CULTURALLAW:INTERNATIONAL,COMPARATIVE,ANDINDIGENOUSassets.cambridge.org/97811076/13096/frontmatter/... · 2014. 2. 20. · Peter Winch, Understanding a Primitive Society,1Am. Phil.Q.1,

CULTURAL LAW: INTERNATIONAL, COMPARATIVE, AND INDIGENOUS

Cultural law is a new and exciting field of study and practice. The core themes oflinguistic and other cultural rights, cultural identity and differentiation, culturalheritage, traditional knowledge, sports, and religion are of fundamental impor-tance to people around the world, engaging them at the grassroots level and oftencommanding their daily attention. The related legal processes are both significantand complex.

This unique collection of materials and commentary on cultural law covers abroad range of themes. Opening chapters explore critical issues involving culturalactivities, artifacts, and status, as well as the fundamental concepts of culture andlaw. Subsequent chapters examine the dynamic interplay of law and culture withrespect to each of the core themes.

The materials demonstrate the reality and efficacy of international, comparative,and indigenous law and legal practices in the dynamic context of culture-relatedissues. Throughout the book, the issues are presented at international, national,subnational, tribal, and strictly cultural levels of authority.

James A. R. Nafziger is Thomas B. Stoel Professor of Law and Director of Inter-national Programs at the Willamette University College of Law. A former admin-istrative director of the American Society of International Law and President ofthe American Branch of the International Law Association (ILA), he serves as Chairof the ILA’s Cultural Heritage Law Committee. Professor Nafziger is the authorof International Sports Law and coeditor of The Cultural Heritage of Mankind andCultural Heritage Issues: The Legacy of Conquest, Colonization and Commerce.

Robert Kirkwood Paterson is a Professor of Law in the Faculty of Law at theUniversity of British Columbia. He is an editor of the International Journal ofCultural Property and rapporteur of the Cultural Heritage Law Committee of theInternational Law Association, of which he is a Canadian board member. He haswritten widely on cultural property and international trade law, most recently ascoeditor of Protection of First Nations Cultural Heritage: Laws, Policy, and Reform.

Alison Dundes Renteln is a Professor of Political Science and Anthropology atthe University of Southern California. She is an expert on cultural rights, havingauthored The Cultural Defense and co-edited Folk Law: Essays on the Theory andPractice of Lex Non Scripta. She has also served on the California State Bar Commis-sion on Access to Justice and the California Judicial Council Access and FairnessAdvisory Committee.

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Cambridge University Press978-1-107-61309-6 - Cultural Law: International, Comparative, and IndigenousJames A. R. Nafziger, Robert Kirkwood Paterson and Alison Dundes RentelnFrontmatterMore information

http://www.cambridge.org/9781107613096http://www.cambridge.orghttp://www.cambridge.org

Cultural Law

INTERNATIONAL, COMPARATIVE,AND INDIGENOUS

James A. R. NafzigerThomas B. Stoel Professor of Law

Willamette University

Robert Kirkwood PatersonProfessor of Law

University of British Columbia

Alison Dundes RentelnProfessor of Political Science and Anthropology

University of Southern California




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© James A. R. Nafziger, Robert Kirkwood Paterson, and Alison Dundes Renteln 2010

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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication dataNafziger, James A. R.Cultural law : international, comparative, and indigenous / James A.R.Nafziger, Robert K. Paterson, Alison Dundes Renteln. p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.isbn 978-0-521-86550-0 (hardback)1. Culture and law. 2. Cultural property – Protection – Law and legislation.3. Multiculturalism – Law and legislation. I. Paterson, Robert K., 1946–II. Renteln, Alison Dundes. III. Title.k487.c8n34 2010344´.09 – dc22 2009047137

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Contents

PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . page xxiii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii

1. Cultural Law: An Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

A. The Cultural Dimension of the Legal Process 1

1. Dispute Resolution amid Cultural Diversity 1

Yahoo!, Inc. v. La Ligue Contre Le Racisme et L’Antisemitisme 1

Notes and Questions 7

David J. Przeracki, “Working It Out”: A Japanese Alternative toFighting It Out, 37 Clev. St. L. Rev. 149 (1989) 9


2. Legal Discourse 12

a. International Business Transactions 12

Daniel C.K. Chow & Thomas J. Schoenbaum, InternationalBusiness Transactions: Problems, Cases, and Materials11–13 (2005) 12

Richard W. Downing, Comment, The Continuing Power of CulturalTradition and Socialist Ideology: Cross-Cultural NegotiationsInvolving Chinese, Korean, and American Negotiators, 1992 J. Disp.Resol. 105, 125–29 14


b. Diplomacy 18

Raymond Cohen, Negotiating across Cultures:International Communication in an InterdependentWorld 215–18, 222–26 (1997) 19


3. Cultural Identity Paradigms 24

Jacinta O’Hagan, Conflict, Convergence, or Coexistence? TheRelevance of Culture in Reframing World Order, in Reframing theInternational: Law, Culture, Politics 187–88, 198–210(Richard Falk, Lester Edwin J. Ruiz & R.B. Walker eds., 2002) 24

Notes 35

v




vi Contents

B. Cultural-Legal Interaction 36

1. Legal Protection of Cultural Values 36

Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Association 36

Church of the Lukumi Babalu Aye, Inc. and Ernesto Pichardo v. Cityof Hialeah 43


2. Cultural Relativism and Universalism in the Legal Process 49

Jacqueline Nolan-Haley, Harold Abramson & Pat K. Chew,International Conflict Resolution: Consensual ADRProcesses 78–82 (2005) 49

