as the percentage of ethanol

increases in the blend within the range studied.

2.1.1 Ethanol Manufacturing Process:

Ethanol can be made synthetically from petroleum or by microbial conversion of

biomass materials through fermentation. In 1995, about 93% of the ethanol in the world

was produced by the fermentation method and about 7% by the synthetic method. The

fermentation method generally uses two steps namely fermentation and distillation (see

Figure 2.1). (3)

2.1.1.1 Fermentation:

At this point the starch has been broken down to the simple sugar glucose and is

now in a form which microorganisms called yeasts can feed on. Yeasts, in metabolizing

glucose, produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. As with the enzymes, yeasts have an

optimum temperature range. The mash is transferred to the fermentation tank and cooled

to the optimum temperature (around 80 - 90°F). Care has to be taken to assure that no

infection (other organisms that compete with the yeast for the glucose) occurs.

2.1.1.2 Distillation:

12

Distillation separates the ethanol from the beer, which is mostly water and

ethanol. (In some alcohol plants, distillation takes place in one, very tall column; the

process diagrammed above uses two separate columns, a stripper column and a rectifying

column).

Ethanol boils at 172°F (at sea level), while water boils at 212°F. By heating the

beer to 172°F, the ethanol can be boiled off and the vapour captured and condensed to

produce 192-proof (96 percent) ethanol concentration producible by conventional

distillation. 200-proof (anhydrous) alcohol (which is required for blending gasohol) can

be obtained through additional dehydration steps. Lower-grade ethanol (170-190 proof)

can be used by itself in vehicles modified for alcohol use.

13

Source: Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, CO

80401.

Figure 2.1: Ethanol Manufacturing Process

2.2 Bio-ethanol Fuel Properties:

R. J. Dinu et al (2001) studied opportunities for matching wood chemical and

physical properties to manufacturing and product requirements via genetic modification

have long been recognized. Exploitation is now feasible due to advances in trait

measurement, breeding, genetic mapping and marker, and genetic transformation

technologies. With respect to classic selection and breeding of short-rotation poplars,

genetic parameters are favourable for decreasing lignin content and increasing specific

14

gravity, but less so for increasing cellulose content. Knowledge of functional genomics is

expanding, as is that needed for eventual application of marker-aided breeding, trait

dissection, candidate gene identification, and gene isolation. Research on gene transfer

has yielded transgenic poplars with decreased lignin and increased cellulose contents, but

otherwise normal growth and development. Until effective marker-aided breeding

technologies become available, the most promising approach for enhancing ethanol fuel

and fibre production and processing efficiencies centres on selecting and breeding

poplars for high wood substance yields and genetically transforming them for decreased

lignin and increased cellulose contents

J. Yamin (2006) investigated the effect of ethanol addition to low octane number

gasoline, in terms of calorific value, octane number, compression ratio at knocking and

engine performance. Locally produced gasoline (octane number 87) was blended with

five different percentages of ethanol, namely 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% on volume

basis. The properties of the respective fuel blends were first determined. Then they were

tested in an engine. It was found that the octane number of gasoline increases

continuously and linearly with ethanol percentages in gasoline. Hence, ethanol is an

effective compound for increasing the value of the octane number of gasoline. Also, it

was found that the engine performance improves as the percentage of ethanol increases in

the blend within the range studied.

Recently, the oxygenated and Octane enhancing benefits of ethanol have been

highlighted as a potential substitute for Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE). MTBE has

been shown to be highly toxic.

15

Table 2.1 Properties of Ethanol alcohol

46.07

Molecular wt.

0.789 kg/L Density

1.19 mm2/s at 20C Viscosity

78.4°C Boiling temperature

27000 (kJ/ kg) Heat value

-114.3°C Solve temperature

15H+ citrus temperature

2.3 Fuel properties definitions:

The internal combustion engine was invented more than one hundred years ago, and

numerous improvements have been made since its invention. The development of fuels

paralleled the development of the engine. Many standards concerning the required

properties of engine fuels and tests for measuring those properties have been set. Most of

the standards were developed through the cooperative efforts of the American Society for

Testing Materials (ASTM), the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and the

American Petroleum Institute (API). Only the most important of the many standards will

be discussed here. Some standards apply to only one type of fuel. For instance, fuel

viscosity is relevant only to CI engine fuels. Other standards, such as heating value, apply

to all types of fuels.

16

2.3.1 Density, API & Specific gravity:

Specific gravity is a measure of the density of liquid fuels. It is the ratio of the

density of the fuel at 15.6 C to the density of water at the same temperature. The density

of water at 15.6 is 1 kg/L, so the specific gravity of a fuel is equal to its density in kg/L.

Density of liquids decreases slightly with increasing temperatures. Therefore, densities

must be measured at the standard temperature of 15.6 C or must be corrected to that

temperature.

The API (American Petroleum Institute) has devised a special scale for gravities. It is

expressed in API degrees and is calculated as follows:

API = (141.5/S.P)−131.5

Where:

SG = specific gravity of fuel at 15.6 C.

In general high API gravity implies high octane number of fuel.

2.3.2 Viscosity:

Kinematic viscosity is measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid under

gravity, it is important to note that viscosity critically depends on temperature and

numerically value of viscosity has no significance or meaning unless the temperature of

the test is specified. So in determining any viscosity of fuel the temperature during the

test must always be state. ASTM D445 is a standard test procedure for determining the

17

kinematics viscosity of liquids. It provides a measure of the time required for a volume of

liquid to flow under gravity through a calibrated glass capillary tube. The kinematics

viscosity is then equal to the product of this time and a calibration constant for the tube.

The dynamic viscosity can be obtained by multiplying the kinematics viscosity by the

density of the fluid. The viscosity must be high enough to ensure proper lubrication of the

injector pump. If viscosity is too low, the fuel will flow too easily and will not maintain a

lubricating film between moving and stationary parts in the pump. If viscosity is too high,

the injectors may not be able to atomize the fuel into small enough droplets to achieve

good vaporization and combustion. Injection line pressure and fuel delivery rates also are

affected by fuel viscosity.

2.3.3 Flash and fire point:

The flash point varies with fuel volatility but is not related to engine performance.

Rather, the flash point relates to safety precautions that must be taken when handling a

fuel. The flash point is the lowest temperature to which a fuel must be heated to produce

an ignitable vapour-air mixture above the liquid fuel when exposed to an open flame. At

temperatures below the flash point, not enough fuel evaporates to form a combustible

mixture. Insurance companies and governmental agencies classify fuels according to their

flash points and use these points in setting minimum standards for the handling and

storage of fuels. Gasoline's have flash points well below the freezing point of water and

can readily ignite in the presence of a spark or flame.

18

The fire point is the lowest temperature at which application of an ignition source

causes the vapours of a test specimen of the sample to ignite and sustain burning for a

minimum 5 sec under specific conditions of test.

2.3.4 Cloud and Pour Point:

As a liquid is cooled, a temperature at which the larger fuel molecules begin to form

crystals is reached. With continued cooling, more crystals form and agglomerate until the

entire fuel mass begins to solidify. The temperature at which crystals began to appear is

called the cloud point, and the pour point is the highest temperature at which the fuel

ceases to flow. The cloud point typically occurs between 5 and 8 C above the pour point.

Cloud and pour points become important for heavier fuels in the higher boiling ranges.

Although the pour ability of gasoline is not a problem, SAE provides guidelines for

specifying pour points of diesel fuel.

