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Chapter 15Chapter 15

Qualitative Methods of Data CollectionQualitative Methods of Data Collection

Researcher using qualitative methods Researcher using qualitative methods needs theoretical and social sensitivityneeds theoretical and social sensitivity

– Balance what is being observed with what is Balance what is being observed with what is knownknown

– Recognize subjective role of the researcher Recognize subjective role of the researcher

– Think abstractly and make connections Think abstractly and make connections among data collectedamong data collected

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Field InterviewingField Interviewing

Method for discovering how people Method for discovering how people – Think and feel about their communication Think and feel about their communication

practicespractices– Order and assess their worldOrder and assess their world

Semidirected conversation Semidirected conversation – Goal is to uncover participant's point of viewGoal is to uncover participant's point of view– More than just asking questions to get More than just asking questions to get

answersanswers

Interviews can be formal, informal, or bothInterviews can be formal, informal, or both

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Electronic InterviewingElectronic Interviewing

Interviewing via email, website, or faxInterviewing via email, website, or fax

AdvantagesAdvantages– Low costLow cost– Can reach geographically dispersed participantsCan reach geographically dispersed participants

DisadvantagesDisadvantages– Difficult to develop rapportDifficult to develop rapport– Creates fictional social realityCreates fictional social reality– Can’t check nonverbalsCan’t check nonverbals– May take longerMay take longer

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The Interview ProcessThe Interview Process

Conceptualize the interview studyConceptualize the interview study– Review the topical and interview literatureReview the topical and interview literature– Develop the purpose of your studyDevelop the purpose of your study– Develop research questions Design the Develop research questions Design the

interviewinterview– Decide how to find and select respondentsDecide how to find and select respondents– Determine how many respondents are Determine how many respondents are

neededneededGenerally enough when interviews are producing Generally enough when interviews are producing the same datathe same data

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The Interview ProcessThe Interview Process

Conduct the interviewConduct the interview– Select locations and times comfortable Select locations and times comfortable

and accessible for respondentsand accessible for respondents– Best done in pairsBest done in pairs

One to interview; one to take notesOne to interview; one to take notes

– Establish context and frame for Establish context and frame for interviewinterview

Define situation, explain purpose, ask about taping Define situation, explain purpose, ask about taping the interview, ask if participant has any questionsthe interview, ask if participant has any questions

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The Interview ProcessThe Interview Process

Ask questionsAsk questions– Carefully construct questions to get the Carefully construct questions to get the

information you need or to prompt discussioninformation you need or to prompt discussion– Prepare and use an interview guidePrepare and use an interview guide– Ask relevant biographical questions to Ask relevant biographical questions to

contextualize informationcontextualize information– Some questions should allow respondent to Some questions should allow respondent to

tell his or her own storytell his or her own story– Open questions are better than closed Open questions are better than closed

questionsquestions

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The Interview ProcessThe Interview Process

Conclude the interviewConclude the interview

– Debrief the participantDebrief the participant

Summarize main points and new informationSummarize main points and new information

Provide any information that was withheld from Provide any information that was withheld from participant before interviewparticipant before interview

Ask if participant has any questionsAsk if participant has any questions

– Thank the participantThank the participant

Transcribe the interviewTranscribe the interview

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Strengths and LimitationsStrengths and Limitationsof Interview Researchof Interview ResearchStrengthsStrengths

1.1. Face-to-face setting Face-to-face setting allows youallows you to probe to probe and follow upand follow up

2.2. Can collect data on Can collect data on behavior/events you behavior/events you cannot observecannot observe

LimitationsLimitations

1.1. Interviews produce Interviews produce an enormous an enormous amount of dataamount of data

2.2. Participant can stray Participant can stray off courseoff course

3.3. Participant may be Participant may be hesitant to talkhesitant to talk

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Focus GroupsFocus Groups

Facilitator-led group discussionFacilitator-led group discussion– Usually 5 to 10 participantsUsually 5 to 10 participants– 60 to 90 minute group discussion60 to 90 minute group discussion– Respondents encouraged to interact with one Respondents encouraged to interact with one

anotheranother– Not a decision-making groupNot a decision-making group

Distinguish research focus group from Distinguish research focus group from marketing focus groupmarketing focus group

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Selecting Focus Group ParticipantsSelecting Focus Group Participants

Based upon research questionBased upon research question

Select strangers who possess similar Select strangers who possess similar characteristicscharacteristics

Use screening questions to qualify Use screening questions to qualify participationparticipation

– Motivate those selected to participateMotivate those selected to participate

– Overrecruit by 20%Overrecruit by 20%

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Conducting Conducting Focus Group ResearchFocus Group Research