Notes 53

3. The Cultural Defense 54


4. Separate Legal Systems 61

Note 62

5. Globalization of Mass Culture 62

Siva Vaidhyanathan, Open Source as Culture – Culture as OpenSource, in Open Source Annual 346 (2007) 63

C. Cultural Law 64

1. A Working Definition 64

2. Culture-Related Terminology 64

3. Culture as a Human Right 66

a. Applicable Law 66

b. Claims 69

(i) Food 69

David Haldane, Culture Clash or Animal Cruelty? Two CambodianRefugees Face Trial after Killing Dog for Food, L.A. Times, Mar. 13,1989, at 1 70

Cavel International, Inc. v. Madigan 71


(ii) The Environment 74Memorandum on Distribution of Eagle Feathers for NativeAmerican Religious Purposes, Weekly Comp. Pres. Doc. 30 (17)(Apr. 29, 1994), at 935–37 75

(iii) Disabilities 77Questions 78

(iv) Family Life and Marriage 78

City of Westminster Social & Community Services Department v. IC 78

Aleem v. Aleem 79


4. Coda: Examples of Cultural Law from the World of Music 88

a. Law Embodies Culture and Formalizes Its Norms 88




Contents vii

b. Law Promotes, Protects, Conditions, and Limits Cultural Attributesand Expressions 89

Johnlee Scelba Curtis, Culture and the Digital Copyright Chimera:Assessing the International Regulatory System of the Music Industryin Relation to Cultural Diversity, 13 Int’l J. Cultural Prop.59–60, 63–64, 66–69, 77, 80, 81, 84–85 (2006) 89

c. Law Harmonizes Cross-Cultural Differences, Establishes InternationalStandards, and Confirms Cultural Rights 94

Jerry L. Weinstein, Musical Pitch and International Agreement, 46Am. J. Int’l L. 341 (1952) 94


d. Culture Reinforces Legal Rules 96

e. Culture Conditions and Constrains the Adoption, Interpretation, andVitality of Legal Rules 96

Steve Jones, Music That Moves: Popular Music, Distribution andNetwork Technologies, 16 Cultural Stud., no. 2, at 213, 221–22(2002) 96

f. Cultural Expressions and Symbols Promote Legal Relationships 97

Daniel J. Wakin, North Koreans Welcome Symphonic Diplomacy,N.Y. Times, Feb. 27, 2008, at A10 97

Elisabetta Povoledo, China Orchestra Plays for Pope for First Time,Hinting at Thaw, N.Y. Times, May 8, 2008, at A6 98

Notes 98

2. Culture and the Law: The Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

A. Culture 100

1. The Issues 100

Clyde Kluckhohn & William H. Kelly, The Concept of Culture,in The Science of Man in the World Crisis 78–106(Ralph Linton ed., 1980) 100

2. Relativism and Incommensurability 123

Peter Winch, Understanding a Primitive Society, 1 Am. Phil. Q. 1,307, 315 (1964) 124

3. Anthropological Definitions and Concepts 125

a. Early Definitions 125

Bronislaw Malinowski, Culture, in Encyclopaedia of the SocialSciences 621, 645 (Edwin R.A. Seligman ed., 1937) 125

b. Later Definitions: The Influence of Relativism 126

c. Postmodern Theory and Cultural Studies 127

d. The Contemporary Defense of the Concept of Culture 129

Richard A. Shweder, Culture: Contemporary Views, in5 International Encyclopedia of the Social & BehavioralSciences 3151, 3157 (Neil Smelser & Paul Baltes eds., 2001) 130





viii Contents

4. Enculturation: How Culture Affects Perception and Behavior 131

What’s A-O.K. in the U.S.A. Is Lewd and Worthless Beyond, N.Y.Times, Aug. 18, 1996, at E7 132

B. Law 134

1. Jurisprudential Foundations 134

a. Natural Law and Legal Positivism 135

Michael H. Hoeflich, Natural Law Theory, in The OxfordCompanion to American Law 587 (Kermit L. Hall ed., 2002) 135

Streletz, Kessler and Krenz v. Germany; K.-H. W. v. Germany 138


b. Other Schools of Jurisprudence 145

Note 146

2. International Law 147

a. Introduction 147

b. Sources 148

3. Comparative Law 151

a. Introduction 151

b. The Common Law Tradition 152

John V. Orth, Common Law, in The Oxford Companion toAmerican Law 125 (Kermit L. Hall ed., 2002) 152

c. The Civil Law Tradition 156

d. Beyond the Common Law and Civil Law Traditions 157

e. The Judicial Use of Foreign Law 158

Roper v. Simmons 158

David G. Savage, Scalia to Congress: Butt Out of Court’s Use ofForeign Law, L.A. Times, May 19, 2006, at 1 164


f. Customary Law 166

Gordon R. Woodman, Customary Legal Norms, in Encyclopediaof Law & Society 379, 380, 381 (David S. Clark ed., 2007) 166

T.W. Bennett, Comparative Law and African Customary Law, inThe Oxford Handbook of Comparative Law 641 (MathiasReimann & Reinhard Zimmerman eds., 2006) 167

Max Gluckman, The Judicial Process among the Barotse ofNorthern Rhodesia 134–41 (1955) 170


4. Indigenous Law 173

Daniel P. Strouthes, Legal Systems of Aboriginal and IndigenousPeoples, in 1 Encyclopedia of Law & Society 1, 2 (David S. Clarked., 2007) 174