2.3.5 Octane rating:

Octane rating is a measure of the knock resistance of gasoline. Knock is avoided in

a spark-ignition engine when burning starts at the spark plug and a flame front sweeps

smoothly across the combustion chamber to consume the fuel. Knock occurs when the

end gases–the gases ahead of the flame front–ignite spontaneously and generate a rapid,

uncontrolled release of energy. The quick release causes a sharp rise in pressure and

pressure oscillations, which may lead to an audible ping or knock.

19

The octane number of a fuel is measured in a test engine, and is defined by

comparison with the mixture of iso-octane and heptane which would have the same anti-

knocking capacity as the fuel under test: the percentage, by volume, of iso-octane in that

mixture is the octane number of the fuel This does not mean that the petrol contains just

iso-octane and heptane in these proportions, but that it has the same detonation resistance

properties. Because some fuels are more knock-resistant than iso-octane, the definition

has been extended to allow for octane numbers higher than 100.

The octane number given automotive fuels is really an indication of the ability of the

fuel to resist premature detonation within the combustion chamber. Premature detonation,

or engine knock, comes about when the fuel/air mixture ignites spontaneously toward the

end of the compression stroke because of intense heat and pressure within the combustion

chamber. Since the spark plug is supposed to ignite the mixture at a slightly later point in

the engine cycle, pre-ignition is undesirable, and can actually damage or even ruin an

engine.

The ASTM has developed two different methods for measuring octane ratings of

gasoline. Both methods use the same CFR engine, but different operating conditions. The

motor method is more severe and results in a lower octane rating than does the research

method. The Research Octane Number (RON) is typically about eight numbers higher

than the Motor Octane Number (MON) for a given gasoline sample. Many service

stations now post an anti-knock index on their pumps. The anti-knock index is simply the

numerical average of the RON and MON.

20

2.3.6 Heat value:

The heating value of a fuel is a measure of how much energy we can get from it on

a per-unit basis, be it pounds or gallons. When comparing alcohol to gasoline, it's obvious

that ethanol contains only about 63% of the energy that gasoline does. Mainly because of

the presence of oxygen in the alcohol's structure. But since alcohol undergoes different

changes as it's vaporized and compressed in an engine, the outright heating value of the

ethanol isn't as important when it's used as a motor fuel.

The fact that there's oxygen in the alcohol's structure also means that this fuel will

naturally be leaner in comparison to gasoline fuel without making any changes to the jets

in the carburettor. This is one reason why we must enrich the air/fuel mixture (add more

fuel) when burning alcohol by increasing the size of the jets, which we'll discuss further

in another section.

The purpose of fuels is to release energy for doing work. Thus, the heating value of

fuels is an important measure of their worth. Heating values can be measured by burning

the fuel in a bomb calorimeter. The combustion creates water and energy from the fuel is

used to convert that water to vapour in the bomb. The heating value measured by the

bomb is therefore called the lower, or net, heating value of the fuel. The gross , or higher

heating value is found by adding to the net heating value the latent heat of vaporization of

the water created in combustion. When engine efficiencies are calculated, it is important

to state whether the higher or lower heating value of the fuel is used in the calculation.

Published heats of combustion are usually higher heating values and are therefore often

21

used to calculate engine efficiencies. (Goering 1989). Heat of combustion is normally

expressed in kilojoules per kilogram.

2.3.7 Fuel Volatility:

Fuels must vaporize before they can burn. Volatility refers to the ability of fuels

to vaporize. Fuels that vaporize easily at lower temperatures are more volatile than are

fuels that require higher temperatures to vaporize. Reid vapour pressure and distillation

curves are both indicators of fuel volatility. Distillation curve gives a more complete

picture of fuel volatility.

2.3.7.1 Distillation:

Is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a

boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process,

and not a reaction. Commercially, distillation has a number of applications. It is used to

separate crude oil into more fractions for specific uses such as transport, power

generation and heating. (6)

Distillation was introduced to medieval Europe through Latin translations of Arabic

chemical treatises in the 12th century. In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus

Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi (The Book of the Art of Distillation) the

first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much

expanded version. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major

English compendium of practice, though it has been claimed that much of it derives from

22

Braunschweig's work. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial

rather than bench scale of the operation.

.

In general results of distillation tests are plotted as shown in Figure 2.2 the curves are

especially important for gasoline, and three points on the distillation curve are of special

interest. The points T10, T50, and T90 refer, respectively, to the temperatures on the curve

at which 10%, 50%, and 90% of the fuel has been distilled. For the easy starting of a

gasoline engine in winter conditions, the T10 temperature must be sufficiently low to

allow enough fuel to evaporate to form a combustible mixture. The T50 point is associated

with engine warm-up: a low T50 temperature will allow the engine to warm up and gain

power quickly without stalling. The T90 temperature is associated with the crankcase

dilution and fuel economy: if the T90 temperature is too high, the larger fuel molecules

will condense on the cylinder liners and pass down into the lubricating oil in the

crankcase instead of burning. Gasoline volatility is adjusted by petroleum refiners to suit

the season and location (see SAE Recommended Practice J312 [SAE, 1999a] in the

References and Suggested Readings). (6)

23

Source: off-Road Vehicle engineering principles St.Joseph, Mich: ASAE (American

Society of Agricultural Engineering).

Figure 2.2 Distillation curves of gasoline

2.4 Engine Performance and Emissions

Suri Rajan et al. (1982) investigated miscibility characteristics of hydrated ethanol

with gasoline as a means of reducing the cost of ethanol/gasoline blends for use as a

spark ignition engine fuel. For a given percentage of water in the ethanol, the

experimental data showed that a limited volume of gasoline can be added to form a stable

mixture. Engine experiments indicate that, at normal ambient temperatures, a

water/ethanol/gasoline mixture containing up to 6 volume % of water in the ethanol

constitutes a desirable motor fuel with power characteristics similar to those of the base

gasoline. As a means of reducing the smog causing components of the exhaust gases,

such as the oxides of nitrogen and the unburnt hydrocarbons, the water/ethanol/gasoline

mixture was superior to the base gasoline. (7)

0

50

100

150

200

250

0 50 100 150

TEM

PER

ATU

RE

ºC

PERCENT DISTILLED

Distillation curves of gasoline

TYPICAL WINTER GASOLINE

TYPICAL SUMMER GASOLINE

24

T. K. Bhattacharya et al. (2001) studied a constant speed; direct-injection diesel

engine rated at 7.4 kW was tested on diesel fuel and four different ethanol-1-butanol-

diesel micro emulsions. The stable and homogeneous micro emulsions were obtained by

mixing 160, 170, and 180 Proof ethanol-1-butanol-diesels in 1:2.5:5.5 as well as 180.

Proof ethanol-1-butanol-diesel in 1:2:3 proportions. The characteristic fuel properties

such as relative density, kinematics viscosity and gross heat of combustion of the micro

emulsions were found to be close to that of diesel fuel. The power-producing capability

of the engine was found similar on diesel fuel and the micro emulsions. The emission of

CO was found to be marginally lower but that of unburnt hydrocarbons and NO X were

higher on micro emulsions. An engine durability test of 310 h was successful.

Xiao-Guang Yan et al. (2002) investigated the effect of ethanol blended gasoline

fuels on emissions and catalyst conversion efficiencies in a spark ignition engine with an

electronic fuel injection (EFI) system. The addition of ethanol to gasoline fuel enhanced

the octane number of the blended fuels and changes distillation temperature. Ethanol

could decrease engine-out regulated emissions. The fuel containing 30% ethanol by

volume could drastically reduce engine-out total hydrocarbon emissions (THC) at

operating conditions and engine-out THC, CO and NOx emissions at idle speed, but

unburned ethanol and acetaldehyde emissions increase. Pt/Rh based three-way catalysts

are effective in reducing acetaldehyde emissions, but the conversion of unburned ethanol

was low. Tailpipe emissions of THC, CO and NOx have close relation to engine-out

emissions, catalyst conversion efficiency, engine's speed and load, air/fuel equivalence

ratio. Moreover, the blended fuels could decrease brake specific energy consumption.

