Crop Tree Field Guide - Iowa Department of Natural Resources

United StatesDepartment ofAgriculture

Forest Service

NortheasternAreaState & PrivateForestry

NA-TP-10-01

Crop TreeField Guide

Selecting and ManagingCrop Trees in the

Central Appalachians

The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimina-tion in all its programs and activities on the basis of race, color,national origin, gender, religion, age, disability, political beliefs,sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all prohibitedbases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities whorequire alternative means for communication of program informa-tion (Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA’STARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD).

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Crop TreeField Guide

Arlyn W. Perkeyand

Brenda L. Wilkins

Northeastern AreaState and Private Forestry

USDA Forest ServiceMorgantown, WV 26505

October 2001

Selecting and ManagingCrop Trees

in the Central Appalachians

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Completion of this publication would not have been possible withoutthe assistance of many colleagues, some of whom were givingadvice when they didn’t know it. Gary Miller, Clay Smith (retired),and John Baumgras from the Northeastern Research Station areongoing sources of reliable information. Rod Whiteman with theNortheastern Area has contributed vital information from demonstra-tion areas on federal land. Without Ken Carvell (retired) and RayHicks from West Virginia University, Division of Forestry, our under-standing of the ecology of the central Appalachian forest would notbe advanced to the degree it is today. Thank you Cynthia Huebnerfor your help with the hickories.

George Freeman and Richard Potts reviewed the publication fromthe perspective of well-informed landowners who, along with forest-ers and other natural resource professionals, are the target audi-ence. Their insight into the needs of landowners is invaluable.

Thank you Ann Steketee, Nancy Lough, and Helen Wassick for all ofyour dedicated assistance preparing this product and distributing itto clients. Without your commitment to customer service, wewouldn’t be able to deliver to our readers.

Thanks to state service foresters, private forest consultants, exten-sion foresters, and industrial landowner assistance program forest-ers who work tirelessly with private landowners. With the turnover inland ownership, it often seems like the task of providing landownereducation and on-the-ground technical assistance is never ending.To date, we have reached only a small percentage of the landown-ing public. Thank you for not giving up; current and future genera-tions need your help.

Finally, thank you to the private landowners who manage their landresponsibly to accomplish your goals while producing benefits forsociety. It appears we will be relying on you to produce an evenlarger portion of the goods and services we demand from ourforests. If the percentage of landowners who actively manage theirforestland is going to increase, your leadership will be required tomake it happen.

Introduction .................................................................. 1

Using this Publication .................................................. 3

Black Cherry ...............................................................11

White Ash .................................................................. 17

Yellow-Poplar ............................................................. 21

Northern Red Oak ..................................................... 25

Black Walnut ............................................................. 31

Sugar Maple .............................................................. 35

Red Maple ................................................................. 39

American Beech ........................................................ 43

White Oak ................................................................. 47

Chestnut Oak ............................................................ 53

Scarlet Oak ............................................................... 57

Black Oak .................................................................. 61

Shagbark Hickory ...................................................... 67

Mockernut Hickory ..................................................... 71

Pignut Hickory ........................................................... 73

Bitternut Hickory ........................................................ 75

Summary ................................................................... 78

Appendix A ................................................................ 81

Appendix B ................................................................ 83

Appendix C ................................................................ 85

Appendix D ................................................................ 88

Appendix E ................................................................ 93

Sources of Information .............................................. 94

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Photographs by Arlyn W. Perkey (except as noted)

Graphics by Nancy A. Lough

Editor: Brenda L. Wilkins

Two excellent dendrology web sites granted permission for use of photographs.They are:

Trees of Alabama and the SoutheastAuburn UniversityAuburn, Alabama

Dr. Lisa Samuelson, Mike Hogan, and Tom StokesSchool of Forestry and Wildlife Sciences

Photography by Mike Hogan and Todd Langstonforestry.auburn.edu/samuelson/dendrology/species_list.htm

and

University of Wisconsin–MadisonMadison, WisconsinMichael W. Clayton

Department of BotanyPhotography by Michael Clayton and Darrin Kimbler

wisc.edu/botit/img/

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1 Selecting and Managing Crop Trees in the Central Appalachians

INTRODUCTION

This field guide was developed as an aid for foresters andlandowners to facilitate selection of crop trees in the applica-

tion of Crop Tree Man-agement in the centralAppalachian region ofthe United States. Man-agers familiar with thepublication, Crop TreeManagement In EasternHardwoods, will find thispublication to be asource of additionalguidance and informa-tion useful in selectingcrop trees to accomplish

desired landowner goals such as timber production, improvedwildlife habitat, and enhanced aesthetic benefits.

Based on research at the Fernow Experimental Forest, observa-tions and growth data from several crop tree demonstrationareas, and published sources of information, this guide pro-vides greater detail for 16 individual species commonlyselected as crop trees.

The map on the following page delineates the central Appala-chian region where this guide is most applicable. Although itmay be useful beyond the boundaries indicated, users outsideof this zone must evaluate the relevancy according to theirlocal growing conditions.

Crop Tree Management promotes goodstewardship of the forest resource. Itoffers landowners the opportunity tomanage their woodland for multiple usesthat will benefit themselves and society.

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2 Crop Tree Field Guide

Central Appalachian Regionof the United States

Area of Applicability

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Warm, Dry Sites

Dry Site Oaks Hickories

White Oak ShagbarkChestnut Oak MockernutScarlet Oak PignutBlack Oak Bitternut

USING THIS PUBLICATION

For ease of use, the 16 species covered in this guide are subdi-vided into four categories reflecting their frequency of associa-tion and the tendency for people to think of them as a group.For example, the CAP (Cherry, Ash, and Poplar) species areoften found in coves in association with northern red oak and,occasionally, black walnut. The northern hardwoods are oftenfound on cool sites. The dry site oaks and hickories are fre-quently neighbors. This organization makes it easier for theuser to find information on trees on a given site. Just as theyare commonly found growing together in nature, they are foundclose to each other in this publication.

Cool, Moist Sites

CAP-NRO-BW Northern Hardwoods

Black Cherry Sugar MapleWhite Ash Red MapleYellow-Poplar American BeechNorthern Red OakBlack Walnut

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These categories are very gen-eral groupings of species on thesites where they are best adaptedto being competitive and pro-ducing the highest value timberproducts.

To aid species identification,photographs featuring bark, bud,and leaf characteristics areincluded on the index pages thatprecede each species section.For some species, a picture offlower and fruit is also shown.

For most species, pole-size andlarger trees can be identified byexamining the bark. However,some of the hickories are anexception. Appendix D offershelp in identifying the tight-barkhickories.

For some species, it is reason-able to imply general growthrate from the appearance of thebark. Where this is possible,photos that contrast growth ratesare included to help the userassess crop tree potential andresponse.

GeneralInformation Note:

There are manyoccasions whenspecies from one groupwill be found in associa-tion with species fromanother. For example,red maple is oftenfound on dry sites inassociation with dry siteoaks and hickories.However, in theselocations, it is less likelyto have characteristicsthat will make it atimber crop treecandidate. Similarly,black walnut is fre-quently found on old-pasture, upland siteswhere it was a success-ful competitor. How-ever, it seldom growsrapidly or producesquality products onthese dry sites. Con-versely, dry site oaksand hickories (espe-cially bitternut) arefound on moist sites.Because they producehard mast (acorns andnuts), they may beconsidered valuablewildlife crop trees inthese areas wherewinter-storable food isat a premium.

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Each species covered in this guide is described according to itspotential to be selected as a timber, wildlife, and aesthetic croptree. This information provides the basis for evaluation ofindividual trees according to the characteristics that qualify itfor any of these three categories. It is possible that a tree mighthave qualities that place it in two, or even all three, crop treecategories.

The following format is used to give crop tree managers aneasy way to locate this information by species.

Timber Crop Tree Notes –

• Unit Value

• Growth Rate – usually expressed as diameter atbreast height (dbh) growth in inches per decade

• Quality Comments – for some species

• Health Issues

• Natural Regeneration

Wildlife Crop Tree Notes –

• Mast Production

• Cavity Formation – for some species

Aesthetic Crop Tree Notes –

• Fall Foliage

• Spring Blossoms – for two species

• Size, Shape, or Form – for some species

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Herbicide information changes as new products are developed andlabeled. Current advice is available in Herbicide Hardwood CropTree Release in Central West Virginia (Kochenderfer, et. al. - seeSources of Information on page 94). Online information is avail-able at Ohio State University <http://www.ag.ohio-state.edu/index.html> July 17, 2001.

Since the 16 species detailed in this guide tend to form root graftswith trees of the same species, caution must be used whenapplying herbicide to competing trees. Translocation of herbicidecan occur, causing damage to the crop tree (backflash). Reactionsto different herbicides varies among species, so it is best to becautious about which herbicide to use with the individual speciesbeing treated. Caution in choosing the type of herbicide injectedcan reduce the risk of backflash. It is critical to read the labelcarefully. Consultation with professionals who have experiencewith injecting herbicides is also recommended.

For silvicultural treatments like site preparation for natural regen-eration, it is possible to use backflash to great advantage. Forexample, where it may be desirable to deaden most of the maplein a given area, the tendency to backflash may facilitate accom-plishing that objective. In this instance, it may be prudent tochoose a herbicide that readily translocates through root grafts.

General Information Note:

In this publication, where the terms sapling, pole, and small,medium, and large sawtimber are used, they are referring totree size classes as described below.

Tree Size Class Diameter at Breast Height (inches)

Sapling 2-4Pole 6-10Small Sawtimber 12-14Medium Sawtimber 16-20Large Sawtimber 20+

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The majority of the information provided in this guide isapplicable to releasing crop trees that are at least 25 feet tall.However, a section on natural regeneration is included becausein some instances it is critical for crop tree managers to inte-grate regeneration considerations into crop tree selection andmanagement decisions. For most central Appalachian hard-wood species (yellow-poplar is the exception), regeneration isa process, not an event. These species often require severalyears to build up (the process) an inventory of well establishedseedlings prior to a significant disturbance that releases thoseseedlings. In contrast, yellow-poplar regeneration is usually inresponse to a single event (disturbance) that occurs at a spe-cific point in time.

When most of the crop trees are within 15 to 20 years ofmaturity, it is important to consider what actions may beneeded to facilitate the process of establishing desirable regen-eration. Examples include deadening midstory and understoryvegetation to provide suitable seedbeds, adjustment of treat-ments to coincide with bumper seed crops, and protection ofseeds and seedlings from deer.

Projected time to maturity can be estimated using the growthrate tables in Appendix C. For example, red oaks that arecurrently 15 inches dbh and expected to grow 3.6 inches perdecade, are projected to be over 20 inches dbh in 15 years.

Regardless of crop tree age and time from maturity, it is criticalto retain trees that can provide a high-quality source of seed for

When cutting activities are performed for any hardwoodspecies, it is impotant to cut low stumps (1 foot high or less) toincrease the probability of having the highest quality sprouts.

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For each species, there are comments on health issues that areparticularly relevant for that species. However, some healthissues are more widespread and affect the whole forest. Graz-ing by domestic livestock affects the health and quality ofgrowing crop trees and the establishment of the next generationof crop trees. To grow high-quality hardwood timber crop

trees in the centralAppalachian region,grazing by livestockis generally not acompatible use.Information in thisguide is based onthe assumption thatlivestock is ex-cluded from thewoods.

A high deer popula-tion can seriously

interfere with the regeneration of many species. At moderatelyhigh levels, deer can shift the competitive advantage to speciesthat are low on the browse preference list. The long-termsolution to this problem is a reduction in the size of the deer

For all 16 species, it is important to remember that the greatestseed production is on trees with vigorous crowns that arereceiving full sunlight.

Deer exclosures in areas of high deer populationare often necessary to provide protection fromexcessive deer browsing.

the establishment of future crop trees. Information in Appen-dix E can be used to anticipate the seed longevity in the soil,frequency of good seed crops, initial seed-bearing age, opti-mum seed-bearing age, and longevity of trees.

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In the central Appalachians, invasive exotic plants are anincreasing threat to the establishment of regeneration. Theseweeds are usually most effectively able to spread during timesof disturbance. When the forest canopy is opened, the addi-tional sunlight on the forest floor provides opportunities forthese aggressive plants to crowd native species. If there issignificant threat that an invasive species can expand, it isrecommended that the weed be contained prior to extensiveopening of the canopy.

herd. For the short term, crop tree managers whose objectivesinclude establishing regeneration may need to provide protec-tion from excessive deer browsing. Currently, the most com-monly used methods of protection are fencing and tree shelters.

The Ailanthus pictured here was injected with herbicide to killboth the roots and top of this aggressive invader. Notice theAilanthus on the right that still has green leaves. This“missed tree” will necessitate a follow-up treatment.

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Appendices A and B provide graphics that will help users ofthis guide understand how to apply a crown-touching release toselected crop trees and how to adjust the intensity of cutting byadjusting the number of crop trees released. Appendix Cprovides a tally sheet and growth comparison charts that can beused to monitor crop tree growth. Appendix D gives informa-tion to help distinguish among the tight-bark hickories, andAppendix E provides seed production and tree longevityinformation.

It is hoped that the information contained in this guide willequip those working in the central Appalachian region ofthis country with the best information available for apply-ing Crop Tree Management principles to benefit privateforest landowners and society.