Notes 175

Case of the Saramaka People v. Suriname 176





Contents ix

5. Legal Pluralism 200

Werner Menski, Comparative Law in a Global Perspective:The Legal Systems of Asia and Africa 173–74, 183–84(2d ed. 2006) 200

Question 202

Leopold J. Pospisil, The Ethnology of Law 30–31, 43–44, 46,48, 109–11 (2d ed. 1978) 202

3. Cultural Heritage Law: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206

A. The Definitional Framework 206

Lyndel V. Prott & Patrick J. O’Keefe, “Cultural Heritage” or“Cultural Property”?, 1 Int’l J. Cult. Prop. 307, 309, 310–11 (1992) 207

Note 208

B. Individual and Nongovernmental Organization Actors 208

1. Private Dealers, Auction Houses, and Collectors 208

Autocephalous Greek-Orthodox Church of Cyprus v. Goldberg 209


2. Museums and Art Galleries 220

3. Anthropologists and Archaeologists 221

4. Indigenous and Minority Ethnic Groups 221

5. Artists 222

6. Historic Preservationists, Archivists, and Art Historians 222

7. Criminals and Criminal Organizations 223

a. Forgers, Fakers, and Defrauders 223

Trial of the Century, Archaeology, Mar.–Apr. 2005, at 14 223

College Art Association, A Code of Ethics for ArtHistorians and Guidelines for the Professional Practiceof Art History (1995) 224

Note 226

b. Thieves 226

Note 227

Bumper Development Corp. v. Commissioner of Police for theMetropolis 227

Mullick v. Mullick 236


c. Grave Robbers and Other Illegal Excavators 241

d. Smugglers (Illegal Export and Import) 242

William H. Honan, Rare Pre-Columbian Relics, at Any Cost, N.Y.Times, July 31, 1995, at 1 242

Notes 247

e. War Criminals 248

C. The International Legal Framework: A Summary 248

Note 251




x Contents

4. Cultural Material: Protection and Cooperation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

A. Protection 252

1. Threats to Cultural Resources 252

a. Archaeological 252

Ricardo J. Elia, Looting, Collecting, and the Destruction ofArchaeological Resources, 6 Nonrenewable Resources, no. 2,at 85–86, 88–89, 91, 93, 95 (1997) 252


b. Artistic 258

Carter v. Helmsley-Spear, Inc. 258

Notes and Question 267

Short Guide to the European Convention on HumanRights 112–13 (Donna Gomien ed., 2005) 268

Note 268

c. Architectural 269


d. Archival 271

Jutta Reed-Scott, Preserving Research Collections 4–6(1999) 271


2. General Protections of the Cultural Heritage 273

a. United States Law 273

(i) Federal Law 274United States v. Gerber 274

(ii) State Law 281Whitacre v. Indiana 281

b. Canadian Law 284


c. Swiss Law 287

d. International Law 288

(i) The Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property inthe Event of Armed Conflict (1954) 289

(ii) The Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing theIllicit Import, Export, and Transfer of Ownership of CulturalProperty (1970) 289

(iii) The Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural andNatural Heritage (1972) 290


(iv) The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater CulturalHeritage (2001) 291

(v) The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible CulturalHeritage (2003) 292

(vi) The Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversityof Cultural Expression (2005) 292





Contents xi

3. Protection of the Cultural Patrimony and Export Controls 297

a. Cultural Patrimony 297

b. Export Controls 299

(i) International Law 299

(ii) Regional Law 300

(iii) Practical Problems of Implementation 300


Problem 302

(iv) The Canadian Model 302

Cultural Property Export and Import Act 302

(v) The Enforcement of Export Controls 305

(a) The Common Law of England and the United States 305

Attorney-General of New Zealand v. Ortiz 306

Notes 310

(b) Enforcement under the 1970 UNESCO Convention 312

David Walden, Canada’s Cultural Property Export and Import Act:The Experience of Protecting Cultural Property, 203, 208–10, U. B.C.L. Rev. (Special Issue)(1995) 313


4. Protection of Underwater Cultural Heritage 316

R.M.S. Titanic v. Haver 319


Problems 344

5. Protection of Cultural Heritage in Preparation for, during, and afterArmed Conflict 345

The Stela of Matara 345

a. The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907 347

b. The Geneva Convention IV of 1949 and Protocol I to the Convention 348

c. The 1954 Hague Convention 349

Protocol I for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event ofArmed Conflict 351

d. Customary Humanitarian Law 351

e. The International War Crimes Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, theInternational Criminal Court, and Crises in Afghanistan and Iraq 352

Notes 353

B. Cooperation 357

1. Amicable Settlements and Partnerships 358

a. Indigenous Peoples and Museums 359

(i) Canada 359

Turning the Page: Forging New Partnerships between Museumsand First Peoples: A Report Jointly Sponsored by the Assembly ofFirst Nations and the Canadian Museums Association (1991) 359

(ii) New Zealand 361

(iii) United States 362




xii Contents

b. Holocaust-Related Claimants and Possessors 363

M.J. Bazyler, Holocaust Justice: The Battle forRestitution in America’s Courts 202–14, 249–62 (2003) 363

Washington Conference on Holocaust-Era Assets,Principles with Respect to Nazi-Confiscated Art (1998) 371

Martha Lufkin, The Increasing Role of the Market in Settling Claims,Art Newspaper, December 2008, at 8 372

Vineberg v. Bissonnette 375


2. International Agreements 379

Agreement between the United States and Italy 381

Jane C. Waldbaum, Opportunity Knocks, Archaeology, Nov.–Dec.2003, at 6 385


5. Cultural Material: Rectification, Criminal Justice,and Dispute Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389