25

Jun Wanga et al. (2004) studied the emission characteristics from a four-stroke

motorcycle engine using 10% (v/v) ethanol–gasoline blended fuel (E10) at different

driving modes on the chassis dynamometers. The results indicated that CO and HC

emissions in the engine exhaust were lower with the operation of E10 as compared to the

use of unleaded gasoline, whereas the effect of ethanol on NOX emission was not

significant. Furthermore, species of both unburned hydrocarbons and their ramifications

were analyzed by the combination of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS)

and gas chromatography/flame ionization detection (GC/FID). This analysis showed that

aromatic compounds (benzene, toluene, xylene isomers (o-xylene, m-xylene and p-

xylene), ethyltoluene isomers (o-ethyltoluene, m-ethyltoluene and p-ethyltoluene) and

trimethylbenzene isomers (1, 2, 3-trimethylbenzene, 1, 2, 4-trimethylbenzene and 1, 3, 5-

trimethylbenzene) and fatty group ones (ethylene, methane, acetaldehyde, ethanol,

butene, pentane and hexane) were major compounds in motorcycle engine exhaust. It was

found that the E10-fueled motorcycle engine produces more ethylene, acetaldehyde and

ethanol emissions than unleaded gasoline engine does. The no significant reduction of

aromatics was observed in the case of ethanol–gasoline blended fuel.

J.Basanavičiaus (2006) investigated experimentally and compared the engine

performance and pollutant emission of a SI engine using ethanol–gasoline blended fuel

and pure gasoline. The results showed that when ethanol is added, the heating value of

the blended fuel decreases, while the octane number of the blended fuel increases. The

results of the engine test indicated that when ethanol–gasoline blended fuel is used, the

engine power and specific fuel consumption of the engine slightly increase; CO emission

decreases dramatically as a result of the leaning effect caused by the ethanol addition; HC

26

emission decreases in some engine working conditions; and CO2 emission increases

because of the improved combustion.

2.5 Ethanol Production in Sudan

Sudan is rich of fertile land a lot of water from irrigation and wide range of

climates which leads to different crops and this is helpful to produce many thinks like

ethanol the most important crop to produce ethanol is sugar cane.

2.5.1 Sugar cane

Processing of cane sugar will be the base for production of ethanol. Kenana the

world's largest integrated cane sugar manufacturing plant will be the focus of ethanol

production. An increase in production capacity in the Sudan together with the production

capacity of the White Nile sugar factory and the existing production capacities of the

other cane sugar production factories like Assalaya, Sennar, El-Guneid and Halfa. 100

million liters would be considered a possible ethanol production capacity

Table 2.2: Existing Sugar Capacities

Estimated ethanol capacity (liter) Project

65,000,000 Kenana sugar company

40,000,000 Sudanese sugar company

40,000,000 White Nile sugar company

145,000,000 Subtotal

27

Table 2.3: Sudan Grand Sugar Plan 2014

Estimated ethanol capacity (liter) project

90,000,000 Western White Nile projects

380,000,000 Gazira Scheme projects

470,000,000 Subtotal

615,000,000 Grand total

2.6 Kenana Ethanol Project:

The ethanol plant of the stated capacity will required around 1.5 MWh which can

easily be supplied by the exiting KSC power house without the need for any additional

investment in power generation equipment. Eight high capacity steam boilers are

available in the factory. Kenana has a storage capacity of 55.000 MTs molasses an

ethanol plant of around 50 million litters will required a molasses storage capacity of

around 60,000 MTs Kenana’s exiting storage capacity is considered enough to enable the

plant to operate continuously during the off-crop period. The factory has adequate well

fenced and protected land characterized by suitable gravel base for laying the necessary

foundation establishing the ethanol plant.

Table 2.3: Kenana Ethanol Capacity and Product Specifications

Capacity 66 million liter ethanol annually

Product specification of Anhydrous alcohol

Alcohol degree 99.8% min by weight

Specific mass 20 c max 0.795 kg /L

Appearance clear, free of material in suspension

Row material Molasses

28

CHAPTER III

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Fuel properties experiments were carried out in Center Petroleum

Laboratories (CPL), Ministry of Petroleum and laboratories of Petroleum and Gas

engineering department university of Khartoum. while engine performance tests were

carried out in Power and Machinery, Agricultural Engineering department at Faculty of

Engineering, University of Khartoum.

3.1 Materials:

3.1.1 Fuel Blends Materials

- Gasoline (benzene): Gasoline was a volatile, flammable liquid obtained

from local fuel petroleum station.

- Ethanol: ethanol was color less alcohol having concentration of 98.3%

and extracted from sugar molasses. The ethanol sample was Kenana Sugar

Company product. (2)

- The tested sample blends was prepared by adding ethanol alcohol up to

25% to pure gasoline to run small engine. During this quick function test

to this ratio there was no sign of water phase separation or any engine

modification.

29

3.1.2 Fuel Properties equipment:

3.1.2.1 Viscometer:

Cannon-Fenske Opaque Viscometer, glass capillary type, having model No. H50

and Calibration Factor of C = 0.004142, C = 0.003114 (see Figure 3.1).

3.1.2.2 Hydrometer:

A glass hydrometer is calibrated and read at liquid level the density or API gravity,

(see Figure 3.2).

3.1.2.3 Flash and fire point:

Pensky-Martens cup apparatus consisted of the test cup, heating plate; test flame

applicator; heater and thermometer (see Figure 3.3).

3.1.2.4 Cloud and pour point:

Test Jar, clear, cylindrical glass, flat bottom, 33.2 to 34.8-mm outside diameter and

115 and 125-mm height. The inside diameter of the jar may range from 30 to 32.4 mm

within the constraint that the wall thickness be no greater than 1.6 mm. The jar should be

marked with a line to indicate sample height 546.3 mm above the inside bottom. (see

Figure 3.4)

30

Figure 3.1: Cannon-Fenske opaque viscometer

Figure 3.2: A Hydrometer for measuring density

31

Figure 3.3: Pensky-Martens cup apparatus

Figure 3.4: Cloud Point Test Apparatus

32

3.1.2.5 Cooperative Fuels Research (CFR) Engine

The engine test was using a standardized single cylinder, four-stroke cycle,

variable compression ratio and carbureted for the determination of Octane Number. It is

manufactured as a complete unit by Waukesha Engine Division, Model CFR F-1

Research Method Octane Rating Unit. (See Figure 3.5)

3.1.2.5.1 Specifications

Test Engine: CFR F-1 Research Method Octane Rating Unit with cast iron, box

type crankcase with flywheel connected by V-belts to power absorption electrical motor

for constant speed operation.

Cylinder type: Cast iron with flat combustion surface and integral coolant jacket

Compression ratio Adjustable 4:1 to 18:1 by cranked worm shaft and worm wheel drive

assembly in cylinder clamping sleeve.

Cylinder bore (diameter), in 3.250 (standard)

Stroke, in 4.50

Displacement, in 37.33

Lubrication Forced lubrication, motor driven pump,

plate type oil filter, relief pressure gauge

on control panel

33

Cooling

Evaporative cooling system with water

cooled condenser, Water shall be used in

the cylinder jacket for laboratory locations

where the resultant boiling temperature

shall be 100 1.5°C Water with

commercial glycol-based antifreeze added

in sufficient quantity to meet the boiling

temperature requirement shall be used

when laboratory altitude dictates

3.1.2.5.2 Mechanical accessories:

Fuel system (Carburetor)

Single vertical jet and fuel flow control to

permit adjustment of fuel-air ratio

Ignition Electronically triggered condenser discharge

through coil to spark plug

Ignition timing Constant 13° before TDC

Multiple fuel tank system with selector valving.