Many private landowners are unaware of the benefits theirforestland can provide to them. Crop Tree Management is aneasily understood system that facilitates communicationbetween forestry professionals and woodland owners.

BLACK CHERRY

Black cherry is found on a variety of sites in the central Appa-lachians, but it grows best on cool, moist sites where theclimate provides precipitation throughout the year. It is intoler-ant of shade, but seedlings are more tolerant than older trees.

Leaves are simple,alternate, elliptical,and finely toothed. Apair of glands on thepetiole near the leafbase are a distin-guishing feature.

Fruit is initially green,turning purple-blackat maturity.

Bark is thin andsmooth with horizon-tal lenticels whenyoung; its color isolive-brown toreddish-brown (left).

As the tree growsolder, it developsscales with re-curved edges thatbecome flaky(right).

Buds are about 1/5inch long. They arecovered with shiny,reddish-brown togreen coloredscales. The twigsare red-brown andhave a waxy bloom.

Flowers are white and attractively complement freshgreen foliage in the spring.

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Unit Value: The per unit value of black cherry is veryhigh, especially within the portions of its geographicrange where it has traditionally grown into high-qualitytrees. Black cherry grows in many states in the easternUnited States, but it is most valuable in all or portionsof Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio, West Virginia, andwestern Maryland.

Growth Rate: Black cherry grows on a wide range ofsites, but is commercially most valuable on cool, moistsites. Its early rapid height growth frequently providesan advantage over competing species. Only yellow-poplar has faster height growth on the best sites.

This pole-size black cherry isgrowing at the rate of 1.8 inches perdecade. Notice the abundance ofjuvenile bark (lenticels visible) andthe absence of red stretch marksbetween bark flakes.

This released, pole-size black cherryis growing at the rate of 3.5 inchesper decade. Stretch marks betweenbark flakes indicate the trunk’ssurface area is expanding relativelyrapidly.

BLABLABLABLABLACK CHERRCK CHERRCK CHERRCK CHERRCK CHERRYYYYY

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On good sites, if it has a healthy, vigorous crown that isfree-to-grow on three or four sides, black cherry can beexpected to grow 2 to 4 inches per decade in diameterup to 50 years of age. After 50, it may still respond torelease, but its diameter growth rate might be substan-tially less than other released, more tolerant associatesin the stand. Black cherry does not recover well if itbegins to lose the competitive race with adjoining trees.For best performance following release, it is importantfor crop trees to be young, have dominant or strong co-dominant crown class, and be on a cool, moist site.Released trees without these factors may deteriorate invigor and value.

Quality Comments: Theearly rapid height growth ofblack cherry frequently putsit taller than the generalcrown canopy in mixed-species stands. This opensthe way for forks to developon the main stem. Seamsbelow these forks indicatehigh risk for major value losscaused by the fork splittingapart in wind or ice storms.

Sapling and small pole-sizetrees are highly subject tobending by ice and wet snow,causing severe crooks in the

stem and loss of the terminal leader. Black cherry doestend to recover after breakage in the crown with less

The seam below this fork isa weak point where this treeis most likely to split. Thisdefect makes the tree a poorcrop tree choice.

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loss of diameter growth than might occur in otherspecies.

Decay spreads more slowly in cherry than many associ-ated species, so long-term effects may be less than theyinitially appear.

Black cherry has a fairly strong tendency to epicormicbranch when released.

It is criticalto releaseblack cherrycrop treesfrom grape-vines at anearly age. Itis moresusceptibleto damageby grape-vines thanother

central Appalachian hardwood species. Black cherrycrop trees with grapevines in their crowns are much

To reduce the probability of gum spots (a defect result-ing in reduced timber quality) caused by bark beetles inblack cherry, operations between January and June thatresult in black cherry slash or standing, dead treesshould not be carried out. Black cherry trees cut ordeadened between July and January are much lesslikely to provide suitable habitat for bark beetles.

Wild grapevines attach to trees, competing forsunlight and burdening branches with extraweight that often can’t be supported.

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more likely to be severely damaged by breakage in iceand snow storms.

Health Issues: Black knot commonly causes cankers todevelop on trunks and branches of black cherry trees.Large cankerous swellings (which can often be a foot ormore in length) on the trunk of a tree can render ituseless as a high-value product. Cankers are weakspots where the tree is subject to increased risk ofbreaking during wind and ice storms.

Black cherry trees with black knot on the trunk shouldgenerally be avoided when selecting crop trees fortimber production. However, black knot in the crowncan be accepted if less than 50 percent of the crown isaffected (assume the branch will break off at the knot).

The cherry scallop shell moth is a defoliator of blackcherry. If defoliation coincides with, or follows, otherstress events such as drought or a late frost, crowndieback, loss of radial growth, or tree mortality mayresult.

Natural Regeneration: Maximum seed production inblack cherry generally occurs between the ages of 30and 100 years. Some individual trees never producesignificant quantities of seed even when they reach theage and crown position where it is expected. In moststands of seed-bearing age, some seeds are producedalmost every year. Good crops occur at 1 to 5 yearintervals.

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Black cherry seed can remain viable in the soil for 3years. Because of relatively frequent seed crops anddelayed germination, often a considerable quantity ofviable cherry seed is stored in the forest floor beneathcherry stands, freeing natural regeneration from depen-dency on current seed production.

Seedbed requirements for germination are not rigid.Mineral soil is not required. Germination is somewhatless on mineral soil than on undisturbed humus or leaflitter. A moist seedbed is required for good germina-tion, and burial of seeds to a depth of several inches isbeneficial. Shade also improves germination by help-ing to maintain stable moisture. Overstory stockinglevels of 50 to 70 percent provide optimum conditionsfor establishment of black cherry advance reproduction.

Songbirds distribute modest quantities of seed in theirdroppings or by regurgitation. Omnivorous mammals,such as foxes and bears, also distribute seeds in theirdroppings. Bird and mammal distribution oftenaccounts for a surprising abundance of advance cherryseedlings in stands lacking cherry seed producers.

Good germination and high survival provide for maxi-mum seedling numbers at this level, and seedlingheights of 1 to 2 feet are achieved in about 5 years.Best height growth of established seedlings, however,occurs in full sunlight. Black cherry advance seedlingsmore than 6 inches tall and at least 2 years old survivewell and grow rapidly after exposure to full sunlight.

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Mast Production: Black cherryfruits are an important sourceof mast for many nongamebirds, squirrel, deer, bear,grouse, turkey, mice andmoles, and other wildlife.


Fall Foliage: The yellow fall foliage of black cherry isnot impressive.

Size, Shape, or Form: To those who admire tall, straighttrees, specimens with these characteristics are relativelycommon on good black cherry sites where the trees areforest grown.

Black cherry will take advantageof canopy gaps to establishseedlings and saplings. Tomaintain rapid height anddiameter growth, understory andmidstory trees must obtainaccess to full sunlight found inthe main crown canopy.

Black cherry is lower on thedeer browse preference listthan many associated species.Consequently, in moderatelyhigh deer population areas,establishment of black cherryregeneration is enhanced bydeer browsing.

WHITE ASH

White ash is found on fertile, moist, well drained soils. It isintolerant of shade.

Bark is gray to brown with corky, interlacing ridges that form adiamond pattern. The gray-brown bark on young trees thickens withage as the furrows deepen and form sharp, interlacing ridges.

Leaves are compoundand opposite with 5-9ovate leaflets that aregrayish-white andlightly hairy below.

PHOPHOPHOPHOPHOTTTTTO 90O 90O 90O 90O 90

Fruit is a wingedsamara. The wingdoes not extend morethan a quarter of theway down the body.

The opportunity to distinguishbetween male and female ashtrees occurs in the early spring for2-3 weeks when male flowers arevisible, and prior to seedfall(September to December) whenthe fruit is on the female trees.

Terminal buds are brown,hairy, and have a powderyappearance. The leaf scaris U-shaped with opposite,lateral buds nestled withinthe scar.

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WHITE ASHWHITE ASHWHITE ASHWHITE ASHWHITE ASH


Unit Value: White ash has a relatively high value as atimber crop tree when grown on suitable sites. Best

growth occurs onmoderately welldrained soils whereroots can penetrateto a depth of 16inches or more. Ithas demanding soilfertility and soilmoisture require-ments. It growsbest on soils with ahigh nitrogencontent and moder-ate to high calciumcontent.

Growth Rate: Post-juvenile diametergrowth rates of 2.0to 2.5 inches perdecade can beexpected on domi-nant and codomi-nant trees inunthinned stands.

When wind-dispersed white ash seedgerminates and establishes the specieson dry upland, old-field sites, the result isoften poorly formed, slow-growing treessimilar to those pictured here. Releas-ing these trees will not produce high-value timber products.

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Released trees on suitable sites should grow 3 to 4inches per decade. White ash is an early rapid growerin height and diameter. The best growth is achievedwhen it is less than 50 years old.

Quality Comments: White ash has a relatively lowtendency to epicormic branch when released fromcompetition, making it suitable to maintain in a free-to-grow condition while producing a high-quality product.

White ash often seeds in on old-field sites if there is anavailable seed source. Pioneer white ash on abandonedtraditional agricultural land is usually poorly formedunless it developed in a dense stand that provided earlycompetition to aid development of straight trees free oflow forks.

Health Issues: In the northern part of its range, whiteash has been plagued with a disease called ash yellows.The best prevention is to reduce plant stresses causedby water shortage and competition.

On old-field sites where white ash may occur in nearlypure stands, the suitability of the site should be evalu-ated. If it does not have the soil, moisture, and nutrientconditions conducive to good growth, conversion toother species should be considered.

Natural Regeneration: White ash seed remains viablein the soil for 3 years, germinating when conditions arefavorable. When young, white ash is relatively shadetolerant. Seedlings can persist for a few years in mod-erately dense shade, and they respond quickly to open-

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ings in the canopy. With increasing age, white ashbecomes less tolerant of shade. To become success-fully established, white ash seedlings must receivesunlight from above in a timely manner.


Mast Production: White ash is not normally selected asa wildlife crop tree because its soft mast is not of greatvalue to many species of wildlife. However, it is of fairvalue to quail, songbirds, and rodents. The minimumseed-bearing age is about 20 years, and trees are often 8

to 10 inches in diameterat breast height beforethey flower abundantly.White ash has male andfemale trees, limitingseed-producing trees toabout half the popula-tion. Approximately halfof the female trees bearabundant seed cropsevery third year.Seedfall occurs between

September and December, so it is available to wildlifeduring fall and early winter.

Cavity Formation: White ash has a tendency to formcavities, which increases the probability it will havepotential den sites suitable for use as shelter for somespecies of wildlife.

Improving wildlife habitat is an importantobjective for some forestland owners.

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Fall Foliage: White ash has attractive yellow fallfoliage that may have a purplish cast on some indi-vidual trees.

Size, Shape, or Form: Viewers who enjoy the aestheticattributes of straight, tall trees may favor white ash asan aesthetic crop tree because of its generally goodform on suitable sites.

Where white ash is mixed with other species, crop treemanagers can often ensure increased species diversity inthe future stand. By choosing crop trees that are welladapted to growing on the site, managers improve the vigorand value of the residual stand.

YELLOW-POPLAR

Yellow-poplar grows best on rich, moist sites. It is intolerantof shade.

Leaves aresimple, alternate,shiny greenabove and palebelow, with 4-6lobes and asquare, notchedapex.

Bark transitions from gray with small, white, narrow patches whenyoung to two-shaded gray with deepening furrows forming irregularlines.

Buds are smooth and green to purple in color with twovalvate scales. The laterals are alternate and smaller.

Flowers are tulip-shaped and light green with orangeblotches.

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Yellow-poplars with deepcrowns (live crown ratios of+40%) can grow very rapidlyon sites with moist, welldrained soils.

YELLYELLYELLYELLYELLOOOOOWWWWW-POPLAR-POPLAR-POPLAR-POPLAR-POPLAR


Unit Value: The unit value of yellow-poplar is modest,fluctuating with demand over the many years of use inthis country. Historically, yellow-poplar has beenregarded as a desirable species because it is softer andmore workable than many hardwoods. Its generallydesirable form, tall merchantable height, and relativelysmall crown enable it to produce fairly high volumes oftimber per acre for a hardwood species. In recent yearsmarket interest in yellow-poplar has increased becauseof its suitability for use as laminated veneer lumber andoriented strand board.

Growth Rate: Yellow-poplarhas the potential to growrapidly on the better siteswhere it is best adapted todeveloping into large diam-eter, straight trees. Its earlyrapid height growth oftengives it a competitive advan-tage over other species onmoist sites. Where it has aheight advantage, it candevelop a relatively deepcrown capable of supportinga diameter growth rate of 3to 5 inches per decade whenreleased. In nearly pure

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stands, either naturally or artificially established,yellow-poplar needs thinning at a relatively young age(small pole-size) to encourage the development of deepcrowns. Otherwise, it tends to develop tall, straighttrunks with exceedingly small crowns with limitedability to support increased diameter growth.

On moderately moist, well drained, loose-texturedsoils, few hardwood species come close to matching thevolume of merchantable timber that yellow-poplar canproduce. However, on upper, dryer slopes with limitedsoil depth, yellow-poplar often survives, but has ashorter life span, does not respond as well to release,and does not grow as large. It is also commonly foundgrowing on old pasture sites where it seeded in aftertraditional agricultural use was abandoned.