A. Rectification 389

1. International Return and Restitution 389

a. Introduction 389

Note 390

b. The Adversarial Model (Internationalism versus Nationalism) and theCommon Heritage Alternative 391

Shareen Blair Brysac, The Parthenon Marbles Custody Case,Archaeology, May–June 1999, at 74–76 393

John Henry Merryman, Thinking about the Elgin Marbles, 83Mich. L. Rev. 1881 (1985) 395


c. The UNESCO Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventingthe Illicit Import, Export, and Transfer of Ownership of CulturalProperty (1970) 405

Étienne Clement, The Aims of the 1970 UNESCO Convention on theMeans of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export andTransfer of Ownership of Cultural Property and Action Being Takenby UNESCO to Assist in Its Implementation, in Antiquities Tradeor Betrayed: Legal, Ethical and Conservation Issues 38(K.W. Tubb ed., 1995) 406

d. The UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported CulturalObjects 410


Problems 415

e. UNESCO, UN, and ICOM Resolutions 416

Note and Questions 417

f. Codes of Ethics 417

Ellen Herscher, Tarnished Reputations, Archaeology, Sept.–Oct.1998, at 66, 68, 75 417




Contents xiii

Archaeological Institute of America, Code of Ethics (1997) 419

Sharon Flescher, AAMD Revises Guidelines for Acquisition ofAntiquities – Again, 10 IFAR J., no. 1, at 4 (2008) 419

Patrick J. O’Keefe, Codes of Ethics: Form and Function in CulturalHeritage Management, 7 Int’l J. Cultural Prop. 32 (1998) 421


2. Indigenous Heritage 425

a. Introduction 425


b. United States Law 427

(i) Federal Law: The Native American Graves Protection andRepatriation Act (NAGPRA) 427

(a) Summary of Provisions 427

(b) Origins 429

(c) Legal Foundations 431

(d) Benefits 432Fergus M. Bordewich, Killing the White Man’s Indian172–74 (1996) 434

Tessie Naranjo, Thoughts on Two Worldviews, Fed. Archaeology,Fall–Winter 1995, at 8 436

Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act, 25 U.S. §3001 et seq. 437Notes and Questions 439

Bonnichsen v. United States 443


(ii) State Law 456Christopher A. Amato, Digging Sacred Ground: Burial SiteDisturbances and the Loss of New York’s Native American Heritage,27 Colum. J. Envtl. L. 1 (2002) 456

State Commissioner of Transportation v. Medicine Bird Black BearWhite Eagle 460

c. Other Approaches: South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada 464

Ryan M. Seidemann, Bones of Contention: A ComparativeExamination of Law Governing Human Remains fromArchaeological Contexts in Former Colonial Countries, 64 La. L.Rev. 545 (2004) 464

World Archaeological Congress, The Vermillion Accordon Human Remains (1989) 472


B. Criminal Justice 473

United States v. Ligon 473

Questions 477

United States v. McClain 483

One Lucite Ball Containing Lunar Material 490

United States v. Schultz 500





xiv Contents

Ruth Redmond-Cooper, Quedlinburg Indictment Comes Too Late,Art Antiquity & L., Sept. 1998, at 307 509

Note 513

Problem 514

C. Dispute Resolution 514

1. Litigation: The Core Issues 514

a. Standing 515

Autocephalous Greek-Orthodox Church of Cyprus and the Republicof Cyprus v. Goldberg 515

b. Jurisdiction 516

H.R.H. Maharanee Seethadevi Gaekwar of Baroda v. Wildenstein 516

Questions 518

c. Choice of Law 519

(i) Alternative Approaches 519

Winkworth v. Christie Manson and Woods Ltd. 519

Notes 525



(ii) The Lex Rei Extra Commercium in the Civil Law 536

B. Pelletier, The Case of the Treasures of L’Ange Gardien: AnOverview, 2 Int’l J. Cultural Prop. 371 (1993) 537


d. Statutes of Limitation 543

Lawrence M. Kaye, The Statute of Limitations in Art Recovery Cases:An Overview, 1 IFAR J., Autumn 1998, at 22 543

(i) The Demand and Refusal Rule 548

Guggenheim v. Lubell 548


(ii) The Discovery Rule and the Doctrine of Fraudulent Concealment 553


Note 557

Erisoty v. Rizik 557

Notes 563

(iii) Characterization: Procedural or Substantive? 564

Orkin v. Taylor 565

Notes 569

e. The Doctrine of Laches 570

Sanchez v. Trustees of the University of Pennsylvania 570

f. The Doctrine of Repose 572

Questions 573

Problem 573




Contents xv

g. Foreign Sovereign Immunity 573

Republic of Austria v. Altmann 574

Malewicz v. City of Amsterdam 585

Notes 598

h. Remedies 600

Hoelzer v. City of Stamford 600

Note 603

2. Alternative Dispute Resolution 603

a. Background 603

b. Advantages of Collaboration 604

Quentin Byrne-Sutton, Resolution Methods for Art-RelatedDisputes, 7 Int’l. J. Cultural Prop. 249, 250–55 (1998) 605

c. The Principles for Cooperation in the Mutual Protection and Transferof Cultural Material 610

Notes 611

6. Intangible Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614

A. Introduction 614

B. Traditional Knowledge 615

Daniel J. Gervais, Spiritual but Not Intellectual? The Protection ofSacred Intangible Traditional Knowledge, 11 Cardozo J. Int’l &Comp. Law 467, 471–72 (2003) 615