Intake air system with controlled temperature.

34

3.1.2.5.3 Instrumentation:

Critical Instrumentation:

Knock Measurement System Detonation pickup (sensor), a detonation meter to

condition the knock signal, and a knockmeter

Detonation Pickup Model D1 (109927) having a pressure sensitive

diaphragm, magnetostrictive core rod, and coil.

Detonation Meter

Signal Cables

Non-Critical Instrumentation:

Temperature Measurement Temperature Controller.

- Cylinder Jacket Coolant Thermometer.

Engine Crankcase Lubricating Oil Temperature

Indicator.

Pressure Measurement - Crankcase Internal Pressure Gage

(pressure/vacuum gage).

Exhaust Back Pressure Gage.(2)

35

Figure 3.5: Cooperative Fuels Research (CFR) Engine

1.1.2.5 Bomb Calorimeter

Record calorimeter complied with PARR 1266 (ASTM D240) standards, France (See

Figure 3.6).

3.1.2.7 Distillation device

The device is measuring distillation in manual method (ASTM D 86) (See Figure 3.7)

36

Figure 3.6: Recording Bomb Calorimeter

Figure 3.7: Distillation device

37

3.1.3 Engine Test:

Generator Honda EMS 3000

Honda EMS 3000 electric generating set consisted of single cylinder gasoline

engine and a 3.0 kW (2.8 kW for 50 Hz) alternating current generator Figure (3.8)

Table 3.1: Generator Specifications:

Generator model Honda EMS 3000

type 4- stroke

Stroke 95 mm

Bore 76 mm

Displacement 272 cc

Voltage (AC) 220 V

Frequency 50 Hz

Rated output 2.5 kVA

Max output 2.8 kVA

Phase 1

Digital Tachometer:

A digital model SYSTEMS tachometer indicated directly the engine speed in

revaluation per minute (See Figure 3.9). It had operating range (60- 100, 000) with

accuracy ±(0.05% 1 digit).

38

Variable electrical loader (damming load):

A dead load (15A- 220/110V) was used as an external load for generator. The

load was varied and adjusted by means of a turning wheel connected to the loader (See

figure 3.10)

Ammeter:

(0-15A) was connected in series generator to reads current output from generator.

(See figure 3.11)

Voltmeter:

High impedance OTC digital Voltmeter model MY-67 MASTECH, AC/DC Volt-

ohm measurements. It was connected across the variable loader to measure voltage drop.

(See figure 3.12)

Electric Balance:

Electric balance used to measure weight for range between (0-3) kg as shown in

(See figure 3.13)

39

Figure 3.8: Honda EMS 3000

Figure 3.9: Tachometer

40

Figure 3.10: Variable electrical loader

Figure 3.11: Ammeter

41

Figure 3.12: Voltmeter

Figure 3.13 Electric Balance (3 kg capacity)

42

3.2 Methods

3.2.1 Blends preparation:

90%, 85%, 80% and 75% (vol. basis) gasoline were mixed with 10, 15, 20 and

25% Ethanol respectively; all blends visually appeared to be homogenous mixture with

no distinct phase separation.

3.2.2Fuel abbreviation

For simplicity fuel abbreviation system were presented as shown in Table 3.1

Table 3.1: Tested Fuels Samples Abbreviation

No Fuel Symbol

1 100%gasoline (reference fuel) gasoline

2 90%gasoline +10% ethanol (98.3% Conc. ) E10

3 85%gasoline +15% ethanol (98.3% Conc. ) E15

4 80%gasoline +20% ethanol (98.3% Conc. ) E20

5 75%gasoline +25% ethanol (98.3% Conc. ) E25

3.2.3 Fuel properties determination:

Properties of tested fuels were determined in accordance with ASTM and DIN

procedures for petroleum products.

43

3.2.3.1 Density measurement:

The density of each tested sample was measured by hydrometer (ASTM D287); the

simplest formula for density is mathematically expressed as:

S.G = 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐝 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂

𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂 ……… (3.1)

API = (141.5/S.G) − 131.5 ...……. (3.2)

Where: S.G = Specific gravity.

API = American Petroleum Institute.

3.2.3.2 Viscosity determination:

Viscometer were used for determining viscosity of the fuel (ASTM D445), the

simplest formula for Kinematic viscosity is mathematically expressed as:

V = 𝑉₁ + 𝑉₂

2 ...……. (3.3)

V₁ = t₁*C₁ …….. (3.3a)

C1= 0.004142

V₂ = t₂*C₂ ……… (3.3b)

C2=0.003114

44

Where: V=Viscosity mm2/sec @ 20C.

t1, t2: time in second.

3.2.3.3 Gross Heating Value measurement:

PARR 1266 and (ASTM D240) standards were use for measuring heat of

combustion. A bomb calorimeter (Record) was used for this test. The calorific value of

the sample was determined by equating the heat generated to heat transfer to calorimeter.

3.2.3.4 Measuring Octane rating:

The test procedure for determining octane rating by CFR engine was as follows:

Preparing Reference Fuel No. 1:

Prepare a fresh batch of a PRF (primary reference fuels, for knock testing,

isooctane,n-heptane, volumetrically proportioned mixtures of isooctane with n-heptane,

or blends of tetraethyl lead in isooctane that define the octane number scale.) blend that

has an O.N. estimated to be close to that of the sample fuel, then introduce Reference

Fuel No. 1 to the engine Position the fuel-selector valve to operate the engine on

Reference Fuel No. 1 and perform the step-wise adjustments required for determining the

fuel level for maximum K.I and Record the equilibrium knockmeter reading for

Reference Fuel No. 1.

45

Preparing Reference Fuel No. 2:

Select another PRF blend that can be expected to result in a knockmeter reading

that causes the readings for the two reference fuels to bracket that of the sample fuel, the

maximum permissible difference between the two reference fuels is dependent on the

O.N. of the sample fuel, Prepare a fresh batch of the second PRF blend. Introduce

Reference Fuel No. 2 to the engine, and repeat the same steps of reference fuel NO.1.

Checking Guide Table Compliance:

Check that the cylinder height, compensated for barometric pressure, used for the

rating is within the prescribed limits of the applicable guide table value of cylinder height

for the sample fuel O.N. At all O.N. levels, the digital counter reading shall be within

20 of the guide table value. The dial indicator reading shall be within 0.014 in. of the

guide table value.

Starting the engine:

The fuel sample was poured into one of the blow carburetor. The selector value

was turned to fill up the blow, after the fuel system was purged; the key switch and starter

were turned and pressed, respectively.

Fuel sample octane number:

The octane rating of the tested sample at octane rate was obtained by interpolation

from a guide curve. A guide curve for this purpose was prepared by blends of n-heptane

and isooctane the air rate values for these blends were determined. Entering these values

46

into a coordinate system, a curve showing the dependence of air rate upon octane number

was obtained.

Calculation of O.N.:

O.N.S = O.N.LRF + K.I.LRF – K.I.S

𝐾.𝐼.𝐿𝑅𝐹−𝐾.𝐼.𝐻𝑅𝐹 (O.N.HRF – O.NLRF) …………. (3.4)

Where:

O.N.S = octane number of the sample fuel.

O.N.LRF = octane number of the low PRF.

O.N.HRF = octane number of the high PRF.