Quality Comments: Yellow-poplar will developepicormic branches, especially on sites where it is onlymarginally adapted to growing. However, it seldomincreases the amount of epicormic branches in responseto a crown-touching release. If there are epicormicbranches on a yellow-poplar trunk, they will remainthere and grow larger in response to a release, but newbranches usually do not proliferate.

Health Issues: On good cove sites, yellow-poplar hasrelatively few serious insect and disease problems if thetrees have vigorous crowns. However, yellow-poplar issubject to breakage during storms, and is especiallysusceptible to ice damage. Crowns with limbs that are

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nearly perpendicular to the trunk are less likely to breakwhen stressed with the weight of ice. Wild grapevinesin the crown of a crop tree significantly increase itssusceptibility to damage by breakage.

When the sap is running in the spring, yellow-poplar isvery susceptible to logging damage. If a falling treestrikes a standing poplar, there is often considerablebark loss up and down the trunk of the standing tree.

Natural Regeneration: Yellow-poplar requires sunlightto regenerate. It is competitive on severely disturbedharvesting sites or where a natural event like a wind orice storm has resulted in very open conditions. Yellow-poplar seed remains viable in the soil for 8 years. Seedgermination and seedling development are better onmineral soils or well-decomposed organic matter thanon thick, undecomposed litter layer. Since yellow-poplar seed dispersion begins in the fall, disturbanceslike logging during the dormant season favor establish-ment and development. Growing-season harvestingfavors competing vegetation.

The minimum size of opening that can be used toestablish yellow-poplar is fairly small. However, bothdiameter and height growth are retarded in openingssmaller than 0.5 to 1 acre. Yellow-poplar is also suc-cessful at colonizing old fields that have been aban-doned from traditional agricultural use if a seed sourceis within wind-dispersal range.

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Mast Production: Yellow-poplar is not usually selectedas a wildlife crop tree because it is of relatively lowvalue to most wildlife species. However, the flowersdo provide a valuable source of nectar for bees. For afew landowners, that could be a goal.


Fall Foliage: Yellow-poplar has attractive yellowfoliage in the fall. Whether that, along with the statelyform of the tree, warrants designation as an aestheticcrop tree depends on the preferences of the individuallandowner.

Spring Blossoms: Yellow-poplar has very attractivelight green and yellow-orange blossoms that are oftenoverlooked in forest-grown trees. Since floweringoccurs after leaves are present, the display of blossomsis less spectacular.

Size, Shape, or Form: A forest-grown crop tree with astraight, tall trunk, clear of branches with a full crownaccounting for 40 percent of the tree’s height is strikingin appearance. Those who appreciate trees with thisform may find many impressive yellow-poplar trees toadmire.

NORTHERN RED OAK

Northern red oak is found on a range of sites, but develops beston rich, moist sites. It is intermediate in shade tolerance.

Bark transi-tions fromsmooth andgray whenyoung to flat,light grayridges andblack furrowswhen older.

Fruit is a barrel-shaped acorn about 1inch long.

Buds are brown,angled, and smooth.

Leaves are simple,alternate, and darkgreen above with7-11 bristle-tippedlobes and sinusesthat usually extendless than 1/2 wayto the mid-rib.

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NORNORNORNORNORTHERN RED OTHERN RED OTHERN RED OTHERN RED OTHERN RED OAKAKAKAKAK


Unit Value: Northern red oak has high value as a timbercrop tree, especially when grown on good sites. Al-though it is found in all topographic positions, it usuallygrows best on lower and middle slopes with north- andeast-facing aspects, in coves and deep ravines, and onwell drained valley floors. The most important factorsdetermining site quality for northern red oak are depth

and texture of the A soil hori-zon, aspect, and slope positionand shape. The best sites arefound on lower, concave slopes,north- and east-facing aspects,on soils with a thick A horizon,and a loam to silt loam texture.

Growth Rate: Growth rates of2.0 to 2.5 inches per decade canbe expected on dominant andcodominant unreleased trees.Released crop trees with healthy,vigorous crowns can grow 3 to 4inches per decade on dry and drymesic sites (as described inUsing Diagnostic Plants ToEvaluate Site Class), and up to 5inches per decade on mesic andmoist mesic sites.

This released northern red oakis growing at the rate of 4.2inches per decade. Thereddish-colored stretch marksindicate the bark is rapidlyexpanding as growth isaccelerated.

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Quality Comments: Northern red oak has a fairlystrong tendency to epicormic branch when released. Inone study where residual tree trunks were fully exposedto light, 12 percent of the trees had a reduced butt loggrade following release.

Care must be taken to select and release crop trees withhealthy, vigorous crowns in the main crown canopy andno epicormic branches on the butt log. Abundantdormant buds on the butt log are a strong indicationthat epicormic branches may develop, so trees with thiscondition should not be selected as timber crop trees.

On poorer sites, there is greater probability ofepicormic branches developing on crop trees.

Genetics is another factor causing trees to sprout inresponse to additional light on their trunks.

Northern red oak crop trees should not be releasedimmediately before or soon after defoliation by gypsymoth. Defoliation stresses the tree, greatly increasingthe probability that epicormic branches will develop.

Wood tunneling by the red oak borer causes losses fromdefects and degrade of lumber. Maintaining tree vigorwill reduce susceptibility to attack.

Health Issues: The most destructive defoliating insectattacking northern red oak is the gypsy moth. Althoughit can recover from a single defoliation, it may beweakened enough for disease or other insects to attackand kill it.

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Acorns on top of the leaf litter or mixed with littergenerally dry excessively during early spring and losetheir viability before temperatures are favorable forgermination. Germination is followed by vigorous andrapid taproot development. If the taproot is able topenetrate the soil, seedlings survive considerablemoisture stress later in the growing season.

Drought in association with defoliation can greatlyincrease stress on trees and subject them to attack bysecondary organisms like the twolined chestnut borerand Armillaria root rot.

Natural Regeneration: Northern red oak acorn germi-nation occurs during the spring following seedfall. Bestgermination occurs when the acorns are in contact withor buried in mineral soil and covered by a thin layer ofleaf litter.

This germinating red oak acorn showsthe developing taproot going down andthe shorter shoot going up. Initially, oaksput more energy resources into develop-ing a viable root system. Extensivedevelopment of the foliage occurs later.

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Once established under a forest canopy, northern redoak seedlings seldom remain true seedlings for more

than a few years. Condi-tions such as fire, poorlight, poor moistureconditions, or animalactivity kill the tops, butnot the roots. So the treeresprouts. This diebackand resprouting mayoccur several times,producing root systemsfrom 10 to 15 years ormore older than the tops.

Northern red oak sproutsreadily. More than 95percent of the northernred oak in young stands issprouts, either fromadvance reproduction orfrom stump sprouts of cuttrees. New sprouts from

advance reproduction arise when old stems are dam-aged (broken) during logging or other disturbances.

To compete successfully in new stands, stems of north-ern red oak advance reproduction must be large andhave well established root systems. Height growth ofnew sprouts is related to the size of the old, damagedstem; the larger the old stem, the faster the new sproutwill grow.

The root system on this red oak isprobably older than the top.

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Landowners who have the opportunity to visit theirwoodlot during a good seed crop year may want toidentify the best producers. These are the best candi-dates for hard mast producing wildlife crop trees.

Crown size seems to be the most important tree charac-teristic affecting acorn production. Dominant orcodominant trees with large, free-to-grow crownsproduce more acorns than trees with small, restrictedcrowns.

Even in good years, only about 1 percent of the acorncrop is available for regeneration. Many acorns areconsumed by insects; squirrels; small rodents; rac-coons; bear; deer; and turkey, ruffed grouse, and otherbirds. They can eat or damage more than 80 percent of

Sprouts of low origin are much less likely to developdecay than sprouts that originate high on the stump, butthey tend to develop severe crook or sweep at the base.Early clump thinning may be desirable to improvepotential quality.


Mast Production: Northern red oak begins to bear fruitat age 25, but it usually does not produce seeds abun-dantly until age 50. Good to excellent seed crops occurabout every 2 to 5 years. Acorn production is highlyvariable among trees, even in good seed years. Sometrees are always poor producers while others are reli-ably good producers.

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Fall Foliage: Northern red oak is not usually regardedas an aesthetic crop tree. Its fall foliage initially turns areddish color that transitions to brown prior to leaf fall.

Size, Shape, or Form: Straight, tall trees may qualifynorthern red oak as an aesthetic crop tree because of itsform.

the acorn crop in most years and virtually 100 percentin very poor years.

Large acorns are generally dispersed over only shortdistances. Gravity and the caching activities of squir-rels and mice are the primary means of dispersal.

Red oak fall foliage is notusually spectacular, but itoccurs after many other specieshave lost their adornment. Thedeep crown on this releasedcrop tree has it well positionedfor good growth.

BLACK WALNUT

Bark transi-tions fromgray-brownon youngtrees todeeplyfissuredbrownish-black barkon oldertrees.

Black walnut grows best on fertile, moist sites frequently foundin north- and east-facing coves. It is intolerant of shade.

Buds areshort andblunt andusuallyhave somepubescentscales.

Leaves are alternateand pinnatelycompound. Usually,there is no terminalleaflet.

Fruit is a walnutenclosed by a thick,green husk.

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Unit Value: Black walnut can have high per unit value,although worth is very dependent on the quality of thetree. Historically, black walnut has been regarded as ahigh-value species. In recent years consumer prefer-ence has shifted, and it does not currently enjoy theprice status it once commanded.

Growth Rate: Black walnut is very site sensitive. Ondeep, well drained, loamy soils it can be expected togrow 3 to 5 inches per decade when released. How-ever, it is also commonly found on old pasture siteswhere it seeded in after traditional agricultural use wasabandoned. On upper slopes with limited soil depth,black walnut trees can survive, but they grow veryslowly and usually have poor form.

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In the central Appalachians,black walnut can be foundgrowing on sites where it isnot well adapted. Thiswalnut growing on an uplandsite appears to be a goodcrop tree. However, lookscan be deceiving. Sevenyears after this tree wasevaluated, its condition hadseriously deteriorated.

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Quality Comments: Some epicormic branching can beexpected on previously unreleased forest-grown trees.Epicormic branches usually occur above the butt log,with a greater tendency to produce branches on thesouth side of the released tree than on the north side.

Health Issues: In some areas, cankers are very com-mon, especially on sites where the trees grow slowly.Cankers greatly decrease the value of the product andmay predispose the tree to breaking at the cankerlocation.

Like many hardwoods, black walnut may produce epicormicbranches in response to wounds. These epicormics werestimulated by pruning. (USFS Photo.)

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Black walnut seldomoccurs in pure standsunless it is planted. Suc-cessful plantations requirelabor-intensive care,especially during estab-lishment when weedcontrol and correctivepruning are needed toencourage rapid growthand development ofstraight, knot-free trunks.

Ohio tree farmer Bill Lawhon started withdeep, well drained soil and added high-quality seedlings that were kept cool andmoist prior to planting. He used herbi-cides to reduce competition on theplanting site. Follow-up release fromweeds and corrective pruning producedthis three-year-old potential crop tree.

Natural Regeneration: Young black walnut seedlingsare intolerant of shade and are seldom found underdense tree canopies. Regeneration develops primarily

from seeds that squirrelsbury and fail to recover.Normal winter tempera-tures usually cause theburied seeds to breakdormancy the followingspring. Natural walnutregeneration is unpredict-able, requiring the rightcombination of seedsource, moderate-sizedcanopy gaps, and suffi-ciently rich sites.

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Fall Foliage: Black walnut does not have impressivefall foliage; the leaves just wither and fall.


Mast Production: Black walnuts are winter storablefruits that are preferred by squirrels and mice. Goodseed crops are produced about twice every 5 years.Large seed crops do not usually occur until trees areabout 30 years old, with production declining after 130years of age.

SUGAR MAPLE

Sugar maple grows on moist, well drained soils. It is veryshade tolerant.

Bark islight brownandsmooth,becominggray,furrowed,and platedon oldertrees.

Fruit is a doublesamara, green toreddish-brown incolor.

Buds arebrown andpointed.Twigs tendto be shinyand red-dish-browncolored,displayingV-shapedleaf scars.

Photograph by Mike ClaytonCourtesy University of Wisconsin-Madison

Leaves aresimple, opposite,and usually 5-lobed with roundsinuses and verypointed lobes.


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SUGAR MAPLESUGAR MAPLESUGAR MAPLESUGAR MAPLESUGAR MAPLE


Unit Value: Sugar maple is intermediate in timbervalue. Historically, it has experienced periods of highvalue when consumer preferences favored light woods.An exception is a specialty wood product called birds-eye maple that has consistently demanded a premiumprice. Unfortunately, the development of this uniquegrain configuration is not well understood, so it can’t becultured. It is not easy to reliably recognize trees withthis desired grain pattern, although there are a fewsuggestive bark characteristics that some experiencedtimber purchasers have learned to detect.

Growth Rate: Sugar maple height and diameter growthrates are slower than many associated species while it isyoung and in the pole stage of development. As itapproaches middle age and small sawtimber-size, its

The sugar maple onthe left is growing atthe rate of 2 inchesper decade.

The released sugarmaple on the right isgrowing at the rate of5 inches per decade.Notice the red stretchmarks that indicateits rapid growth rate.