Christoph Antons, Traditional Knowledge and Intellectual PropertyRights in Australia and Southeast Asia, in New Frontiers ofIntellectual Property Law 37, 40–41 (Christopher Heath &Anselm Kamperman eds., 2008) 616

Questions 617

C. International Regimes 618

1. The Convention on Biological Diversity 618

Graham Dutfield, Intellectual Property Rights, Tradeand Diversity 35–37 (2000) 619

2. The WTO Agreement on TRIPs 620

Olufunmilayo B. Arewa, TRIPs and Traditional Knowledge: LocalCommunities, Local Knowledge, and Global Intellectual PropertyFrameworks, 10 Marq. Intel. Prop. L. Rev., 155, 164–80 (2006) 620

Note and Question 627

3. The UNESCO Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible CulturalHeritage 628

D. The Limits of Intellectual Property Laws 629

1. Introduction 629

2. Problems Resulting from the Failure to Protect Indigenous CulturalHeritage 629

3. Indigenous Cultural Heritage and IPRs 630

a. Copyright 630




xvi Contents

b. Moral Rights 632

c. Patent Law 632

4. Appropriateness of IPR Protection 632

a. Contract, Privacy, Trade Secret, and Trademark Law 635

(i) Contract Law 635

(ii) Privacy and Trade Secret 637

(iii) Trademark 637

b. Cultural Heritage Rights in Domestic Law 638


E. Sui Generis Protection 640

F. Comparative Approaches to Protection 642

1. United States: Nonregistrable Subject Matter under the LanhamTrademark Act 642

Harjo v. Pro-Football, Inc. 642

Notes 649

2. New Zealand: The Regulation of Offensive Marks under the Trade MarksAct 2002 650

3. Canada: The Recognition of Aboriginal Custom in Constitutional Law 651

Delgamuukw v. British Columbia 651

4. Australia: Constraints on Appropriation of Aboriginal Culture 657

Milpurrurru v. Indofurn Pty. Ltd. 658


Barbara T. Hoffman, Exploring and Establishing Links for aBalanced Art and Cultural Heritage Policy, in Art and CulturalHeritage: Law, Policy, and Practice 1, 8–9 (Barbara T.Hoffman ed., 2006) 667

5. Taiwan: Act for the Protection of the Traditional Intellectual Creations ofIndigenous Peoples 668


7. Museums . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674

A. Introduction 674


B. The Museum Culture through History 676

1. General Observations 676

Alan Ullberg, Patricia Ullberg, Ann Hofstra Grogg & Robert Lind,A Short History of the Museum, in Art and Museum Law: Casesand Materials 425–31 (Robert C. Lind, Robert M. Jarvis &Marilyn E. Phelan eds., 2002) 676

Notes 683

2. The Ritual of the Secular 683

Carol Duncan, Art Museums and the Ritual of Citizenship, inExhibiting Cultures: The Poetics and Politics of MuseumDisplay 90–92 (Ivan Karp & Steven D. Lavine eds., 1991) 683

Notes 685




Contents xvii

3. The Culture of Collecting 687

Susan Sontag, the Volcano Lover 25, 144, 201 (1992) 687

Hermione Waterfield & J.C.H. King, Provenance: TwelveCollectors of Ethnographic Art in England 1760–1990, 111et seq. (2007) 688

Elizabeth A. Sackler, The Ethics/ of Collecting, 7 Int’l J. CulturalProp. 132, 134–40 (1998) 690


4. The Global Museum 695

James Cuno, View from the Universal Museum, in Imperialism,Art and Restitution 18–21 (John Henry Merryman ed., 2006) 696

International Council of Museums, Declaration on the Importanceand Value of Universal Museums, ICOM News, no. 1, at 4 (2004) 697

Hector Feliciano, The Lost Museum: The Nazi Conspiracyto Steal the World’s Greatest Works of Art 16, 21 (1997) 698

Jonathan Petropoulos, Art as Politics in the Third Reich245, 248 (1996) 699


5. Biculturalism and Museums 700

a. Introduction 700

b. New Zealand Museums 700

c. Canadian Museums 701


C. Museum Organization and Governance 704

1. Introduction 704

In Re Pinion 705

Notes 707

In Re Barnes Foundation 708

2. The Fiduciary Duties of Museum Managers 710

a. Deaccessioning: Selling the Family Silver 713

Patricia Ainslie, The Deaccessioning Strategy at Glenbow, 1992–97,15 Museum Mgmt. & Curatorship 21 (1996) 715

Attorney General v. Trustees of the British Museum 719


b. Conservation of Cultural Material and the Duty of Care 726

Sarah E. Botha, Art Conservation: Problems Encountered in anUnregulated Industry, 26 Colum. J. L. & Arts 251, 259–60 (2003) 728

Marie C. Malaro, A Legal Primer on Managing MuseumCollections 412–13 (2d ed., 1998) 729

Catherine Sease, Codes of Ethics for Conservation, 7 Int’l J.Cultural Prop. 98, at 106–08 (1998) 729

Miriam Clavir, Preserving What Is Valued: Museums,Conservation and First Nations 119–20, 125–26, 135–37, 139(2002) 731





xviii Contents

3. Ethical Constraints 735

Rosenberg v. Seattle Art Museum 736


8. Sports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740

A. Characteristics 740

David Parlett, The Arts of Contest, in Asian Games: The Art ofContest 23–24, 27 (Asia Society 2004) 740

Jerry L. Anderson, Comparative Perspectives on Property Rights: TheRight to Exclude, 56 J. Legal Ed. 539, 544–48 (2006) 743

Timothy R. Pauketat, America’s First Pastime, Archaeology,Sept./Oct. 2009, at 20–21, 22, 23, 25 744