K.I.S = knock intensity (knockmeter reading) of the sample fuel.

K.I.LRF = knock intensity of the low PRF.

K.I.HRF = knock intensity of the high PRF.

3.2.4 Performance Tests

3.2.4.1 Test procedure:

The experiments were carried out using Kenana Ethanol/Gasoline blends. Honda

EMS3000 single cylinder, spark ignition gasoline engine (Honda Co. Ltd. Japan) with

specifications as shown in Table (3.1). Experimental apparatus included four major

systems, i.e., the engine system, power measurement system, engine speed system

measurement and fuel consumption measurement.

47

Extensive testing starting with warming by pure gasoline for 15 min at no load

before tests on the selected fuels blends was conducted. This typical engine was

commonly used in agricultural operations such as lift irrigation, milling, chaff cutting,

and threshing, and is used as the prime mover in electric generators, The performance

tests of the engine on ethanol/gasoline fuel were conducted at no-load, 25%, 50%, 75%

and 100% load as per Indian Standard IS:10000 (Part VIII):1980. The engine speed was

set at constant 2200 rpm at no-load condition without modification on all fuel blends

tests. Then engine was then gradually loaded to determine the power developed at

different loads and the corresponding fuel consumption. After engine had reached steady

state, engine speed; current load and voltage drop were recorded from tachometer,

ammeter and voltmeter, respectively. Fuel consumption was measured on weight with

electric balance and stop watch.

The total time of experiment was about 2 hour for up-loading (increase the load

from 0-100%).The data were recorded every 5. After each stabilization period the load

was varied to get other sets of readings.

48

1. AC generator 2. Voltmeter (0-300V)

3. AC Ammeter (0-15A) 4. Variable load (15 A 220/110 V)

Figure (3.14): Layout electric circuit diagram

Figure 3.15: Engine performance Test setup

(4)Variable

load

(2)

V

(3)

A

(1)

AC generator

49

3.2.4.2 Power calculation:

P = V * I ………………. (3.5)

Where power P is in watts, voltage V is in volts and current I is in amperes

3.2.4.3 Torque calculation:

Engine torque was determined by the following equation:

P= 2 π N T/60 ……………………….(3.6.a)

T = 60 P/2 π N ……………………..(3.6.b)

Where N is speed in RPM and T is engine torque in N.m.

3.2.4.4 Brake Thermal Efficiency Determination

The brake thermal efficiency of the selected tested fuels was determined by the

following formula:

).7.3......(..........3600

).7.3....(......................

bhgq

P

aP

PoutETB

ff

in

in

Where B.T.E = Brake thermal efficiency

1P = Power output.

fq = Fuel consumption (L/hr)

f = Fuel density (kg/L)

hg = Gross (Higher) heating value of fuel.

50

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The results of fuel properties determination and engine performance are presented

and discussed below:

4.1 Fuel Properties

4.1.1 Density and API gravity

Table 4.1 shows average values of density and API gravity for blends at

temperature of 15oC. From the result in appears that the blend densities where found to

vary from 0.7400 kg/L for gasoline to 0.7571 kg/L for E25. It was 0.05 % lighter than

gasoline for E10 but 1.26 %, 1.87% and 2.25% heavier than gasoline fuel for E15, E20

and E25, respectively. Figure 4.1 shows the plot of densities and ethanol percentage in

the blends. Blends densities increase linearly as the ethanol percentage increased and is

expressed in the following formula:

Y=0.0008X+0.7373 with R2=0.8476 (4.1)

The API gravity of blends varied between 57.510 to 55.21 degrees. The gasoline

fuel API gravity was lighter being 59.53 degrees. Figure 4.2 shows the plot of API

gravity and ethanol percentage in the blend. The blends API gravity decreased linearly as

ethanol percentage increased and is expressed in the following formula:

Y= -0.167X+59.314 with R2=0.9604 (4.2)

51

In general the densities and API gravity are within the range that can be handled by

internal combustion engine.

Table (4.1): MEAN DENSITY AND API GRAVITY OF TESTED BLENDS:

Fuel blend Density, kg/L API gravity degree

Gasoline 0.7400 59.530

E10 0.7396 57.10

E15 0.7495 57.09

E20 0.7541 55.95

E25 0.7571 55.21

Figure 4.1: Blends densities versus Ethanol percentage.

0.735

0.74

0.745

0.75

0.755

0.76

0% 10% 20% 30%

DEN

SITY

Kg/

L

ETHANOL%

DENSITY

DENSITY

Линейная (DENSITY)

52

Figure 4.2: Blends API gravity versus Ethanol percentage

4.1.2 Flash and Fire point

Table 4.2 shows values of flash and fire points for blends. From the results, it

appears that the blends flash point for E20 and E25 were 29.2 and 30 C, respectively.

The fire points were found to be 29, 29.1, 30 and 32 C for E10, E15, E20 and E25,

respectively. However, E10, E15 and gasoline started to fire without determining its flash

point. The flash point varies with fuel volatility but is not related to engine performance.

Rather, the flash point relates to safety precautions that must be taken when handling a

fuel. Blends flash and fire points according to their values above far the standards values

for the handling and storage of gasoline fuels which having flash point below the freezing

point of water.

54.555

55.556

56.557

57.558

58.559

59.560

0% 10% 20% 30%

AP

I , d

eg

ETHANOL%

API

API

Линейная (API)

53

Table 4.2: FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT OF TESTED BLENDS:

Fuel blend Flash Point C Fire Point C

Gasoline _ 25.0

E10 _ 29.0

E15 _ 29.1

E20 29.2 30.0

E25 30.0 32.0

4.1.3 Heat of Combustion

Table 4.3 shows values of gross heat content for the fuels tested. The gross heat

content for blends decrease by 0.127%, 0.4%, 0.53% and 0.61% compared to gasoline

fuel (47.09 MJ/kg) for E10, E15, E20 and E25, respectively. Figure 4.3 shows the plot of

blends heat values and ethanol percentage. Blends heat value decreased linearly as the

percentage of ethanol increased and is expressed in the following formula:

Y= 0.0125X + 47.108 with R2=0.9465 (4.3)

The decreased of heat values present in the blends were due to ethanol that having

lower heat value of 29.70 MJ/kg.

54

Table 4.3: MEANS GROSS HEAT CONTENT OF TESTED BLENDS:

Fuel blend Heat value, MJ/kg

Gasoline 47.09

E10 47.03

E15 46.90

E20 46.84

E25 46.80

Figure 4.3: Blends heat values versus Ethanol percentage

4.1.4 Cloud Point

Table 4.4 shows values of the cloud points for the blends. From the results, it appears

that the ethanol /gasoline blends cloud point for gasoline is -22 C and above 8 C for

E10, E15, E20 and E25, respectively. The cloud point typically occurs between 5°C and

8°C above the pour point. Cloud and pour points become important for heavier fuels in

46.75

46.8

46.85

46.9

46.95

47

47.05

47.1

47.15

0% 10% 20% 30%

HEA

T V

ALU

E K

j/K

g

ETHANOL%

HEAT VALUE

HEAT VALUE

Линейная (HEAT VALUE)

55

the higher boiling ranges. Thus, although the pour-ability of gasoline is not a problem,

but it was specified in the guideline of fuel properties standards .