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growth rate can exceed that of less shade tolerantcompeting species. Depending on site, released growthrates can vary from 2.5 to 5.0 inches per decade. Sugarmaple grows best on well drained, loamy soils. It doespoorly on dry, shallow soils. It is soil-site specific inthe southern portion of its range. In the Appalachians,it often grows and regenerates best on north- and east-facing slopes.

Quality Comments: On good sugar maple sites,epicormic branching is generally not a serious problem.On sites where trees are frequently stressed, evidence ofepicormic branching on susceptible trees is usuallyvisible (small branches).

Health Issues: Pear thrips have caused defoliation inPennsylvania. Where outbreaks persist, growth declineand crown dieback can be expected.

On north- and east-facing lower slopes, Christmas fern isoften abundant. Sugar maple usually grows well on thesesites.

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Natural Regeneration: The optimum temperature forgermination of sugar maple seeds is the lowest of anyknown forest species. Sugar maple can become estab-lished under a wide range of shade levels, but condi-tions must be cool and moist. It can become estab-lished in the shade of overstory trees that provide thoseconditions. However, it can also regenerate in openfields on north and east slopes where temperature andmoisture remain within the acceptable range. Sawlog-size trees produce vast numbers of seeds. Sugar maplehas a very high germination capacity, with averages of95 percent or more. In natural stands, most seedsgerminate after the first winter.

This open-grown,fence line sugar maple(center) was the seedsource for these pole-size sugar maples onthis north-facing slope.They became estab-lished in an open fieldbecause the site wascool enough forgermination of sugarmaple seed.

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Mast Production: When buds are expanding, they areeaten by squirrels.

Cavity Formation: Sugar maple has a tendency to formcavities that will provide den sites suitable for use asshelter for some species of wildlife.


Fall Foliage: Sugar maple is anoutstanding aesthetic crop treebecause of its very attractive fallfoliage. Its leaves vary in colorfrom yellow to orange, with abrilliance in color that is un-matched by any other species inthe forest. Individual trees tendto turn the same color year afteryear. Therefore, a landownerwho prefers trees that turnbrilliant orange can favor thosetrees when making crop treeselections.

Size, Shape, or Form: Sugarmaple is a long-lived speciesthat can be 250+ years old and

30-36 inches in diameter. Open-grown trees found inpastures or along old fence lines frequently developcrowns that are attractive to many people.

These sugar maples qualify asboth timber and aesthetic croptrees. Their brilliant fall foliagecontrasts with the clear blueautumn sky.

RED MAPLE

Red maple occurs on a wide range of sites. It is intermediate inshade tolerance.

Bark issmooth andgray. Itbecomesbroken,darker, andplated withage andincreasedsize.

Buds are blunt and reddish-brown colored.Twigs are shiny, red, and have V-shapedleaf scars.

Leaves are simple, opposite, and 3-5 lobed. Petioles are oftenreddish, and leaves turn red or yellow in fall.


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RED MAPLERED MAPLERED MAPLERED MAPLERED MAPLE


Unit Value: Red maple is intermediate to low in timbervalue, although it has had periods of higher value whenconsumer preferences favored light woods. It is some-times substituted for sugar maple when the price of thatspecies is high.

Growth Rate: Red maple growth rates are most rapidwhen it is young, and it slows down after trees pass thepole stage. It reaches maturity at age 70 to 80 years andseldom lives longer than 150 years. Red maple heightand diameter growth rates are slower than many associ-ated, less shade tolerant species. Depending on site,released crop trees can have diameter growth rates thatvary from 2 to 3 inches per decade.

Red maple has a wide tolerance to climatic and siteconditions. It is likely to survive on a wider range ofsoil types, textures, moisture, pH, and elevation thanany other forest species in North America. It grows ondiverse sites ranging from dry ridges and southwestslopes to peat bogs and swamps. Red maple commonlygrows under the more extreme soil-moisture conditions;either very wet or quite dry. It does not show strongaffinity for either a north or south aspect. Although itdevelops best on moderately well drained, moist sites atlow to intermediate elevations, it is common in moun-tainous country on the drier ridges and on south andwest exposures of upper slopes.

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Quality Comments: Red maple is often poorly formedand defective, especially on poor sites. On good sites,however, it grows faster with better form and qualityfor sawlogs. Red maple has a moderate tendency toepicormic branch when given a crown-touching release.

Health Issues: Red maple is very sensitive to fire.Even large trees can be killed by a fire of moderateintensity. Surviving trees are very susceptible to dam-age caused by heart rots. Growing quality timber croptrees requires the exclusion of fire throughout therotation.

Natural Regeneration: Red maple has few germinationrequirements. The seed can germinate with very littlelight, given proper temperature and some moisture.Most seeds germinate soon after dispersal in the earlysummer. Moist mineral soil seems the best seedbed forred maple, and a thin layer of hardwood leaf litter doesnot hinder germination and early survival. Many redmaple seeds germinate each year in abandoned oldfields, in cutover areas, and in the undisturbed forest.

Young seedlings are shade tolerant, so abundant 1- to 4-year-old seedlings are often found under the canopy ofolder stands. Many of these seedlings die each year ifthey are not released by opening of the main crowncanopy, but new seedlings replace them. Thus, areservoir of seedlings and ungerminated seed is avail-able to respond to increased sunlight resulting fromdisturbance. Under favorable light and moisture condi-tions, red maple seedlings can grow 1 foot the first year,

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and as much as 2 feet each year for the next few years.Some sprouts can grow 3 feet or more the first year.

Pre-existing red maples in a cut stand add greatly to thenew stand stocking through stump sprouts. The numberof sprouts per stump increases with stump diameter to amaximum of 9 to12 inches and then decreases amonglarger trees. Stumps of younger trees tend to producetaller sprouts. Many of the sprouts have rot and poorform, and they are only weakly attached to the stump.


Mast Production: Red maple is not normally selectedas a wildlife crop tree because it has no particularcharacteristic that makes it uniquely valuable. How-ever, it does provide a fairly reliable source of soft mastbecause a seed crop occurs almost every year, and on anaverage, a good to bumper crop occurs once every 2years. Seeds are of fair value for songbirds, squirrels,and small rodents. Some trees are entirely male,producing no seeds; some are entirely female; and someare monoecious, bearing both male and female flowers.On monoecious trees, functioning male and femaleflowers usually are separated on different branches.Red maple buds are used by squirrels.

Cavity Formation: Red maple has a tendency to formcavities that will provide den sites suitable for use asshelter for some species of wildlife.

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Fall Foliage: In northern climates, red maple is anoutstanding aesthetic crop tree because of its veryattractive, brilliant red, fall foliage. In the Appala-chians, its beauty pageant performance is less reliable,with fall coloration varying from yellow to red.

Spring blossoms: Red maple is one of the first trees toflower in the spring, generally several weeks beforevegetative bud break. Many people enjoy this earlydisplay as it heralds the coming of spring. The reddishcast of the flowering crowns is not spectacular, but tomany landowners it is a welcome visual indication thatother more showy blossoms on other plants will soonfollow.

In the central Appalahian hardwood region, the color of redmaple foliage can vary from red to yellow. Landownerpreference is the primary factor in selecting aesthetic croptrees.

AMERICAN BEECH

American beech is found on cool, moist sites. It is very shadetolerant.

Bark is smooth, thin, andsteel gray.

Terminal Buds aredistinctively longand pointed.

Fruit is triangularly shaped beechnuts contained in aspiny burr.

Leaves are alternate,simple, glossy dark greenabove and coarselyserrate with distinctivelyparallel lateral veinsrunning to the marginteeth. Dead leavescommonly persist ontwigs into the winter.


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AMERICAN BEECHAMERICAN BEECHAMERICAN BEECHAMERICAN BEECHAMERICAN BEECH


Unit Value: Beech has a relatively low value as a timbercrop tree. In the central Appalachian region, it is moreabundant on the cooler and moister northern-facingslopes.

Growth Rate: Beech is generally regarded as a slow-growing tree that is very shade tolerant. The expecteddiameter growth rate of unreleased pole- and smallsawtimber-size trees is 0.7 to 0.9 inches per decade.Partially released trees may average 1.5 to 1.9 inchesper decade. Heavily released poles have been known togrow at rates of 2.2 to 3.0 inches per decade. Heavilyreleased sawtimber-size trees have grown 3.0 inchesper decade compared to 1.4 inches per decade forunreleased trees. Trees with vigorous crowns respondwell to release.

Beech is regarded as a long-lived tree, but white oakand sugar maple generally outlive it.

Quality Comments: Beech trees prune themselves inwell stocked stands. Open-grown trees, however,develop short, thick trunks with large, low, spreadinglimbs terminating in slender, somewhat droopingbranches that form a broad, round-topped head. Treesthat have been injured or suddenly exposed in a partialcutting often develop epicormic branches. Epicormicbranching has also been observed after glaze damage.

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Health Issues: The thin bark of beech trees renders ithighly vulnerable to injury by fire, sunscald, logging,and pruning. When large branches are broken, theyheal slowly, providing an avenue for decay. However,the most recent serious threat to beech in the centralAppalachians is the beech bark disease. The largesttrees are the most susceptible to mortality, and residualtrees are often degraded in quality, making already low-value trees worth even less.

Natural Regeneration:Beech regeneration isvery shade tolerant.Beech seedlings developbetter under a moderatecanopy or in protectedsmall openings than theydo on larger open areaswhere the surface soilmay dry out below thedepth of the shallowroots.

When forest stands areheavily cut, beech repro-duction tends to grow

more slowly than most associated hardwood species.This is especially true in a clearcut where the beechregeneration may be overtopped by less shade tolerantcompeting species. Heavy cutting or clearcuttingresults in fewer beech in the new stand than werepresent in the old stand.

Small trees are often rootsuckers of older trees.

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Beech has the capacity to produce root suckers prolifi-cally. Under partial cuttings, shade intolerant speciesoffer little competition, and the shade tolerant beechreproduction is able to develop. The beech componentmay be further favored by its virtual immunity to deerbrowsing.


Mast Production: Beechmast is palatable to a vastvariety of birds andmammals, including mice,squirrels, chipmunks,black bear, deer, foxes,ruffed grouse, ducks, andbluejays. In the maple-beech-birch association,beech is the only nutproducer. Beech ordi-narily produces a substan-tial amount of seeds whenabout 40 years old, and bythe time it is 60, it mayproduce large quantities.Good beech seed cropsare produced at 2 to 8 yearintervals. Often, beechwill produce seed burrsthat are void of viableseed.

The smooth gray bark of large old beechtrees makes these silvery giants aes-thetically attractive. They frequently offercavities for sheltering wildlife.

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Fall Foliage: Beech is seldom regarded as an aestheticcrop tree because of its fall foliage. However, itsattractive, smooth, gray bark may warrant the tree sucha classification. Unfortunately, the beech bark diseasegreatly reduces the beauty of affected trees that survive.

Cavity Formation: Beech has a tendency to formcavities that will provide den sites suitable for use asshelter for some species of wildlife. This is especiallytrue where fire has caused wounds that provide en-trance avenues for decay.

People often carve messagesinto the light, smooth bark oflarge beech trees, especiallythose located along trails andtravelways.

WHITE OAK

White oak is found on fertile, well drained soils. It is interme-diate in shade tolerance.

Leaves are simple andalternate with 7-10round lobes. Lobeslack bristle tips, andsinuses vary fromdeep to shallow.

Bark is white to gray withsome plates being looseand scaly.

Fruit is an acorn about 3/4 inch long.

White oak acorns are a highlypreferred food source for manyspecies of wildlife. Squirrels cutimmature acorns from trees in mid-August.

Buds cluster on the endsof smooth twigs.

Photograph by Mike HoganCourtesy Auburn University

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Unit Value: White oak has moderate value as a timbercrop tree, especially when grown on good sites and inlocations where epicormic branching is limited. Whiteoak can grow in most topographic positions, but it isusually found on moderately dry slopes and ridges withrelatively shallow soils. Although white oak growsmore rapidly and produces more high-value products onlower and middle slopes with north- and east-facingaspects, it is usually not competitive on those sites.While smaller in size (at the same age), white oak ismore abundant on the drier west- and south-facingslopes than on more moist sites.

Growth Rate: Growth rates of 1.1 to 1.7 inches perdecade can be expected on dominant and codominantunreleased, small sawtimber-size trees. Released croptrees with healthy, vigorous crowns can be expected togrow 1.4 to 2.1 inches per decade on sites that average73 feet tall (base age 50) for white oak.

White oak is intermediate in tolerance to shade. It ismost tolerant in youth and becomes less tolerant as thetree becomes larger. White oak seedlings, saplings, andeven pole-size trees are able to persist under a forestcanopy. Saplings and pole-size trees respond well torelease, and because of white oak’s great longevity, it isable to obtain a competitive position in the overstory.

WHITE OWHITE OWHITE OWHITE OWHITE OAKAKAKAKAK

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Although white oak has a strongtendency to epicormic branch,crop trees chosen from the maincrown canopy with vigorouscrowns and no evidence ofepicormic branches on the buttlog can avoid this problem.Seven growing seasons afterrelease, the butt log of this croptree is still free of epicormics andgrowing at 2.1 inches perdecade.

However, trees deprived ofadequate light for long periodsof time, slowly grown, andsuppressed or in intermediatecrown classes may be especiallyprone to epicormic branching.Also, the ability of suppressedwhite oaks to respond to releasediminishes as the period ofsuppression increases. There-fore, it is a good idea to limit theperiod of suppression.