René Lefort & Jean Harvey, What’s in a Game? UNESCO Courier,Apr. 1999, at 19 748

James H. Frey & D. Stanley Eitzen, Sport and Society, 17 Ann. Rev.Soc. 503, 508–10 (1991) 749

Barbara Ehrenreich, Where the Wild Things Are: A Defense ofCheeseheads, the Chop, and Ecstatic Religion in the Stands,Civilization, June–July 2000, at 84, 86 751

Notes 754

James H. Frey & D. Stanley Eitzen, Sport and Society, 17 Ann. Rev.Soc. 503, 511–12 (1991) 755

Stephen Weatherill, Sport as Culture in EC Law, in Culture andEuropean Union Law 113, 145 (Rachael Craufurd Smith ed.,2004) 756


B. Legal Framework 759

1. An Overview 759

2. National Litigation 761

a. Doping 761

Reynolds v. International Amateur Athletic Federation 761

Walton-Floyd v. U.S. Olympic Committee 774


Problem 783

b. Discrimination 784

Kuketz v. Petronelli 784

Akiyama v. U.S. Judo, Inc. 787


3. The Process of International Sports Law 795


4. European (EC) Law 799

Union Royale Belge des Societes de Football Association v. Bosman 800

Meca-Medina & Majcen v. Comm’n 805





Contents xix

5. The Court of Arbitration for Sport 814

A. v. Federation Internationale des Luttes Associées (FILA) 816

Edita Daniute v. International Dancesport Federation 822


Problem 829

6. The Lex Sportiva 830

9. Religion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831

A. The Setting: Globalization of Religion 831

Toby Lester, Oh, Gods! The Atlantic Monthly, February 2002,at 37 831

Pauletta Otis, Religion and War in the Twenty-First Century, inReligion and Security: The New Nexus in InternationalRelations 11, 15–16 (Robert A. Seiple & Dennis R. Hoover eds.,2004) 832

Mark W. Janis, Introduction, in Religion and InternationalLaw xi (Mark W. Janis & Carolyn Evans eds., 1999) 833

Binoy Kampmark, The Cartoon Riots: A New Cultural Diplomacy, 7Whitehead J. Dipl. & int’l Rel., Summer–Fall 2006, at 69–72, 76 834

Martin E. Marty, Fundamentalism and the Scholars, Key Rep.,Spring 1993, at 1, 3–4, 6 837


B. The Definitional Problem 839

Welsh v. United States 839

W. Cole Durham Jr., Facilitating Freedom of Religion or Beliefthrough Religious Association Laws, in Facilitating Freedom ofReligion or Belief: A Deskbook 352–55 (Tore Lindholm,W. Cole Durham Jr. & Bahia G. Tahzib-Lie eds., 2004) 840


James M. Donovan, God Is as God Does: Law, Anthropology, and theDefinition of “Religion,” 6 Const. L.J. 23, 98 (1995) 844

John Steinbeck, The Log from the SEA OF CORTEZ 216–17(Viking Press ed., 1962) 844

Shankar Vedantam, Are Religious Experiences Just a Side Effect ofBrain Chemistry? Int’l Herald Trib., June 18, 2001, at 1, 4 845

Richard Madsen, China’s Confounding Religious Revival, CurrentHist., Sept. 2007, at 288–91 846

Seval Yildirim, Expanding Secularism’s Scope: An Indian Case Study,52 Am. J. Comp. L. 901, 910–12 (2004) 850


C. Functions of Religion in the International System 856

1. Creative 857

a. Institutions 857

b. Doctrine 857

2. Aspirational 858

3. Didactic 858




xx Contents

4. Custodial 858

5. Mediative 859

6. Summary 859

D. Governmental Establishment of Religion 860

Dinah Shelton & Alexandre Kiss, A Draft Model Law on Freedom ofReligion with Commentary, in Religious Human Rights inGlobal Perspective 572 (Johan van der Vyver & J. Witte eds.,1996) 860

Alan Wolfe, And the Winner Is . . . , Atlantic, Mar. 2008, at 56,60–61 861

Remarks of Moshe Halbertal, in Religion and State 12–14(Harvard Law School Human Rights Program, 2004) 862

Remarks of Mordechai Kremnitzer, in Religion and State 14(Harvard Law School Human Rights Program, 2004) 864


Abdulmumini Adebayo Oba, The Sharia Court of Appeal inNorthern Nigeria: The Continuing Crisis of Jurisdiction, 52 Am. J.Comp. L. 859–61, 892–93, 896–97 (2004) 866

Ann Black, Survival or Extinction? Animistic Dispute Resolution inthe Sultanate of Brunei, 13 Willamette J. Int’l L. & Disp. Resol.1, 8–11 (2005) 869


E. Freedom of Religion 872

1. National Laws 872

Gonzalez v. O Centro Espı́rita Beneficiente União do Vegetal 872


Pitman B. Potter, Governance of China’s Periphery: Balancing LocalAutonomy and National Unity, 19 Colum. J. Asian L. 293, 305–07(2005) 881


2. International Law 883

Peter G. Danchin, The Emergence and Structure of ReligiousFreedom in International Law Reconsidered, 23 J. L. & Relig. 455,522–26 (2007–08) 883

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res. 217A, at 71. U.N.GAOR, 3d Sess., 1st plen. mtg., U.N. Doc. A/810 (Dec. 12, 1948) 885

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 16, 1966,993 U.N.T.S. 171 885