Table 4.4: CLOUD POINT OF TESTED BLENDS:

Fuel blend Cloud point C

Gasoline -22

E10 > 8

E15 > 8

E20 > 8

E25 > 8

4.1.5 Kinematic Viscosity

The results in Table 4.5 illustrate the kinematic viscosity of blends at 30⁰ C. They

were found to be 10.4%, 15.3% , 23.3% and 30.9% more viscous than gasoline fuel

(0.4872mm2/s) for blends fuel E10% , E15% , E20% , E25% , respectively. Figure 4.4

shows the plot of blends kinematic viscosity and ethanol percentage. Blends kinematic

viscosity increased linearly as percentage of ethanol increase and is expressed in the

following formula:

Y = 0.006 X + 0.4814 with R2=0.9868 (4.4)

Viscosity is a measure of the flow resistance of a liquid. Fuel viscosity is an

important consideration when fuels are carbureted or injected into combustion chambers

by means of fuel system. If viscosity is too low, the fuel will flow too easily and will not

maintain a lubricating film between moving and stationary parts in the carburetor or

pump. If viscosity is too high, may not be able to atomize the fuel into small enough

56

droplets to achieve good vaporization and combustion. In general the blends viscosities

were within acceptable range for spark ignition engine.

Table 4.5: KINEMATIC VISCOSITY OF TESTED BLENDS:

Fuel blend Kinematic Viscosity, mm2/s

Gasoline 0.4872

E10 0.5383

E15 0.5619

E20 0.6007

E25 0.6380

Figure 4.4: Blends kinematic viscosity versus Ethanol percentage

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0% 10% 20% 30%

KIN

EMA

TIC

VIS

CO

STY

mm

²/s

ETHANOL %

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY

Линейная (KINEMATIC VISCOSITY )

57

4.1.6 Octane number

The results in Table 4.6 show the octane number They were found to be 4%,

5.4%, 8.08%, and 6.33% higher than gasoline fuel (93.2) for blends fuel for E10% ,

E15% , E20% , E25%, respectively. Figure 4.5 shows the plot of Octane Number and

ethanol percentage in the blend. Blends Octane Number increased linearly as percentage

of ethanol increased and is expressed in the following formula:

Y = 0.2927 X + 93.862 with R2=0.9868 (4.5)

The octane rating is a measure of the knock resistance of gasoline. Yamin et al.

(2006) investigated the effect of ethanol addition to low Octane Number gasoline, in

terms of calorific value, Octane Number, compression ratio at knocking and engine

performance. They blended locally produced gasoline (Octane Number 87) with five

different percentages of ethanol, namely 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% on volume basis.

They found that the Octane Number of gasoline increases continuously and linearly with

ethanol percentages in gasoline. They reported that the ethanol was an effective

compound for increasing the value of the Octane Number of gasoline. Also, they found

that the engine performance improves as the percentage of ethanol increases in the blend

within the range studied.

Many additives have been developed to improve the performance of petroleum

fuels to increase knock resistance and raise the octane number. Fuel refiners were able to

use a wide variety of lower octane hydrocarbons in gasoline and then use TEL (tetraethyl

lead) and MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether) additives to boost octane ratings to

acceptable levels. More recently, the oxygenated and octane enhancing benefits of

58

ethanol have been highlighted as a potential substitute for Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether

(MTBE), an oxygenated additive used to enhance octane and also reduce CO emissions.

However, TEL poisons the catalysts in catalytic emission control systems, and MTBE has

been shown to be highly toxic even in small quantities when it contaminates groundwater

Table 4.6: OCTANE NUMBER OF TESTED BLENDS:

Fuel blend Octane number

Gasoline 93.2

E10 97.1

E15 98.6

E20 101.4

E25 99.5

59

Figure 4.5: Blends Octane Number versus Ethanol percentage

4.1.7 Distillation:

The results in Figure 4.6 shows the distillation for gasoline and blends fuel E10%,

E15%, E20%, E25%. Three points were taken on the distillation curve to compare the

distillation between Gasoline and the blends. The points T10, T50, and T90 refer,

respectively, to the temperatures on the curve at which 10%, 50%, and 90% of the fuel

has been distilled. At T10 the gasoline temperature is 60oC when 10% was distilled, the

blends fuel E10%, E15%, E20% and E25% decrease by 13.3%, 12.8%, 12.1% and 12.5%

respectively form gasoline temperature. The blends decrease by 22.5%, 25.5%, 24.2%

and 22.4% respectively for T50 when gasoline temperature at 50% distilled is 950C, and

increase by 11.7%, 10.3%, 9.7% and 11.4% at T9o when gasoline temperature at 90%

distilled is 1450C.

9293949596979899

100101102

0% 10% 20% 30%

OC

TAN

E N

UM

BER

ETHANOL%

OCTANE NUMBER

OCTANE NUMBER

Линейная (OCTANE NUMBER)

60

Figure 4.6: Distillation curves blends and gasoline

4. 2. Engine performance

Engine performance test results on Ethanol/Gasoline blends were presented on

Appendix C and D. For comparisons of engine performance, loading at no-load, 25% and

50% was consider low loads while loading at 75% and 100% was consider high loads.

4. 2.1 Power Output:

Fig 4.7 and Table C.1 (Appendix D) illustrate power output versus loads for

various Ethanol/Gasoline blends. The engine power output increase at low loads by

5.14%, and 6.67% for E10 and E20 respectively, and decrease by 4.36%,3.02% for E15

and E25, respectively comparing with gasoline while at high loads decrease by 10.39%,

13.61%, 10.15% and 16.84% for E10, E15, E20 and E25 respectively .

020406080

100120140160180200

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Tem

pe

ratu

re°C

Distilled%

Distillation

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

61

Figure 4.7: Power output Vs. loads curves comparing various

Ethanol/Gasoline blends

4.2.2 Engine Torque

Fig 4.8 and Table C.2 (Appendix D) represent mean engine torque versus loads

curve comparing various Ethanol/Gasoline blends. The engine torque increased at low

loads by 3.01% and 6.8%, for E10 and E20 respectively and decreased by 3.69% and

6.29% for E15 and E25 comparing with gasoline while at high load increased by 6.6%

for E15 and decreased by 6.67%, 7.69% and 11.88% for E10, E20 and E25 respectively.

4.2.3 Fuel Consumption Rate (L/h):

Fig.4.9 and Table C.3 (Appendix D) represent mean engine fuel consumption

versus loads for various ethanol/gasoline blends. The fuel consumption rate decreased at

low loads by 10.52%, 22.05%, 17.29% and 10.16% for E10, E15, E20 and E25

respectively, comparing with gasoline while at high loads decreased by 16.38%,

29.69%,16.3% and 8.43% for E10, E15, E20 and E25 respectively.

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

PO

WER

(K

W)

LOADS

Power Vs Load

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

62

Figure 4.8: torque Vs. loads curves comparing Ethanol/Gasoline blends

Figure 4.9: Fuel consumption Vs. loads curves comparing Ethanol/Gasoline blends

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

Torq

ue

(N.m

)

Load

Torque Vs Load

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

1.2

1.4

1.6

1.8

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

CO

NSU

MP

TIO

N(L

/h)

LOAD

Consumption Vs Load

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

63

4.2.4 Specific Fuel Consumption (L/KW.h):

Fig.4.10 and Table C.5 (Appendix D) represent mean engine brake specific fuel

consumption versus loads for various blends. The specific fuel consumption decreased at

low loads by 15.28%, 20.41%, 24.25% and 8.46% for E10, E15, E20 and E25,

respectively, comparing with gasoline while at high loads increased by 9.59% for E25

and decreased by 1%, 6.44%, 18.56%, and 6.96% for E10, E15 and E20 respectively.

4.2.5 Brake Thermal Efficiency

The mean brake thermal efficiency of blend is illustrated in Fig. 4.11 and Table

C.6 (Appendix D). The brake thermal efficiency increased at low loads by 14.93%,

18.53%, 21.55% and 6.54% for E10, E15, E20 and E25 respectively, compared with

gasoline, while at high load increased by 6.41%, 11.74% and 6% for E10, E15 and E20

and decreased by 10.69% for E25.