Quality Comments: White oakhas a strong tendency toepicormic branch when released.In one study where the cuttingwas very heavy, 24 percent ofthe trees had a reduced butt loggrade following release. Caremust be taken to select andrelease crop trees that havehealthy, vigorous crowns in themain crown canopy and no

existing epicormic branches on the butt log. Abundantepicormic branches on the second log are an indicationthat epicormic branches may develop on the butt log.

On poorer sites, there is greater probability ofepicormic branches developing on crop trees. It is alsolikely that some trees are genetically predisposed toproduce epicormic branches in response to additionallight on their trunks.

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White oak crop trees should not be released immedi-ately before or soon after defoliation by gypsy moth.Defoliation stresses the tree and greatly increases theprobability that epicormic branches will develop.

Health Issues: The most destructive defoliating insectattacking white oak is the gypsy moth. White oak canrecover from a single defoliation, but may be weakenedenough for attack by other insects or diseases that willkill it. Drought in association with defoliation cangreatly increase the stress on trees and subject them toattack by secondary organisms like the twolined chest-nut borer and Armillaria root rot.

Natural Regeneration: White oak acorn germinationoccurs during the fall, soon after dropping. Whenacorns germinate, their roots begin to grow, but theshoot remains dormant. After germination, root growthcontinues until interrupted by cold weather. Seedlingestablishment is best on loose soil because the radiclecannot penetrate excessively compact surfaces.

A humus layer is especially important because it keepsthe soil surface loose and porous, and because it me-chanically supports the acorn as the radicle penetratesthe soil. Although important, soil moisture is probablynot a critical factor in determining early seedlingsurvival, except under unusually dry conditions.

The number of new white oak seedlings produced inany given year is low compared to other oaks, particu-larly black oak. However, these new individuals maypersist in the understory for many years by repeatedly

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dying back and resprouting. This phenomenon permitsthe gradual buildup of advance reproduction in theform of seedling-sprouts that are often taller and morenumerous than the advance reproduction of associatedoaks.

Small white oak trees stump sprout prolifically andvigorously when cut. Smaller trees are more likely tosprout than larger trees. Shoot elongation of stumpsprouts increases with increasing stump diameter up tosix inches, after which it declines. Annual heightgrowth of stump sprouts after overstory competition isremoved averages 2.2 feet. Low stump sprouts frompole-size trees and seedling-sprouts are about as goodas trees grown from seed. However, sprouts originatinghigh on the stump are likely to have heartwood decay.

The seedlings and seedling-sprouts already present in amature stand (advance reproduction), together withstump sprouts, regenerate the stand following overstoryremoval. Although many stands may have adequatenumbers of stems, the size of the reproduction when theoverstory is removed is the key to adequate growth andsuccessful competition with associated species.


Mast Production: White oak acorns are a highly pre-ferred though inconsistent source of food for songbirds,squirrel, raccoon, and deer. Acorn crops are good inyears when weather is warm for 10 days during flower-ing and then cool for 13 to 20 days afterward. The

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acorn crop has been poor in years when cool periodspreceded warm periods at the time of flowering.Acorns germinate almost immediately after falling tothe ground in September or October.

White oak can produce seeds prolifically, but goodacorn crops are irregular and occur only every 4 to 10years. Sometimes several years will pass without acrop. Acorn production is highly variable among trees,even in good seed years.

Some trees are always poor producers while others arereliably good producers. In the open, white oak maybegin to bear fruit at age 20, but trees normally bearseed between the ages of 50 and 200.

Light acorn crops are often completely destroyed byanimals and insects, so seedlings are produced onlyduring heavy crop years. Acorns are generally dis-persed over only short distances. Widespread acornproduction depends on adequate distribution of seed-bearing trees. Gravity and the caching activities ofsquirrels and mice are the primary means of dispersal.


Fall Foliage: White oak is not usually regarded as anaesthetic crop tree. Its fall foliage initially turns apurplish-red color and then transitions to brown prior toleaf fall. Landowners who have open-grown trees mayenjoy the aesthetic attributes of their dense foliage andbroad, round crowns.

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Note regarding the risk of backflash: Competing trees that areclose to the crop tree (within 8 feet) are more likely to have aroot graft with the crop tree. Trees more than 25 feet away arenot likely to be root grafted.

Releasing crop trees by injectingcompetitors with herbicides can beaccomplished with simple tools like ahand ax and spray bottle.

CHESTNUT OAK

Chestnut oak is found on dry, upland slopes. It is intermediatein shade tolerance.

Leaves are alternateand simple withshallow lobes.

Bark is deeply groovedon larger trees.

Fruit is an acorn1-1/2 inches long,narrow, andyellow-brown incolor. The acorncap covers halfthe nut.

Terminalbuds arelarge,smooth,and clus-tered onthe ends oftwigs.

Photograph by Darrin KimblerCourtesy University of Wisconsin-Madison

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Unit Value: Chestnut oak has moderate value as atimber crop tree, especially when grown on better sitesand epicormic branching is at a minimum. Chestnutoak lumber is similar to and often marketed as whiteoak. Although chestnut oak grows best on rich, welldrained soils, it is seldom competitive in getting estab-lished there. It is usually found on dry, upland sitessuch as ridgetops and upper slopes with shallow soils,south- and west-facing upper slopes, and sandy or rockysoils with low moisture-holding capacity.

Growth Rate: Growth rates of 1.1 to 1.7 inches perdecade can be expected on dominant and codominantunreleased, small sawtimber-size trees. Released croptrees with healthy, vigorous crowns can be expected togrow an average of 2.3 inches per decade on dry anddry mesic sites (as described in Using DiagnosticPlants To Evaluate Site Class).

Chestnut oak is intermediate in tolerance to shade,similar in tolerance to white oak, but more tolerant thannorthern red, black, or scarlet oak. It is most tolerant inyouth and becomes less tolerant as the tree becomesolder.

Quality Comments: Chestnut oak has a strong tendencyto epicormic branch when released. Care must be takento select and release crop trees that have healthy, vigor-

CHESTNUT OCHESTNUT OCHESTNUT OCHESTNUT OCHESTNUT OAKAKAKAKAK

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ous crowns in the main crown canopy and no existingepicormic branches on the butt log.

Chestnut oak crop trees should not be released immedi-ately before or soon after they have been defoliated bygypsy moth. Defoliation stresses the tree and greatlyincreases the probability that epicormic branches willdevelop.

Health Issues: The most destructive defoliating insectattacking chestnut oak is the gypsy moth. It and whiteoak are the two species most preferred by this exoticinsect species. Chestnut oak can recover from a singledefoliation, but may be weakened enough for disease orother insects to attack and kill it. Drought in associa-tion with defoliation can greatly increase the stress ontrees and subject them to attack by secondary organismslike the twolined chestnut borer and Armillaria root rot.

Natural Regeneration: Chestnut oak acorn germinationoccurs during the fall, soon after dropping. Whenacorns germinate, their roots begin to grow, but theshoot remains dormant. After germination, root growthcontinues until interrupted by cold weather. Germina-tion of chestnut oak acorns is enhanced by a coveringof 1 inch of leaf liter. A covering of 2 inches results inmany weakened seedlings. Large numbers of seedlingscan become established after good seed crops, but suchoccurrences are infrequent. Chestnut oak acorns aremore capable of germinating in dry soil than acorns ofwhite, black, or northern red oak. Seedling establish-ment and survival are greatly reduced by dense herba-ceous and shrub layers.

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When tops die back or are damaged, chestnut oakseedlings and advance reproduction sprout vigorouslyfrom dormant buds at the root collar or on the stem.For stems of advanced reproduction that have been cut,the number of sprouts per plant and the growth of thesprouts increase with increasing size of the originalstem and root system. Stumps of cut trees up to 60years of age sprout vigorously, but the percent ofstumps that sprout declines with increasing size fortrees more than 18 inches in diameter. The incidenceof decay is low for stump sprouts that originate within 2inches of the ground, so these sprouts can develop intogood crop tree candidates.


Mast Production: Chestnut oak acorns are a preferredthough inconsistent source of food for songbirds, ruffedgrouse, turkey, squirrel, mice, raccoon, and deer. Acorncrops tend to be good in years when temperature isabove normal in late April followed by 13 to 20 days ofbelow normal temperatures in early May. Uniformlyincreasing temperatures during this period usuallyresult in poor pollination and small acorn crops.

Trees that produce a large crop of flowers and acornsone year usually produce fewer flowers the followingyear. Acorns fall to the ground from early September toearly October, well before the acorns of other uplandoaks are available. Heavy acorn crops are irregular andoccur only every 4 to 5 years. Chestnut oak produces

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Chestnut oak produces fewer acorns than other uplandoaks. Stump sprouts begin producing at an earlier age thanseedings. Releasing sprouts in young stands is a means ofgetting more mast production sooner.

fewer acorns than other upland oaks, although occa-sional trees can be prolific producers. Chestnut oaknormally begins to bear fruit at age 20. However,stump sprouts as young as three years can produceviable seed, and stands with many sprouts may producean abundant crop as young as age 7 or 8.


Fall Foliage: Chestnut oak’s fall foliage does notnormally warrant it being classified as an aesthetic croptree.

SCARLET OAK

Scarlet oak is common on poorer sites. It is intolerant of shade.

Leaves are simple andalternate with 5-7 bristle-tipped lobes and roundsinuses extending more thanhalfway to the mid-rib.Leaves can be distinguishedfrom northern red oak andblack oak by their deepersinuses.

Bark is black and fissured andmay be streaked with white onthe upper trunk. Swelling at thebase is common.

Buds cluster on the ends of twigs.They are pointed and angled withwhite-silver hair on the upper halfof the bud.

Downward-arching andpersistentdeadbranchesare adistinguish-ing charac-teristic ofscarlet oak.

Photograph by Mike HoganCourtesy Auburn University

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SCARLET OSCARLET OSCARLET OSCARLET OSCARLET OAKAKAKAKAKTimber Crop Tree Notes –

Unit Value: Scarlet oak lumber is often mixed with thatof other red oaks. Generally, it is less preferred as atimber crop tree than black or red oak because it ismore likely to have grade defects. Dead branchesfrequently persist on the lower trunk, and the base ofthe tree often appears swollen or enlarged.

Scarlet oak is generally foundon light sandy and gravellyupland ridges and slopes. Inthe southern Appalachians, itregenerates and competesbest on middle to upperslopes of southern exposure.However, site index increaseswith increasing depth of Ahorizon, and lower positionon the slope. In the northernAppalachians, position on theslope, slope gradient, aspect,and soil depth to bedrock arealso important site factors.

Growth Rate: Scarlet oakgrows rapidly and maturesearly relative to many other

species it is associated with on very dry sites. Averagegrowth rates of 1.7 inches per decade can be expectedon dominant and codominant unreleased trees.

Immature scarlet oak oftengrows faster than itsassociates on dry sites.However, defects in the buttlog sometimes develop andmay be evidenced bybleeding sap and abnormalswelling.

SCARLET OSCARLET OSCARLET OSCARLET OSCARLET OAKAKAKAKAK

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Released crop trees with healthy, vigorous crowns canbe expected to grow an average of 2.3 inches perdecade on xeric (very dry) sites (as described in UsingDiagnostic Plants To Evaluate Site Class). Scarlet oakresponds well to release if the crop trees are very youngand in the dominant or codominant crown classes.

Quality Comments: Scarlet oak has a strong tendencyto retain dead branches relatively low on the trunk.These lower limbs that have succumbed because ofshading usually have a distinctive downward curvingappearance. If timber production is an objective, caremust be taken to select and release crop trees withhealthy, vigorous crowns in the main crown canopy andno existing large, dead branches on the butt log. Be-cause of poor natural pruning, only one-third of scarletoak potential crop trees originating from stump sproutsproduce stems with desirable butt log quality, even ongood sites.

Health Issues: Because of its thin bark, scarlet oak isvery susceptible to fire damage. If not killed outright,the tree is usually injured, providing an entrance avenuefor decay. Basal sprouting from fire-killed scarlet oaksmay be prolific.

Even at an early age, heart rots can cause severe dam-age in scarlet oak by entering the trunk through persis-tent dead branch stubs. Heart rots are especially com-mon in stump sprouts that originate high on the stump.Like other oaks, scarlet oak is subject to defoliation bythe gypsy moth.

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Natural Regeneration: A light covering of forest litteris beneficial to the germination of scarlet oak acorns. Amoderately open overstory canopy provides a morefavorable environment for acorn germination thaneither a completely open or closed canopy. Shoots ofscarlet oak seedlings commonly dieback and resprout,forming seedling-sprouts. As a result of recurrent shootdieback, root systems of scarlet oaks may be manyyears older than shoots. The potential rate of annualheight growth of this reproduction increases withincreasing basal diameter of sprouts. Young stumpsprouts may produce up to three flushes of shootgrowth per growing season. However, individual shootflush lengths get progressively shorter as the seasonadvances. After age 20, the rate of growth for sproutsdeclines.