Declaration on the Elimination of All Forms of Intolerance and ofDiscrimination Based on Religion or Belief, G.A. Res. 36/55, U.N.GAOR, 36th Sess., Supp. No. 51, at 171, U.N. Doc. A/36/51 (Nov.25, 1981) 886

Katarina Tomaševski, Rights of Women: From Prohibition toElimination of Discrimination, Int’l Soc. Sci. J., no. 158, at 84, 87,93, 94 (1998) 887





Contents xxi

3. Regional Law 888

Organization of American States, American Declaration of theRights and Duties of Man, O.A.S. Res. XXX, O.A.S. Off. Rec.OEA/Ser.L/V/I.4 Rev. (Mar. 30–May 2, 1948) 888

Organization of American States, American Convention onHuman Rights, Nov. 22, 1969, O.A.S.T.S. No. 36, 1144 U.N.T.S. 123 888

Organization of African Unity, African Charter on Human andPeoples’ Rights, June 26, 1981, O.A.U. Doc. CAB/LEG/67/3 Rev. 5,21 I.L.M. 59 (1982) 889

Council of Europe, European Convention for the Protection ofHuman Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Nov. 4, 1950, 213U.N.T.S. 221 889

Şahin v. Turkey 889


4. Comparative Law 904

Cooper v. Eugene School District No. 4J 904


F. Concluding Observations 909

Martin E. Marty, The One and the Many: America’sStruggle for the Common Good 90–91 (1997) 909

Note and Questions 910

Brian Cox & Daniel Philpott, Faith-Based Diplomacy: An AncientIdea Newly Emergent, 1 Brandywine Rev. Faith & Int’l Aff.,Fall 2003, at 31, 34 910

Raymond Cohen, Diplomacy in the Holy Sepulchre(unpublished manuscript in preparation for his book Saving theHoly Sepulchre: How Rival Christians Came Together toRescue Their Holiest Shrine (2008)) 911

John Updike, The Future of Faith, New Yorker, Nov. 29, 1999, at83, 91 913

10. Language and Linguistic Expression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915

A. The Relationship between Language and Cultural Identity 915

Stephen May, Language and Culture, in Language andMinority Rights: Ethnicity, Nationalism and the Politicsof Language 132–35 (2008) 915


B. Responses of the State to Multilingualism 919

Dario Castiglione, The Challenges of Multilingualism, in TheLanguage Question in Europe and Diverse Societies:Political, Legal, and Social Perspectives 5–11 (DarioCastiglione & Chris Longman eds., 2007) 919

Bruno De Witte, A Legal Perspective, in Ethnic Groups andLanguage Rights 303–13 (Sergij Vilfan ed., 1993) 921

F. Niyi Akinnaso, Linguistic Unification and Language Rights, 12Applied Linguistics 139–60 (1994) 931





xxii Contents

C. Linguistic Human Rights 939

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, G.A. Res 217A, at 71, U.N.GAOR, 3d Sess., 1st plen. mtg. U.N. Doc. A/810 (Dec. 12, 1948) 939

International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Dec. 16, 1966,993 U.N.T.S. 171 939

Declaration on the Rights of Persons Belonging to National orEthnic, Religious and Linguistic Minorities, GA Res. 135, UNGAOR, 47th Sess., Supp. 49 at 210, U.N. Doc. A/RES/47/135(Dec. 18, 1992), reprinted in 32 I.L.M. 991 (1993) 940

Council of Europe, European Convention for the Protection ofHuman Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, Nov. 4, 1950, 213U.N.T.S. 221 940

Case Relating to Certain Aspects of the Laws on the Use of Languagesin Education in Belgium 941


Fernand de Varennes, Language and Freedom of Expression inInternational Law, 16 Hum. Rts. Q. 163–86 (1993) 944

The Rights of Minorities in Europe 3–4 (Mark Weller ed.,2005) 950

D. Dying Languages 951

Jack Hitt, Say No More, N.Y. Times, Feb. 29, 2004, at 52, 54, 56,57–58 951


E. Affirmative Measures to Implement Linguistic Rights 955


F. Restrictions of Linguistic Rights 958

Paul Finkelman, The War on German Language and Culture,1917–1925, in Confrontation and Cooperation: Germanyand the United States in the Era of World War I,1900–1924 at 177–96 (Hans-Jurgen Schroder ed., 1993) 958


G. Accent Discrimination and Linguistic Profiling 963

1. Accent Discrimination 963

Gerrit B. Smith, Note, I Want to Speak like Native Speaker: The Casefor Lowering the Plaintiff ’s Proof in Title VII Accent DiscriminationCases, 66 Ohio St. L.J. 231 (2005) 963


2. Linguistic Profiling 972

Clifford v. Commonwealth 972


INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981




Preface

The inspiration for this book has several sources. The core themes of linguistic andother cultural rights, cultural identity and differentiation, cultural heritage, traditionalknowledge, sports, and religion are of fundamental importance to humankind. Theyare matters that truly engage people at the grass roots, often commanding their dailyattention. The related legal processes are both significant and complex. It is thereforenot surprising that a vast legal literature has blossomed concerning themes of culturalactivity and artifacts. And yet this intellectual development remains on the fringe of legaland social science education. Courses on issues of cultural law or culture and law are fewand far between. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive coursebookcovering a broad range of these issues.