Figure 4.10: Specific fuel consumption Vs. loads curves comparing ethanol-gasoline

blends

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

S.F.

C (

L/K

W.h

r)

LOAD

S.F.C Vs Load

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

64

Figure 4.11: Brake thermal efficiency Vs. loads curves comparing Ethanol-

gasoline blends

4.2.6 Speed

Fig.4.12 and Table C.4 (Appendix D) represent mean speed versus loads for

blends. Throughout the test, the engine speeds were found to be increased at low loads

by 4.24% for E10, comparing with gasoline and decreased by 2.5%,1.01% and 3.12% for

E15,E20 and E25 respectively while for at high loads decreased by 4.18%, 12.89%,

12.07%, and 5.73% for E10, E15, E20, and E25 respectively.

0%

1%

2%

3%

4%

5%

6%

7%

8%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

B.T

.E

LOAD

B.T.E Vs Load

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

65

Figure 4.12: speed vs. loads curves comparing gasoline with Ethanol

During engine testing, the ethanol produce by Kenana blended to gasoline up to

25% ethanol ratio without blends phase separation or engine practical operations

problems encountered. However, extra ethanol ratio engine will faced problem on

starting and operation. All the selected blends were successfully run on the constant

speed small spark ignition engine for 10 hours. The operation of the engine was found to

be satisfactory on the selected blends with no sign of engine trouble. The external visual

inspection on engine components after testing showed no coking and wears signs.

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% 120%

SPEE

D(r

pm

)

LOAD

Speed Vs Load

GASOLINE

E10

E15

E20

E25

66

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS

The following conclusions could be drawn from this study work:

1. Fuel properties of tested Ethanol/Gasoline blends such as density and

viscosity increased continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of

ethanol while API gravity and heat value decreased with decreasing

percentage of ethanol increase. Furthermore, cloud point, flash and fire

points were found to be higher than gasoline fuel.

2. The tested blends Octane rating based Research Octane Number (RON)

increased continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of ethanol.

3. The tested blends developed higher power and fuel consumption rate with

increase brake thermal efficiency.

4. Ethanol fuels can be use as alternative fuel for gasoline engine up to 25%

blends without engine modification.

67

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the results obtained during this study work it can be suggested that:

1- Comprehensive and extensive testing on fuel properties, engine performance and

emissions of ethanol/gasoline blends on spark ignition engine should be tested for

long time.

2- Research and collaboration should be carried out in with sugar industry and GIAD

motors regarding using ethanol as alternative for spark ignition engines.

68

REFERENCES

1. A.R.Navarro, M. del C. Sepúlveda and M. C. Rubio.2000,Bio-concentration of

vinasse from the alcoholic fermentation of sugar cane molasses Paper No.

312764.

2. ASTM International, Standard Specification for Denatured Fuel Ethanol for

Blending with Gasoline for Use as Automotive Spark Ignition Engine Fuel1.

Designation: D 4806 – 01a.

3. Ethanol Production using a Soy Hydrolysate-Based Medium or a Yeast

Autolysate-Based Medium.2008, Ethanol Production

( http://www.freepatentsonline.com). 23 January, 2008

4. Jun Wang and Man-Qun Linba.2004, Influence of ethanol–gasoline blended fuel

on emission characteristics from a four-stroke motorcycle engine. bTianjin

Motorcycle Technical Center, Tianjin 300072, PR China.

5. Lynd, L.R., et al., Fuel ethanol from cellulosic biomass. Science, 1991. 251: p.

1318-1323

6. Mr.Victor MENDIS (Experimental Study on Ethanol and its Blends with

Gasoline as a Motor Fuel).

7. Suri Rajan and Fariborz F. Saniee.2001, Water—ethanol—gasoline blends as

spark ignition engine fuels. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901,

USA.

8. T. K. Bhattacharya, S. Chatterjee, T. N. Mishra.2001, Performance of a Constant

Speed CI Engine on Alcohol-Diesel Microemulsions.Published in Applied

Engineering in Agriculture Vol. 20(3): 253-257.

9. Tyson, K.S., Riley, C. J., and Humpreys, K.K. 1993. Fuel Cycle Evaluations of

Biomass-Ethanol and Reformulated Gasoline; Report No. NREL/TP-463-4950,

National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Golden, CO. Vol. 1.

69

APPENDIX A

70

APPENDIX A1

EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL

API GRAVITY

Using equation (3.1) and equation (3.2)

For example E20 sample:

S.G = 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐝 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂

𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂

Density of blend @ 300C = 0.7541

Density of water @ 300C = 0.999

S.G = 𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝟒𝟏

𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗 = 0.7548

API = (141.5/S.G) − 131.5

API = (141.5/0.7548) − 131.5 deg

Therefore, API gravity for E15 sample = 55.95

71

APPENDIX A2

EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL

VISCOSITY

Using equation (3.3), (3.3a) and (3.3b)

For example E20 sample:

V1 = t1×C1

t1 = 145 sec

C1= constant = 0.004142

V1 = 145×0.004142 = 0.60059

V2 = t2×c2

t2 = 193 sec

C2 = constant= 0.003114

V2 = 193×0.003114 = 0.601002

VAV = 𝑉₁ + 𝑉₂

2 =

0.60059 + 0.601002

2

VAV = 0.6007 mm2/sec

72

APPENDEX A3

EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL

OCTANE NUMBER

Using equation (3.4)

For example E15 sample:

O.N.S = O.N.LRF + K.I.LRF – K.I.S

𝐾.𝐼.𝐿𝑅𝐹−𝐾.𝐼.𝐻𝑅𝐹 (O.N.HRF – O.NLRF)

O.N.LRF = 98

O.N.HRF = 99

K.I.LRF = 60

K.I.S = 51

K.I.HRF = 32

O.N.S = 98+ ( 60 – 51

60−32 ) × (99 – 98)

O.N.S = 98.6

73

APPENDIX A4

EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL

BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY

Using equation (3.7.a) and equation (3.7.b)

3600

..

hgqP

P

PETB

in

in

out

For example E20 sample (Appendix C, table C.6)

Data:

%33.710033.7

5375.0..

33.73600

468407541.07479.0

/46840

/7541.0

/7479.0

5375.0

ETB

kWPin

kgkjhg

Lkg

hrLq

kWPout

Brake thermal efficiency of sample= 7.33%

74

APPENDIX B

DISTILLATION TABLES

75

Table 4.7.1: DISTLLATION OF TESTED GASOLINE SAMPLE:

Distillation unit Result

IBP c0 48.0

10% recovered c0 60.0

20% recovered c0 65.0

30% recovered c0 75.0

40% recovered c0 84.0

50% recovered c0

95.0

60% recovered c0

106.0

70% recovered c0

119.0

80% recovered c0

132.0

90% recovered c0

145.0

95% recovered c0

159.0

Recovery ml 98.0

Loss ml 0.5

Residue ml 1.5

76

Table 4.7.2: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 10% + GASOLINE 90%:

Distillation unit Result

IBP c0 39.8

10% recovered c0 52.6

20% recovered c0 57.9

30% recovered c0 62.1

40% recovered c0 66.1

50% recovered c0

73.6

60% recovered c0

105.5

70% recovered c0

123.4

80% recovered c0

142.6

90% recovered c0

164.3

95% recovered c0

183.1

Recovery ml 97.7

Loss ml 1.3

Residue ml 1.0

77

Table 4.7.3: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 15% + GASOLINE 85%:

Distillation unit Result

IBP c0 39.3

10% recovered c0 52.3

20% recovered c0 58.1

30% recovered c0 62.9

40% recovered c0 66.7

50% recovered c0

70.7

60% recovered c0

79.5

70% recovered c0

119.6

80% recovered c0

140.7

90% recovered c0

161.7

95% recovered c0

180.3

Recovery ml 97.7

Loss ml 1.2

Residue ml 1.1

78

Table 4.7.4: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 20% + GASOLINE 80%:

Distillation unit Result

IBP c0 36.6

10% recovered c0 52.7

20% recovered c0 59.0

30% recovered c0 63.8

40% recovered c0 68.5

50% recovered c0

72.0

60% recovered c0

74.7

70% recovered c0

107.1

80% recovered c0

137.5

90% recovered c0

160.6

95% recovered c0

180.0

Recovery ml 97.3

Loss ml 1.5

Residue ml 1.2

79

Table 4.7.5: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 25% + GASOLINE 75%:

Distillation unit Result

IBP c0 41.0

10% recovered c0 55.2

20% recovered c0 62.0

30% recovered c0 66.9

40% recovered c0 70.6

50% recovered c0

73.5

60% recovered c0

75.7

70% recovered c0

79.0

80% recovered c0

137.5

90% recovered c0

163.7

95% recovered c0

184.9

Recovery ml 96.7

Loss ml 2.0

Residue ml 1.3

80

APPENDIX C

GENERATOR TEST DATA

81

GENERATOR TEST DATA –100% GASOLINE

Table C.1

GENERATOR TEST DATA –10 % ETHONOL & 90% GASOLIN

Table C.2

Current

(A)

Voltage

(V)

Consum.

kg

Time Speed

RPM

Loads

2.40

220

0.0568

5 min

2842

No

Load

3.25

210

0.0805

5 min

2471

0.25

Load

4.00

182

0.0866

5 min

2327

0.5

Load

5.20

155

0.0975

5 min

2260

0.75

Load

6.00

130

0.1000

5 min

2230

Full

Load

Current

(A)

Voltage

(V)

Consum.

kg

Time Speed

RPM

Loads

2.5

215

0.0510

5 min

2765

No

Load

3.5

210

0.0725

5 min

2665

0.25

Load

4.1

190

0.0770

5 min

2393

0.5

Load

5.0

150

0.0800

5 min

2228

0.75

Load

5.6

120

0.0855

5 min

2075

Full

Load

82

GENERATOR TEST DATA –15 % ETHONOL & 85% GASOLINE

Table C.3

GENERATOR TEST DATA –20 % ETHONOL & 80% GASOLINE

Table C.4

Current

(A)

Voltage

(V)

Consum.

kg

Time Speed

RPM

Loads

2.4

200

0.044

5 min

2701

No

Load

3.4

205

0.0655

5 min

2514

0.25

Load

4.2

170

0.0680

5 min

2321

0.5

Load

4.9

145

0.0700

5 min

2143

0.75

Load

5.5

120

0.0815

5 min

1770

Full

Load

Current

(A)

Voltage

(V)

Consum.

kg

Time Speed

RPM

Loads

2.5

215

0.047

5 min

2813

No

Load

3.8

200

0.0685

5 min

2450

0.25

Load

4.4

180

0.0735

5 min

2355

0.5

Load

5.0

145

0.0810

5 min

2209

0.75

Load

5.6

125

0.0875

5 min

2155

Full

Load

83

GENERATOR TEST DATA –25% ETHONOL & 75% GASOLINE

Table C.5

Current

(A)

Voltage

(V)

Consum.

kg

Time Speed

RPM

Loads

2.5

215

0.0550

5 min

2660

No

Load

3.2

205

0.0700

5 min

2493

0.25

Load

3.8

185

0.0795

5 min

2377

0.5

Load

4.9

145

0.0885

5 min

2178

0.75

Load

5.3

115

0.0970

5 min

2055

Full

Load

84

APPENDIX D

CALCULATED OF ENGINE PERFORMANCE

85

Table (C.1) CALCULATED POWER OUTPUT OF GASOLINE FUEL AND

ETHANOL (KW)

Blend .4 Ethanol 25 %

Blend .3 Ethanol 20 %

Blend .2 Ethanol 15 %

Blend .1 Ethanol 10%

Gasoline 100 %

Loads

0.5375 0.5375 0.48 0.5375 0.528 No Load

0.656 0.760 0.697 0.735 0.6825 0.25 Load

0.703 0.792 0.714 0.779 0.728 0.5 Load

0.7105 0.725 0.7105 0.750 0.806 0.75 Load

0.6095 0.7 0.66 0.672 0.78 Full Load

Table (C.2) CALCULATED ENGINE TORQUE OF GASOLINE FUEL AND

ETHANOL (N.m)

Blend .4 Ethanol 25 %

Blend .3 Ethanol20%

Blend .2 Ethanol15%

Blend .1 Ethanol10%

Gasoline

100%

Loads

1.93 1.82 1.61 1.86 1.77 No Load

2.51 2.96 2.65 2.63 2.64 0.25 Load

2.82 3.21 2.94 3.11 2.99 0.5 Load

3.12 3.13 3.17 3.21 3.41 0.75 Load

2.83 3.10 3.56 3.09 3.34

Full

Load

86

Table (C.3) CALCULATED FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GASOLINE FUEL AND

ETHANOL (L/h)

Blend .4 Ethanol25

%

Blend .3 Ethanol20%

Blend .2 Ethanol15%

Blend .1 Ethanol10%

Gasoline

100%

Loads

0.871 0.7479 0.7045 0.827 0.916 No

Load

1.109 1.09 1.048 1.168 1.31

0.25

Load

1.26 1.169 1.08 1.249 1.404

0.5

Load

1.402 1.288 1.12 1.297 1.581 0.75

Load

1.53 1.392 1.13 1.38 1.62 Full

Load

Table (C.4) SPEED OF GASOLINE FUEL AND ETHANOL (rpm)

Blend .4 Ethanol25%

Blend .3 Ethanol 20 %

Blend .2 Ethanol 15 %

Blend .1 Ethanol 10%

Gasoline

100%

Loads

2660 2813 2701 2765 2842 No Load

2493 2450 2514 2665 2471 0.25 Load

2377 2355 2321 2393 2327 0.5 Load

2178 2209 2143 2228 2260 0.75 Load

2055 2155 1770 2075 2230 Full Load

87

Table (C.5) CALCULATED SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GASOLINE

FUEL AND ETHANOL (L/KW.hr)

Blend .4 Ethanol25

%

Blend .3 Ethanol20%

Blend .2 Ethanol15%

Blend .1 Ethanol10%

Gasoline

100%

Loads

1.62 1.391 1.467 1.538 1.73 No

Load

1.69 1.391 1.45 1.557 1.92

0.25

Load

1.792 1.434 1.512 1.603 1.928

0.5

Load

1.998 1.776 1.576 1.729 1.96 0.75

Load

2.51 1.988 1.712 2.053 2.076 Full

Load

Table (C.6) CALCULATED BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF GASOLINE

FUEL AND ETHANOL (L/KW.hr)

Blend .4 Ethanol25

%

Blend .3 Ethanol20%

Blend .2 Ethanol15%

Blend .1 Ethanol10%

Gasoline

100%

Loads

6.26 7.33 6.98 6.72 6 No

Load

6.00 7.11 6.80 6.51 5.40

0.25

Load

5.66 6.90 6.77 6.45 5.35

0.5

Load

5.14 5.75 6.50 5.98 5.26 0.75

Load

4.02 5.15 5.20 5.01 4.97 Full

Load