Scarlet oak stumps produce sprouts at greater ages andlarger sizes than most other oaks. They also produce alarger number of sprouts per stump, and these sproutsgrow faster than those of most associated oaks, hicko-ries, and red maple during the first 5 years. However,the percent of stumps that sprout decreases from nearly100 percent for trees 4 inches dbh and smaller to about18 percent for trees 24 inches dbh. In an Appalachianstudy, 28 percent of scarlet oak stump sprouts had buttrot, and sprouts from large stumps were more subject todecay than sprouts from small stumps.

Sprouts of low origin are much less likely to developdecay than sprouts that originate high on the stump.

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Early clump thinning to one stem may be desirable toimprove potential quality and increase growth andsurvival of the remaining stem.


Mast Production: In forest stands, scarlet oak begins tobear fruit at age 20, and maximum production does notoccur until after 50 years of age. It produces goodcrops of acorns every 3 to 5 years.

Scarlet oak acorns are a choice food for eastern graysquirrels, chipmunks, mice, wild turkey, deer, andseveral species of birds – especially blue jays and red-headed woodpeckers. One-third to one-half of theacorn use by wildlife is attributed to removal by birdsand squirrels while the acorns are still on the tree.


Fall Foliage: Scarlet oak is often regarded as an aes-thetic crop tree because of its attractive foliage. Mixedwith other oak species, scarlet oak will stand out withits brilliant red autumn color and open crown texture.

BLACK OAK

Black oak is found on a variety of sites. It is intermediate inshade tolerance.

Bark develops a blocky texture at the base that expands upward asthe tree ages. The inner bark is yellow-orange in contrast to theinner bark of similar species, like northern red oak and scarlet oak,which is a dull orange-brown.

Younger barkon left. Olderbark on right.

Buds are light brown and angled, and they generallytend to be woolly.

Leaves are simple, alternate, and variable in shapewith 5-7 bristle-tipped lobes.

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BLABLABLABLABLACK OCK OCK OCK OCK OAKAKAKAKAKTimber Crop Tree Notes –

Unit Value: Black oak has high value as a timber croptree, especially when grown on good sites. It is oftensold as red oak. It grows best on moist, rich, welldrained soils, but it is often found on poor, dry, sandy or

heavy glacial clay hillsides.The most important factorsdetermining site quality forblack oak are depth andtexture of the A soil horizon,texture of the B horizon,aspect, and slope position.Black oak grows best on welldrained, silty clay to loamsoils.

Growth Rate: Growth ratesof 2 inches per decade canbe expected on dominant andcodominant unreleased trees.Released crop trees withhealthy, vigorous crowns canbe expected to grow 3 to 5inches per decade on dry anddry mesic sites (as describedin Using Diagnostic Plants

To Evaluate Site Class). Black oak becomes physi-ologically mature at about 100 years of age. Someindividuals may live to be 150 to 200 years old.

On young black oak trees(left), the bark starts todevelop the blocky texturethat will characterize it laterin life. Young red oak trees(right) have smoother barkthat will transition into amore plate-like texture asthe tree matures.

BLABLABLABLABLACK OCK OCK OCK OCK OAKAKAKAKAK

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Black oak responds well to release if the crop trees arein the dominant or codominant crown classes. The bestresponse is obtained if trees are first released when lessthan 30 years old so they are able to develop deep,vigorous crowns. Trees in stands older than 30 yearsthat have always been fully stocked generally havesmall crowns that have been restricted too long. Be-cause of this, they are unable to make efficient use ofthe growing space provided by release.

Quality Comments: Black oak does have a fairly strongtendency to epicormic branch when released. Caremust be taken to select and release crop trees that havehealthy, vigorous crowns in the main crown canopy andno existing epicormic branches on the butt log. Abun-dant dormant buds on the butt log are a strong indica-tion that epicormic branches may develop. On poorersites, there is greater probability of epicormic branchesdeveloping on crop trees. It is also likely that sometrees are genetically predisposed to produce epicormicbranches in response to additional light on their trunks.

The distinctiveelongated plates inthe bark of red oak(foreground) helpdistinguish it fromthe black oak(background). Redoak crop trees havea longer life expect-ancy than blackoaks.

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Black oak crop trees should not be released immedi-ately before or soon after they have been defoliated bygypsy moth. Defoliation stresses the tree and greatlyincreases the probability that epicormic branches willdevelop.

Health Issues: The most destructive defoliating insectattacking black oak is the gypsy moth. Black oak canrecover from a single defoliation, but may be weakenedenough for disease or other insects to attack and kill it.Drought in association with defoliation can greatlyincrease the stress on trees and subject them to attackby secondary organisms like the twolined chestnutborer and Armillaria root rot.

Natural Regeneration: Black oak acorn germinationoccurs during the spring following seedfall. Bestgermination occurs when the acorns are in contact withor buried in mineral soil and covered by a thin layer ofleaf litter. Acorns on top of the leaf litter or mixed withlitter generally dry excessively during early spring andlose their viability before temperatures are favorable forgermination. The primary root generally grows vigor-ously following germination. Seedlings can survivedrought conditions, but growth is slow or even ceasesaltogether. Black oak seedlings are more droughttolerant than northern red oak seedlings.

Once established under a forest canopy, black oakseedlings seldom remain true seedlings for more than afew years. Conditions such as fire, poor light, poormoisture conditions, or animal activity kill the tops, but

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not the roots. So the tree resprouts. This dieback andresprouting may occur several times, producing rootsystems from 10 to 20 years or more older than thetops.

Black oak sprouts readily. More than 95 percent of theblack oak in young stands originates from sprouts,either from advance reproduction or from stumpsprouts of cut trees. New sprouts from advance repro-duction arise when old stems are damaged (broken)during logging or other disturbances. To competesuccessfully in new stands, stems of black oak advancereproduction must be large and have well establishedroot systems. Height growth of new sprouts is relatedto the size of the old, damaged stem; the larger the oldstem, the faster the new sprout will grow.

Black oak stumps sprout less frequently than those ofnorthern red, scarlet, and chestnut oak and with aboutthe same frequency as those of white oak. Smallstumps from young trees on good sites sprout mostfrequently, while large stumps from old trees on poorsites sprout least frequently.

Sprouts of low origin are much less likely to developdecay than sprouts that originate high on the stump, butthey tend to develop severe crook or sweep at the base.Early clump thinning may be desirable to improvepotential quality.

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Mast Production: In forest stands, black oak begins tobear fruit at age 20 and reaches optimum production at40 to 75 years. It is a consistent seed producer withgood crops of acorns every 2 to 3 years.

Acorn production is highly variable among trees, evenin good seed years. Some trees are always poor produc-ers while others are reliably good producers.

Even in good years, only a small percentage of theacorns become available for regeneration. Many acornsare consumed by insects, squirrels, small rodents, deer,turkey, ruffed grouse, and songbirds. They can eat or

Oak is a favorite species on the deer food preference list, soareas with a high deer population are often heavily browsed.Stump sprouts are especially vulnerable because they arepreferred over seedlings.

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The acorns are generally dispersed over only shortdistances. Gravity and the caching activities of squir-rels and mice are the primary means of dispersal. Bluejays may disperse over a longer distance.


Fall Foliage: Black oak is not usually regarded as anaesthetic crop tree.

damage a large percentage of the acorn crop in mostyears and virtually 100 percent of the crop in very pooryears.

SHAGBARK HICKORY

Shagbark hickory is common on upland sites. It is intermediatein shade tolerance.

It breaks into darkgray, loose,longitudinal stripson older andlarger trees.

Bark is slate gray andsmooth on young trees.

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Terminal Buds are about 3/4 to 1 inch longwith persistent, loose-fitting outer scalesthat have divergent tips.

Leaves are alternate and pinnatelycompound with 5 obovate leaflets.

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SHASHASHASHASHAGBGBGBGBGBARK HICKARK HICKARK HICKARK HICKARK HICKORORORORORYYYYY


Unit Value: Shagbark hickory has low value as a timbercrop tree because of its slow growth and relatively lowunit value. Although hickory lumber is attractive incabinets and furniture, it has not commanded pricescomparable to maple or oak. Hickory has traditionallybeen very popular as fuelwood and charcoal-producingwood. It has high heat value, burns evenly, and pro-duces long-lasting, steady heat. The charcoal givesfood a hickory-smoked flavor.

In the central Appalachians, shagbark hickory is usuallyfound on dry, upland sites such as ridge tops and upperslopes with shallow soils, south- and west-facing upperslopes, and rocky soils with low moisture-holdingcapacity.

Growth Rate: The growth rate of shagbark hickory croptrees with vigorous crowns is faster than other hicko-ries, but it is still a slow-growing species. There is littledata available to compare growth rates on releasedversus unreleased crop trees. However, informationfrom southern Indiana and northern Kentucky indicatethat average growth rates for trees between the ages of10 and 90 varies from 1.1 inches per decade to 1.6inches per decade with growth generally slowing onolder trees.

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Health Issues: Shagbark hickory is susceptible todamage by fire at all ages. Light fires can result intopkill of reproduction and saplings (most of whichlater sprout). Hotter fires may kill larger trees andwound others.

Natural Regeneration: Shagbark seedlings normallyproduce a long taproot and very little top growth duringearly development. This competitive strategy is effec-

tive on dry sites where theseedlings establish a welldeveloped root systembefore developing an elabo-rate top.

Shagbark hickory is a pro-lific sprouter. Nearly all ofthe cut or fire-killed hicko-ries with stump diameters upto 8 inches will producesprouts. As stump diametersincrease, stump sproutingdeclines, and the proportionof root suckers increases.Young hickory sprouts arevigorous and can maintain a

competitive position in the canopy of a newly regener-ated stand. After 10 to 20 years, the rate of sproutheight growth declines and hickory usually loses crownposition to faster growing oaks and other species. Tomaintain a significant hickory component in mixedstands, it may be necessary to release hickory crop treesbefore they lose their competitive crown position.

Shagbark hickory is a prolificstump sprouter as evidencedby these three stems thatoriginated from a stump thathas now decayed.

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Mast Production: Shagbark hickory reaches productiveseed-bearing age at 40 years, with maximum produc-tion from 60 to 200 years. Good seed crops occur atintervals of 1 to 3 years with light crops or no seedduring the intervening years. Tree diameter and crownsize or surface are probably the best indicators of seedproduction.

Nuts are dispersed from September through December,with squirrels and chipmunks playing a role in expand-ing dispersal beyond where gravity places them. Shag-bark nuts are heavily used by mice and deer. The nutsare also edible by humans.

MOCKERNUT HICKMOCKERNUT HICKMOCKERNUT HICKMOCKERNUT HICKMOCKERNUT HICKORORORORORYYYYY

Dispersal of nuts is expanded by squirrels and chipmunks. The hickorynuts they don’t eat, they bury. Often, they never retrieve them, unknow-ingly planting and playing a role in the regeneration process.

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Fall Foliage: Shagbark hickory’s fall foliage can beattractive, and depending on what other species areavailable, it may warrant being classified as an aes-thetic crop tree.

Size, Shape, or Form: The bark of the shagbarkhickory is distinctive and unique; no other species hassuch a shaggy appearance. It is one of a kind!

At the pole-size of development, theshagbark hickory’s bark is becomingprominent enough to make it “stand out”in a crowd.

MOCKERNUT HICKORY

Mockernut hickory is found on upland sites. It is intolerant ofshade.

Leaves are pinnatelycompound, alternate,and have 7-9 obovateleaflets. Leaves andrachis are hairy.

Bark is gray withinterlacing ridges.

Terminal buds are 1/2 to 3/4 inches long,egg-shaped, silky, and yellow to tan in color.The outer bud scales fall early. Twigs arestout and hairy.

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Unit Value: Mockernut timber value is similar to that ofshagbark hickory.

Growth Rate: Mockernut hickory has slow diametergrowth. Dominant and codominant trees with healthy,vigorous crowns can be expected to grow only about1.2 inches per decade. There is little data available tocompare growth rates on released versus unreleasedcrop trees.

Health Issues: Mockernut hickory is extremely suscep-tible to damage by fire because of the low insulatingcapacity of the hard, flinty bark.

Natural Regeneration: Hickory nuts seldom remainviable in the ground for more than 1 year. Hickoryspecies normally require a moderately moist seedbedfor satisfactory seed germination, and mockernuthickory seems to reproduce best in moist duff. Seed-lings are not fast growing. Mockernut hickory sproutsprolifically from stumps after cutting and fire. Asstump diameters increase in size, stump sproutingdeclines. Its competitive strategy is similar to shagbarkhickory.

MOCKERNUT HICKMOCKERNUT HICKMOCKERNUT HICKMOCKERNUT HICKMOCKERNUT HICKORORORORORYYYYY

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Mast Production: Mockernuthickory requires at least 25years to reach good seed-bearingage. Optimum seed productionoccurs from 40 to 125 years.Good seed crops occur at inter-vals of 2 to 3 years with lightcrops during the interveningyears.

The nuts are dispersed fromSeptember through December,with squirrels and chipmunksplaying a role in expandingdispersal beyond where gravityplaces them. Mockernuts areheavily used by squirrel, smallrodents, raccoon, turkey, anddeer. Black bear, fox, rabbit,and beaver also use the hard

mast. Unlike the small but meaty shagbark hickorynuts, mockernut hickory nuts yield smaller amounts ofedible food for the effort it takes to crack the large“deceiving” nuts.


Fall Foliage: Mockernut hickory’s fall foliage can beattractive, and depending on what other species areavailable, it may be considered an aesthetic crop tree.

