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Chapter 15

Qualitative Methods

Researcher using qualitative methods needs theoretical and social sensitivity Balance what is being observed with what is

known Recognize subjective role of the researcher Think abstractly and make connections among

data collected

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Field Interviewing

Method for discovering how people Think and feel about their communication

practices Order and assess their world

Semidirected conversation Goal is to uncover participant's point of view More than just asking questions to get answers

Interviews can be formal, informal, or both

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The Interview Process

Conceptualize the interview study Review the topical and interview literature Develop the purpose of your study Develop research questions to guide your study

Design the interview Decide how to find and select respondents Determine how many respondents are needed

Generally enough when interviews are producing the same data

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The Interview Process

Conduct the interview Select locations and times comfortable

and accessible for respondents Best done in pairs

One to interview One to take notes

Establish context and frame for interview Define situation, explain purpose, ask about taping

the interview, ask if participant has any questions

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The Interview Process

Ask questions Carefully construct questions to get the

information you need or to prompt discussion Prepare and use an interview guide Ask relevant biographical questions to

contextualize information Some questions should allow respondent to tell

his or her own story Open questions are better than closed questions

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The Interview Process

Conclude the interview Debrief the participant

Summarize main points and new information Provide any information that was withheld from

participant before interview Ask if participant has any questions

Thank the participant

Transcribe the interview

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The Interview Process

Analyze the interview transcript With research questions in mind, reach each

transcript thoroughly and completely Make tentative margin notes

Choose process of analyzing transcripts individually and as a whole

Verify and report interview findings

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Techniques for Analyzing Interview Data

Method 1

1. Search each transcript for themes

2. Select helpful quotes

3. Determine relative significance of themes

4. Search for oppositions and hierarchies

5. Compare transcripts

Method 21. Identify participant

descriptions2. Identify when participant

discovers new insights3. Look at summaries given

as feedback4. Interpret the entirety of

the interview5. Feedback interpretations

to participants

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Strengths and Limitationsof Interview Research

Strengths

1. Face-to-face setting allows you to probe and follow up

2. Can collect data on behavior/events you cannot observe

Limitations

1. Interviews produce an enormous amount of data

2. Participant can stray off course

3. Participant may be hesitant to talk

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Focus Groups

Facilitator-led group discussion Usually 5 to 10 participants 60 to 90 minute group discussion Respondents encouraged to interact with one

another Not a decision-making group

Distinguish research focus group from marketing focus group

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Selecting Participants

Based upon research question

Select strangers who possess similar characteristics

Use screening questions to qualify participation Motivate those selected to participate Overrecruit by 20%

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Conducting Focus Group Research

Researcher decides level of structure and how conversation will be encouraged

90 minutes Introduce participants Serve refreshments Conduct discussion Summarize what was said as feedback to

participants

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Focus Group Moderator

May not be the researcherSomeone with whom participants can identifySomeone who is perceived as credibleHave the communication skills to gently guide a group’s discussion Not an interviewer Not a participant

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Focus Group Outline

Standardized list of questions or topic to cover in each focus groupUsually a funnel from general to more specificOpening questions should be broad To encourage free discussion Allow each participant to respond Allow moderator to identify other issues

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Analyzing Focus Group Discussions

Discussions are audiotaped and transcribed

Moderator should make field notes immediately following each session

Analysis of discussion data and moderator notes Stem from literature Answer research questions

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Focus GroupStrengths and Limitations

Strengths1. Provides views and

opinions in participants’ own words

2. Allows consensus or conflict to emerge among participants

3. Can generate information about same topic from different people

Limitations

1. Talkative or overly opinionated participants

2. Hesitant to express opinions opposite of others’ opinions

3. Researcher can over influence

4. Easy to overgeneralize findings

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Storytelling as Narratives

People tell stories as a way of knowing, understanding, and explaining their lives Stories organize and interpret their experiences Reliable guide to beliefs, attitudes, and values Uncover how isolated events are part of a larger

environment Uncover justifications people give for past

actions

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Methods for Collecting Stories

From one-on-one interviews

Critical incident technique Positive or negative memorable events

Exist naturally in everyday conversation Through some form of participant observation

Print forms

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Analyzing Narratives

Top-down approach Literature provides rules and principles for

analyzing narratives Research questions drive the analysis

Bottom-up approach Allow themes to emerge from stories about

same or similar events

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Strengths and Limitations of Narrative Research

Strengths

1. Richness and depth of data

2. Collect data about communication events that would be difficult or impossible to observe

Limitations1. Risk in asking

participants to recall troubling or negative stories

2. Generalizability of findings can be restricted

3. Did participants embellish story?

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Ethnography

Study and representation of people and their interaction

Holistic description of interactants in their cultural or subcultural group

Researcher immersed into interaction field for long periods

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Ethnographers

Share the environment of those being studied

Capture interaction as it occurs in its natural context

Experience firsthand the problems, background, language, rituals, and social relations of a specific group of people

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Characteristics of Ethnography

Researchers are unlikely to have well-developed research questions

Researcher must work with data that do not fit neatly into categories

Focus is on one or a small number of cases

Analysis produces deep, thick descriptions

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Gaining Access

Gain entry by becoming part of the interaction environment

May already be a natural actor in that environment

Must become integrated so others interact normally with and toward the researcher

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Recording Observations

Often not be able to take notes while participating

Anything and everything is considered as data

Notes kept in detailed journals or diaries

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Strengths and Limitations of Ethnographic Research

Strengths

1. Rich deep description

2. Researcher develops intimacy with communicators and context otherwise not possible

Limitations1. Time researcher must

commit to project2. Researcher must be

saturated in the data to write the research report

3. Can overidentify with participants