A first source of inspiration for this book, then, is the need we have perceived tobring cultural law more into the mainstream of legal and social science education. Asecond, related source of inspiration is the opportunity to offer a more integrated,coherent framework for studying the diverse themes of cultural law. Clearly, there arecommon threads running through these themes and the related legal processes. Certainrules of tort, contract, constitutional, and administrative law, as well as methods andprocedures of dispute resolution, recur throughout the book, regardless of the specificcultural theme. Likewise, we consider the role of international law – both customary andconventional – throughout the book. Although the specific topics of “art law,” “sportslaw,” “law and religion,” “cultural rights,” “traditional knowledge,” and so on, serveimportant organizational and analytical purposes, they also minimize the reality of acommon framework of cultural law. These discrete rubrics are also misleading insofaras students and practitioners alike may fail to appreciate the possibilities of broaderprofessional specialization in cultural law.

Our effort to develop a suitable framework of cultural law is still a work in progress,but, as a first step, Chapter 1 offers a working definition of cultural law in terms of a set ofsix relationships between culture and law within which the issues considered in this bookcould be categorized, although we have not done so. Each of these relationships maybe fairly criticized for its breadth, but we believe that, taken together to define culturallaw, they offer a constructive and coherent substitute for the vague conjunction, “cultureand law.” We also think that this set of six relationships highlights a particularly excitingfeature of cultural law, namely the dynamic, evolving development of both culture andlaw under their mutual influence.

xxiii




xxiv Preface

Of course, the very concepts of culture and law have been notoriously ambiguousand unstable over time. We are well aware of the definitional dilemmas. We neverthelessare convinced of the importance and efficacy of acquainting law students and lawyers,on the one hand, and cultural specialists, on the other hand, with the definitionalissues and characteristics of each other’s discipline. Lawyers and cultural specialists mustwork together. A third source of inspiration for this book, therefore, is the challenge ofenhancing interdisciplinary understanding and collaboration, for example, by devotingall of Chapter 2 to the contours of meaning associated with the terms “culture” and “law.”To the extent that students and other readers are already familiar with this material, theymay wish to skip either Chapter 2 as a whole or parts of it.

A fourth source of inspiration for this book is the importance of demonstratingto students the reality and efficacy of comparative, international, and indigenous lawand practices in the real-life context of cultural activity and artifacts. Too often thesedisciplines otherwise appear arcane or far removed from the immediacy of everydayexperience.

A fifth and final source of inspiration for this book is its potential to serve as botha university coursebook and a reference work. We do not claim that the cases, authors’commentary, and other materials in this book are in any way definitive. We have selectedthe contents, however, with both classroom instruction and ongoing reference needs inmind. Many of the cases and readings are classics, but some are deliberately outside thebox, so to speak, to stimulate further inquiry. We also believe that the index at the end ofthis book will be useful in the classroom, the professional office, and the library.

We have sought to cover as many cultural themes of legal significance to people aroundthe world as possible without running the risk of superficiality. Inevitably, however, spacelimitations have required us to limit the scope of a few themes (e.g., music and pop cul-ture) and largely to bypass other possible themes (e.g., theater, dance, and cinema) thatare already addressed by regimes of general application, such as those that govern intel-lectual property and constitutional issues – although specific cultural law is beginning toaddress those themes as well. We have also relied heavily on English-language materialsand comparative and indigenous examples from the English-speaking world.

As in any coauthored work, readers may detect variations of style, but we have done ourbest to establish a uniform structure and style. In doing so, we have generally adheredto conventional legal formatting, such as by the use of footnotes rather than in-textcitations or endnotes, and The Bluebook system of citation. In keeping with the normalpublishing practice, we have eliminated most footnotes within the excerpted materials.Those that we have retained, as well as the authors’ own clarifications and explanations,are numbered consecutively within each chapter. Footnote numbers therefore do notnecessarily correspond to those in the excerpted sources. Also in keeping with normalpublishing practice, we have provided citations to cases, legislation, treaties, and otherprimary materials only as they become the objects of specific commentary or analysis inthis book rather than as they may appear summarily or in lists of examples.

We hope that this volume will inspire others to consider the importance of culturalactivities and artifacts in legal processes. We also want to encourage interdisciplinaryapproaches to the study of law and legal phenomena. Last but not least, we have tried tohighlight the significance of analyzing legal processes at all levels: international, national,subnational, tribal, and strictly cultural. Cultural issues are ubiquitous, and the related




Preface xxv

law is of growing significance. As time goes on, we trust that students and practitionersalike will help expand the range of issues and our understanding of the alternatives forresolving them.

James A. R. NafzigerSalem, Oregon

Robert Kirkwood PatersonVancouver, British Columbia

Alison Dundes RentelnLos Angeles, California




Acknowledgments

The authors are especially grateful to Andrea Whalen for carrying the burden of process-ing and formatting the manuscript for this book and for bringing typographical errorsand other glitches to the attention of the authors. We also thank Marlowe Caldwell andKathy Marbut for their skillful computer processing, as well as Roger Clark, MiriamClavir, Mark Janis, Dennis Karjala, Roberta Kremer, and Jorge A. Sánchez Cordero fortheir substantive assistance and other support of this project. Students in consecutiveyearly seminars at the Willamette University College of Law provided many helpfulsuggestions as well.

The Hague Academy of International Law and its Centre for Studies and Researchgraciously granted permission to reprint excerpts appearing in Chapters 3, 4, and 5 thatwere drawn from pages 145–247 of The Cultural Heritage of Mankind (Tullio Scovazzi &James A.R. Nafziger eds. 2008). More broadly, having taken care to obtain permission toreproduce all previously published material, we appreciate the cooperation of publishersand authors who have enabled us to include excerpts of their work in this book. We trustthat no previously published material has escaped our attention. Finally, we thank JohnBerger of Cambridge University Press and Larry Fox and Brigitte Coulton of Aptara forhelping steer this book through the production process.

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