Both mockernut and pignuthickory are most competitive ondry, upland sites like this one.From a distance these trees aredifficult to distinguish. Bitternuthickory is adapted to growing onmore moist sites.

PIGNUT HICKORY

Pignut hickory is found on upland sites. It is intermediate inshade tolerance.

Leaves are alternate,hairless, and pinnatelycompound with 5-7obovate leaflets.

Bark is gray-brown withinterlacing ridges.

Terminal buds of pignut hickory aregenerally smaller, and twigs are moreslender than those of mockernut hickory.Twigs are red-brown, smooth, and slender.

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PIGNUT HICKPIGNUT HICKPIGNUT HICKPIGNUT HICKPIGNUT HICKORORORORORYYYYY


Unit Value: The timber value of pignut hickory issimilar to that of shagbark hickory.

Growth Rate: Pignut hickory has slow diameter growth.Dominant and codominant trees with healthy, vigorouscrowns can be expected to grow only about 1.2 inchesper decade. There is little data available to comparegrowth rates on released versus unreleased crop trees.

Health Issues: Pignut hickory is easily damaged by fire.

Natural Regeneration: Hickory nuts seldom remainviable in the ground for more than 1 year. Seedlings arenot fast growing. Hickory sprouts readily from stumpsand roots. As stump diameters increase in size, stumpsprouting declines. Root sprouts are vigorous andprobably more numerous than stump sprouts in cutoverareas.


Mast Production: Pignut hickory begins to bear seed inquantity at about 30 years with optimum seed-bearingage between 75 and 200 years. Good seed crops occurevery year or two with light crops during interveningyears. Frost can seriously hinder seed production.

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Nuts are dispersed from September through December,with squirrels and chipmunks playing a role in expand-ing dispersal beyond where gravity places them.

Pignuts are heavily used by squirrel, small rodents,raccoon, turkey, and deer. Black bear, fox, rabbit, andseveral species of songbirds also use the hard mast.


Fall Foliage: Pignut hickory’s fall foliage can beattractive, and depending on what other species areavailable, this characteristic may qualify this species asan aesthetic crop tree.

BITTERNUT HICKBITTERNUT HICKBITTERNUT HICKBITTERNUT HICKBITTERNUT HICKORORORORORYYYYY

BITTERNUT HICKORY

Bitternut hickory is found on moist, well drained soils. It isintolerant of shade.

It transitions tointerlacing ridgeson older trees.

Bark is smooth on youngtrees.

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Terminal Buds are1/2 inch long,bright yellow, andvalvate.

Leaves are alternate andpinnately compound with7-11 generally lanceolateleaflets.

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Unit Value: Bitternut hickory is a pecan hickory asopposed to a true hickory like shagbark and mockernut.It is cut and sold in mixture with the true hickories, butit is not equal to them in strength, hardness, and tough-ness. It is also less desirable for charcoal and fuelwood.

Growth Rate: Like other hickories, bitternut has slowdiameter growth, but it has the shortest lifespan – about200 years. Dominant and codominant trees withhealthy, vigorous crowns can be expected to grow onlyabout 1.2 inches per decade in the central Appalachianregion. There is little data available to compare growthrates on released versus unreleased crop trees.

Health Issues: Bitternut hickory is susceptible todamage by fire because of the low insulating capacityof the hard bark.

Natural Regeneration: Establishing hickory trees fromseedlings is difficult because of seed predators. Infre-quent bumper seed crops usually provide some seed-lings, but seedling survival is poor under a densecanopy. Seedlings are not fast growing.

Hickory species normally require a moderately moistseedbed for satisfactory seed germination, and bitternuthickory can probably tolerate a more moist seedbedthan most other hickories.

BITTERNUT HICKBITTERNUT HICKBITTERNUT HICKBITTERNUT HICKBITTERNUT HICKORORORORORYYYYY

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Because of its prolific sprouting ability, hickory repro-duction can survive browsing, breakage, drought, andfire. Top dieback and resprouting may occur fre-quently, with each successive shoot attaining a largersize and developing a stronger root system than itspredecessors. By this process, hickory reproductiongradually accumulates and develops under moderatelydense canopies, especially on sites dry enough torestrict reproduction of more tolerant, but more fire- ordrought-sensitive species.

Bitternut hickory is the most prolific root and stumpsprouter of the northern species of hickory. Mostsprouts from sapling and pole-size trees are at the rootcollar, and sprouts from sawtimber-size trees are rootsuckers.

Of the four hickories coveredin this guide, bitternuthickory is the one mostfrequently found on moistsites where hard mastproduction is often morelimited.

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Mast Production:Bitternut hickory does notproduce seed abundantlyuntil it is about 30 yearsold. Optimum productionextends from 50 to 125years. Good seed cropsoccur at intervals of 3 to 5years with light cropsduring the interveningyears.

The nuts are dispersedfrom September throughDecember, with gravitybeing the most significantdispersal agent. The seedis generally less tasteful towildlife than the otherhickories. Bitternuts areused by squirrel, but donot constitute a largeportion of their diet. They

may also be used by mice and deer.


Fall Foliage: Bitternut hickory’s fall foliage can beattractive, and depending on what other species areavailable, it may be considered an aesthetic crop tree.

This bitternut hickory may be regardedas an aesthetic crop tree because of itsattractive foliage and tall, straightstature.

APPENDIX A

Crop Tree Management focuses on selecting and releasing croptrees that meet criteria based on the landowner’s goals and objec-tives for the property. To do this, a crown-touching release must beapplied to each of the timber and most of the wildlife and aestheticcrop trees selected to produce the identified benefits.

As each crop tree is selected, its freedom to grow must be evalu-ated. This is easily done by looking up at its crown and imagining itdivided into quadrants as shown on the following fold-out graphic.An assessment of whether or not the crop tree crown has room togrow is made for each quadrant — if there are crowns of other treestouching the crop tree crown, then there is no freedom to grow orexpand. A Free-To-Grow (FTG) rating of 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 is assignedto each crop tree based on this visual evaluation.

A full crown-touching release means that all trees, in all four quad-rants, whose crowns are touching the crop tree crown will be re-moved from competition. Referred to as a four-sided release, thisopening up of the growing space around the crop tree crown focusesresources necessary for accelerated growth on the trees with thegreatest potential to produce desired benefits.

In some cases, when two crop trees occur close together, it isacceptable to consider both trees as one crown and then releasefully around the two. This gives each tree only a 3-sided release,but removing all trees around the dual crowns eliminates enoughinterference to allow the two crop trees to respond well to release.

A crown-touching release should be considered once trees haveattained a height of 25 feet.

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81 Central Appalachian Crop Tree Field Guide

FTG Rating = 1

FTG Rating = 3

FTG Rating = 0

FTG Rating = 2

FTG Rating = 4

CRCRCRCRCROP OP OP OP OP TREE MANTREE MANTREE MANTREE MANTREE MANAAAAAGEMENT — FREE GEMENT — FREE GEMENT — FREE GEMENT — FREE GEMENT — FREE TTTTTO GRO GRO GRO GRO GROOOOOW RAW RAW RAW RAW RATINGSTINGSTINGSTINGSTINGS

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FTG Rating = 4 FTG Rating = 3

CT

FOR OPTIMUM GROWTHA 4-SIDED RELEASE IS REQUIRED the only exception is . . .

CRCRCRCRCROP OP OP OP OP TREE MANTREE MANTREE MANTREE MANTREE MANAAAAAGEMENT — CRGEMENT — CRGEMENT — CRGEMENT — CRGEMENT — CROOOOOWN-TWN-TWN-TWN-TWN-TOUCHING RELEASEOUCHING RELEASEOUCHING RELEASEOUCHING RELEASEOUCHING RELEASE

a 3-sided release when thecompeting tree retained is

another crop tree.

APPENDIX B

Crop Tree Management allows flexibility in managing how treatmentareas will look by varying the intensities of cutting. The followingfold-out illustrates how to adjust the degree of thinning by adjustingthe number of crop trees released.

It is important that the intensity of treatment is done correctly byreducing the number of crop trees released instead of by reducingthe amount of release given to each crop tree. The optimum rapidgrowth that Crop Tree Management produces is only obtained byproviding a full crown-touching release to each crop tree.

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Maximum #Crop TreesReleased

Moderate #Crop TreesReleased

Minimum #Crop TreesReleased

Crop TreesSelected

Cut TreesMarked

Cut TreesRemoved

CRCRCRCRCROP OP OP OP OP TREE MANTREE MANTREE MANTREE MANTREE MANAAAAAGEMENT — GEMENT — GEMENT — GEMENT — GEMENT — VVVVVARIOUS INTENSITIES OF ARIOUS INTENSITIES OF ARIOUS INTENSITIES OF ARIOUS INTENSITIES OF ARIOUS INTENSITIES OF TREATREATREATREATREATMENTTMENTTMENTTMENTTMENT

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IF THIS CUTTING IS TOO HEAVY . . . .

then reduce the intensity of cut by . . . .

reducing thenumber ofcrop trees

selected forrelease . . .

reducing theamount of

release givento each crop

tree.

NOT

CORRECT INCORRECT

CRCRCRCRCROP OP OP OP OP TREE MANTREE MANTREE MANTREE MANTREE MANAAAAAGEMENT — GEMENT — GEMENT — GEMENT — GEMENT — ADJUSTING ADJUSTING ADJUSTING ADJUSTING ADJUSTING THE INTENSITY OF THE INTENSITY OF THE INTENSITY OF THE INTENSITY OF THE INTENSITY OF TREATREATREATREATREATMENTTMENTTMENTTMENTTMENT

APPENDIX C

Because Crop Tree Management focuses on individual trees, it isimportant to have an appropriate way of evaluating growth. Indi-vidual tree diameter growth expressed in inches per decade is aviable means of measuring growth rates and responses. Thereproducible CROP TREE GROWTH tally sheet in the back pocketof this publication explains the process. It can be used to recordand monitor crop tree growth.

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Monitoring Crop Tree Diameter Growth

If you are growing trees to produce a timber product, it isimportant to know your actions are producing the results youneed. To evaluate the performance of your timber crop trees, itis necessary to monitor the growth of a sample of those croptrees. This can easily be done by establishing a set of 10 treesof the same species and of similar size, age, vigor, and free-to-grow rating. The site productivity of the sample crop treelocations should also be similar.

Follow the instructions on the back of the CROP TREEGROWTH tally sheet (back pocket insert) and record the datafor your crop trees. Compare your results with the growth ratecomparison charts that follow.

The charts contain individual tree (diameter at breast height)growth information that is intended as an aid to predicting howreleased and unreleased crop trees will grow. This informationis compiled from research studies and monitored demonstra-tion areas with adjustments based on experience. It is appli-cable in West Virginia, eastern Ohio, southwestern Pennsylva-nia, and western Maryland. Growth rates are indicated ininches per decade. This estimating aid is intended for use ontrees with healthy crowns judged to be capable of respondingto release.

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Growth Rates on Average Sites for the Species(Average growth rate, inches per decade)

Species and Unreleased ReleasedSite Location* Age** (FTG 0) (FTG 3 or 4)

Red oak–9 16 to 26 1.8 2.8Red oak–6 35 to 45 — 4.0Red oak–2 55 to 65 2.1 3.6Red oak–5 75+ 2.2 3.2

Yellow-poplar–3 12 to 22 2.9 4.0Yellow-poplar–5 75+ 2.0 3.6

Black cherry–3 12 to 22 2.4 3.6Black cherry–5 75+ 2.4 2.4

Sugar maple–6 25 to 35 — 3.5Sugar maple–5 75+ 1.4 2.0

Red maple–5 75+ 2.2 2.8

Beech 75+ 1.4 3.0

Hickory–10 63 to 70 — 1.5

White oak–10 63 to 70 — 2.5White oak–1 80+ 1.2 2.0

Scarlet oak–1 55+ 1.7 2.3

Black oak–7 50 2.0 3.5Black oak–1 80+ 1.5 1.8

Chestnut oak–9 16 to 26 1.7 2.3Chestnut oak–1 80+ 1.5 2.3

* See Page 87.** This column lists the range of ages for the crop trees in a specific research study ordemonstration area. Where there is greater variation in crop tree age, or if it is less preciselyknown (generally older trees), the age is listed as greater than a minimum.

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Central Appalachian Regionof the United States

Area of Applicability

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Growth Rates on Poorer than Average Sitesfor the Species

(Average growth rate, inches per decade)

Species and Unreleased ReleasedSite Location* Age** (FTG 0) (FTG 3 or 4)

Black cherry–5 60 to 70 1.1 1.8Black cherry–8 75 to 82 0.7 1.6

White ash–6 25 to 35 — 2.5White ash–8 75 to 82 — 1.6

Yellow-poplar–2 55 to 65 1.4 2.7

Red oak–8 75 to 82 1.9 2.4

Red maple–8 75 to 82 1.4 2.3

Site# Location

1 Camp Creek Crop Tree Demonstration Area – WV

2 Coopers Rock Crop Tree Demonstration Area – WV

3 Fernow Experimental Forest – WV

4 Fernow Experimental Forest and Monongahela National Forest – WV

5 Monongahela National Forest (Northeastern Research Station Plots) – WV

6 Perkey Tree Farm – PA

7 Raystown Lake Crop Tree Demonstration Area – MD

8 Savage River Crop Tree Demonstration Area – MD

9 Savage River State Forest (Northeastern Research Station Plots) – MD

10 Skidmore Crop Tree Demonstration Area – WV

** This column lists the range of ages for the crop trees in a specific research study ordemonstration area. Where there is greater variation in crop tree age, or if it is lessprecisely known (generally older trees), the age is listed as greater than a minimum.

*This column lists the species and the associated site location of the growthinformation as referenced in the box below.

APPENDIX D

The folowing information is offered as additional help in identifyingthe four species of hickories addressed in this guide. The tight-barkhickories can be difficult to differentiate among, so they oftenwarrant more detailed evaluation and observation of specific charac-teristics when making species determinations. Knowing what to lookfor will make the task a little easier.

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Help for Identifying Hickories(Shagbark, Mockernut, Pignut, and Bitternut)

This field guide addresses timber, wildlife, and aestheticcharacteristics of four species of hickory – shagbark,mockernut, pignut, and bitternut. Generally, it is important forcrop tree managers to be able to distinguish tree species usingbark characteristics. With most tree species, this is a practicalskill to obtain. However, with three of the four hickoriesincluded in this guide, bark characteristics alone may not besufficient for accurate identification.

The shagbark hickory is easily distinguishable by the shaggybark plates that noticeably hang from the trunk of the tree. Toassist in the tougher job of distinguishing between the threetight-bark hickories covered in this guide, the following can beused to help refine identification:

Bark Characteristics

Mockernut Pignut Bitternut

Tight bark, Tight bark, Tight bark,interlacing interlacing interlacingridges ridges ridges

Sometimes hasrich chocolatecolor beneath bark

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The characteristic shaggy bark of shagbark hickory makes iteasy to distinguish from the tight-bark hickories.

Mockernut hickory bark is sometimes distinguishable fromother tight-bark hickories by the chocolate color that liesbeneath the bark surface. A pocket knife can be used toexpose a small area where the rich chocolate color will berevealed.

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Fruit Characteristics


Husk 1/8” to Thin husk Thin husk1/4” thick, splitting onlysplitting nearly to 3/4 lengthto the base of of the unridgedthe 4-angled nut nut

Terminal Bud Characteristics


1/2” to 3/4” 1/4” to 1/2” 1/2” long; budlong; egg- long; bud scales valvate;shaped; bud scales slender; bright,scales imbricate; imbricate; sulfur-yellowearly dropping of winter dropping coloryellow to tan, of glabrous,silky outer bud reddish-brownscales outer scales

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The imbricate (overlapping) scales onthe buds of mockernut and pignut helpseparate these two hickories frombitternut hickory.

The valvate (edge-to-edge, not overlapping)bud scales along with theyellow color and slendershape of the bitternutbuds help to separate itfrom pignut andmockernut hickory.

Viewing the buds of pole- and sawtimber-size tight-bark hickories from the ground can be enhanced withbinoculars. Good visual examination that clearlyreveals the distinctively different shape and color ofbitternut hickory distinguishes it from pignut andmockernut hickories.

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Leaf Characteristics


7-9 leaflets, hairy 5 leaflets (7 7-11 leaflets,beneath; hairy, rarely); rachis lightly hairy;stout rachis smooth slender rachis

Habitat Characteristics


Dry, upland Dry, upland Moist, deepforests forests soils

APPENDIX E

Several factors affect natural regeneration. The chart that followssummarizes information about seed production and germination forthe sixteen species covered in this field guide. In some cases,information is not available, and is so noted with a “ – “ on the chart.

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Characteristics AffectingSeed Production and Germination

Seed Frequency Initial Optimum TreeLongevity of Good Seed- Seed- Lon-in Soil Seed Crop Bearing Bearing gevity*

Species (Years) (Years) Age Age (Years)

Black Cherry 3 1-5 10 30-100 180+

White Ash 3 3-5 20 – –

Yellow-poplar 8 1 15-20 Up to 220 300

Red Oak = 2-5 25 50+ 200+

Black Walnut = 2-5 10 30-100 150+

Sugar Maple 2 2-5 40 40-60/light70-100/med. 300-400

Red Maple = 1 4 – 150

Beech = 2-8 40 60+ 300-400

White Oak = 4-10 20 50-200 500+

Chestnut Oak = 4-5 20 – 200

Scarlet Oak = 3-5 20 50+ <otheroaks

Black Oak = 2-3 20 40-75 150-200

ShagbarkHickory = 1-3 40 60-200 200+

MockernutHickory = 2-3 25 40-125 200+

PignutHickory = 1-2 30 75-200 200+

BitternutHickory = 3-5 30 50-125 200

* Tree growth will slow down, and vigor and seed production will declinebefore these ages.

– Information unavailable.= Most seeds germinate within 1 year after seedfall.

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SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Burns, Russell M.; Barbara H. Honkala, tech. coords. 1990.Silvics of North America: 2, Hardwoods. Agriculture Hand-book 654. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,Washington, DC. Vol. 2, 877 p.

Carvell, Kenneth L.; Perkey, Arlyn W. 1997. Using DiagnosticPlants To Evaluate Site Class. NA-TP-03-97, NortheasternArea, State and Private Forestry.

Carvell, Kenneth L.; Koch, C.B. 1963. Black Cherry – ItsAbundance, Quality, and Rate of Growth in the Oak-Hickoryand Cove Forests of West Virginia. West Virginia UniversityAgricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin 485. 12 p.

Hicks, Ray R. 1998. Ecology and Management of CentralHardwood Forests. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 412 p.

Heiligmann, Randall B. 1997. Herbicides Commonly Used forControlling Undesirable Trees, Shrubs, and Vines in YourWoodland. Ohio State Univ. Ext. Fact Sheet F-45 Supplement-97. 5p.

Kelty, Matthew J. 1988. Sources of Hardwood Regenerationand Factors that Influence These Sources. p. 17-30 in Proceed-ings: Guidelines for Regenerating Appalachian HardwoodStands. Smith, H. Clay, Perkey, A. W., and Kidd, W. E., Jr.,eds.

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Keys, Jr., J.; Carpenter, C.; Hooks, S.; Koenig, F.; McNab,W.H.; Russell, W.; Smith, M.L. 1995. Ecological Units of theEastern United States – first approximation (map and bookletof map unit tables), Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Agricul-ture, Forest Service.

Kidd, William E.; Smith, H. Clay. 1989. Woodlot Manage-ment: Helping It Grow. West Virginia University ExtensionService.

Kochenderfer, Jeffrey D.; Zedaker, Shepard M.; Johnson,James E.; Smith, David Wm.; Miller, Gary W. 2001. Herbi-cide Hardwood Crop Tree Release in Central West Virginia.North. J. Appl. For. 18(2):46-54.

Lamson, N.I.; H.C. Smith. 1989. Crown Release IncreasesGrowth of 12-Year-Old Black Cherry and Yellow-Poplar CropTrees. USDA For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-622. 7p.

Lamson, N.I.; H.C. Smith; A.W. Perkey; S.M. Brock. 1990.Crown Release Increases Growth of Crop Trees. USDA For.Serv. Res. Pap. NE-635. 8 p.

Lamson, Neil.I; Smith, H. Clay. 1988. Thinning Cherry-MapleStands in West Virginia: 5-Year Results. Res. Pap. NE-615.Broomall, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 7 p.

Leopold, Donald J.; McComb, William C.; Muller, Robert N.1998. Trees of the Central Hardwood Forests of NorthAmerica.

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Miller, Gary W. 1996. Epicormic Branching on Central Appa-lachian Hardwoods 10 Years After Deferment Cutting. Res.Pap. NE-702. Radnor, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,Forest Service, Northeastern Forest Experiment Station. 9 p.

Miller, Gary W. 1997. Stand Dynamics in 60-Year-Old Allegh-eny Hardwoods After Thinning. Can. J. For. Res. 27: 1645-1657.

Miller, Gary W.; Kochenderfer, James N. 1998. MaintainingSpecies Diversity in the Central Appalachians. Journal ofForestry 96(7):28-33.

Miller, Gary W. 2000. Effect of Crown Growing Space on theDevelopment of Young Hardwood Crop Trees. North. J. Appl.For. 17(1):25-35.

Perkey, Arlyn W.; Wilkins, Brenda L.; Smith, H. Clay. 1994.Crop Tree Management In Eastern Hardwoods. NA-TP-19-93,Northeastern Area, State and Private Forestry.

Perkey, A. W.; Onken, A. 2000. A Decade at a Crop TreeDemonstration Area. Forest Management Update. 20: 1-13.

Smith, H. Clay; Della-Bianca, Lino; Fleming, Harvey. 1983.Appalachian Mixed Hardwoods. P. 141-144, in Burns, RussellM., tech. comp., Silvicultural Systems for the Major ForestTypes on the United States, Agric. Handb. No. 445. Washing-ton, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service;191 p.

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Smith, H. Clay; and Lamson, N.I. 1991. Releasing 75- to 80-Year-Old Appalachian Hardwood Sawtimber Trees: 5-yeard.b.h. Response. P. 402-413 in Proc. 8th Cent. Hard. For. Conf.,McCormick, L.H. and K.W. Gottschalk, eds.

Smith, H. Clay; Miller, Gary W.; Lamson, Neil I. 1994. Crop-Tree Release Thinning in 65-Year-Old Commercial Cherry-Maple Stands (5-Year Results). Res. Pap. NE-694. Radnor,PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, North-eastern Forest Experiment Station. 11 p.

Trimble, George R., Jr. 1975. Summaries of Some SilvicalCharacteristics of Several Appalachian Hardwood Trees.Northeastern Forest Experiment Station, Upper Darby, PA, 5 p.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1979. A Guideto Common Insects and Diseases of Forest Trees in the North-eastern United States. Northeast. Area State Priv. For., For.Insect and Disease Management, Broomall, PA. P.123, illus.(USDA For. Serv., Northeast. Area State Priv. For. Publ. NA-FR-4).

Instructions for Using this Form to Monitor Crop Tree Growth

Trees grow during the spring and summer while they are in leaf. In autumn, when all the leaves have fallen,growth stops and does not begin again until new leaves appear the following spring. This form is designed so thatthe growth of crop trees is recorded during the growing season in which it occurred. It doesn't matter exactlywhen during the dormant season the remeasurements are done, as long as it is sometime between October andApril while there are no leaves on the trees. Remeasure once each year. Track the growth of crop trees onegrowing season at a time, and establish a valuable record of consecutive growth data that can be used to helpmake future management decisions.

1. Select ten (10) similar crop trees in relatively close proximity to each other that will be easy to relocate and remeasure. Choose trees of thesame species with about the same free-to-grow rating.* The trees should be similar in diameter (for example, from 10" to 14" DBH**).

Note: The growth of several groups of crop trees can be monitored, depending on how many sets of 10 similar crop treesare available for selection. It is interesting to observe how factors like location, species, weather, and freedom to grow affectgrowth among various groups of trees.

2. Paint a horizontal line on each tree at DBH and number the trees consecutively from 1 to 10. Tube paint works well. See photo below.

Note: If there are more than one group of 10 trees, do not renumber 1-10 for each group. Continue consecutive numberingso that each tree is uniquely identified and there is no duplication of numbers.

3. During the initial dormant season, measure the diameters of all 10 crop trees with a diameter tape at the established paint line and record itin the first DBH column (See Example below). Make sure the diameter tape is pulled snugly against the tree with no sagging. Loose fits andsags result in exaggerated measurements.

4. During the following dormant season, measure the diameters of the 10 trees again and record it in the next column. Repeat measurementsonce each year, and always be sure to measure at the paint line each time. Again, make sure the tape is wrapped snugly around the tree.

5. Calculate the growth for each growing season for every tree by subtracting the previous year's recorded DBH from the current DBH. Sumthe annual growth for the 10 trees to obtain yearly growth in inches for the 10 trees. Sum over 10 years and divide by 10 for the averagegrowth per year in inches per decade.

18.4 18.8 .4

14.5 15.0 .5

17.8 18.1 .3

15.4 15.8 .4

14.8 15.3 .5

12.8 13.0 .2

12.8 13.1 .3

17.4 17.6 .2

16.0 16.3 .3

17.5 17.8 .3

3.4

Example

Numbered Crop Tree

Total Growth –

GRODBH2001

DBH2000

Important NoteTo accurately record growth during the year

when it occurred, label DBH columnaccording to the year in which

the dormant season began.

ExampleDBH measurement taken between

October 2000 and April 2001,label as 2000 DBH.

* Free-to-grow information is contained in Crop Tree Management Quick Reference and Crop TreeField Guide, both available from the USDA Forest Service, 180 Canfield Street, Morgantown, WV 26505.

** DBH (Diameter at Breast Height – 4.5 feet above the ground).

CROP TREE GROWTH(See Instructions on Back)

LANDOWNER: DATE:

STAND HISTORY:

STAND NUMBER: ACRES: AGE:

DBH20

TOTALGRO

DBH20

DBH20

DBH20

DBH20TREE SPE-

CIES GRO GRO GRO GRO GRO

DBH20

TOTALGRO

DBH20

DBH20

DBH20

DBH20TREE SPE-

CIES GRO GRO GRO GRO GRO

TOTALS

TOTALS

USDA Forest Service, NA-S&PF, Morgantown, WV(Revised October 2001)

Notes:

F T G

F T G

DBH20

DBH20

Documents

Crop Tree Field Guide - Iowa Department of Natural Resources