Researcher decides level of structure and Researcher decides level of structure and how conversation will be encouragedhow conversation will be encouraged

In 90 minutes or lessIn 90 minutes or less– Introduce participantsIntroduce participants– Serve refreshmentsServe refreshments– Conduct discussionConduct discussion– Summarize what was said as feedback to Summarize what was said as feedback to

participantsparticipants

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Focus Group ModeratorFocus Group Moderator

May not be the researcherMay not be the researcher

Someone with whom participants can Someone with whom participants can identifyidentify

Someone who is perceived as credibleSomeone who is perceived as credible

Have the communication skills to gently Have the communication skills to gently guide a group’s discussionguide a group’s discussion– Not an interviewerNot an interviewer– Not a participantNot a participant

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Focus Group OutlineFocus Group Outline

Standardized list of questions or topic to Standardized list of questions or topic to cover in each focus groupcover in each focus groupUsually a funnel from general to more Usually a funnel from general to more specificspecificOpening questions should be broadOpening questions should be broad– To encourage free discussionTo encourage free discussion– Allow each participant to respondAllow each participant to respond– Allow moderator to identify other issuesAllow moderator to identify other issues

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Focus Group DataFocus Group Data

1.1. Discussions are audio or videotaped Discussions are audio or videotaped

2.2. Tapes transcribed and verifiedTapes transcribed and verified

3.3. Moderator should make field notes Moderator should make field notes immediately following each sessionimmediately following each session

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Focus GroupFocus GroupStrengths and LimitationsStrengths and LimitationsStrengthsStrengths

1.1. Provides views and Provides views and opinions in participants’ opinions in participants’ own wordsown words

2.2. Allows consensus or Allows consensus or conflict to emerge conflict to emerge among participantsamong participants

3.3. Can generate Can generate information about same information about same topic from different topic from different peoplepeople

LimitationsLimitations

1.1. Talkative or overly Talkative or overly opinionated participantsopinionated participants

2.2. Hesitant to express Hesitant to express opinions opposite of opinions opposite of others’ opinionsothers’ opinions

3.3. Researcher can over Researcher can over influenceinfluence

4.4. Easy to overgeneralize Easy to overgeneralize findingsfindings

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Collecting StoriesCollecting Stories

People tell stories as a way of knowing, People tell stories as a way of knowing, understanding, and explaining their livesunderstanding, and explaining their lives– Stories organize and interpret their Stories organize and interpret their

experiencesexperiences– Reliable guide to beliefs, attitudes, and valuesReliable guide to beliefs, attitudes, and values– Uncover how isolated events are part of a Uncover how isolated events are part of a

larger environmentlarger environment– Uncover justifications people give for past Uncover justifications people give for past

actionsactions

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Sources for StoriesSources for Stories

From one-on-one interviewsFrom one-on-one interviews

Critical incident techniqueCritical incident technique

– Positive or negative memorable eventsPositive or negative memorable events

Exist naturally in everyday conversationExist naturally in everyday conversation

Through some form of participant Through some form of participant observationobservation

Print formsPrint forms

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Strengths and Limitations Strengths and Limitations of Narrative Researchof Narrative ResearchStrengthsStrengths

1.1. Richness and depth Richness and depth of dataof data

2.2. Collect data about Collect data about communication communication events that would be events that would be difficult or impossible difficult or impossible to observeto observe

LimitationsLimitations1.1. Risk in asking Risk in asking

participants to recall participants to recall troubling or negative troubling or negative storiesstories

2.2. Generalizability of Generalizability of findings can be findings can be restrictedrestricted

3.3. Did participants Did participants embellish story?embellish story?

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EthnographyEthnography

Study and representation of people Study and representation of people and their interactionand their interaction

Holistic description of interactants in Holistic description of interactants in their cultural or subcultural grouptheir cultural or subcultural group

Researcher immersed into interaction Researcher immersed into interaction field for long periodsfield for long periods

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Types of EthnographyTypes of Ethnography

Ethnography of communicationEthnography of communication– Focus on language or speech communitiesFocus on language or speech communities

Speaking is structuredSpeaking is structured

Speaking is distinctiveSpeaking is distinctive

Speaking is socialSpeaking is social

AutoethnographyAutoethnography– Researcher is also participantResearcher is also participant

Highly personal and emotionalHighly personal and emotional

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EthnographersEthnographers

Share the environment of those being Share the environment of those being studied studied

Capture interaction as it occurs in its Capture interaction as it occurs in its natural contextnatural context

Experience firsthand the problems, Experience firsthand the problems, background, language, rituals, and social background, language, rituals, and social relations of a specific group of peoplerelations of a specific group of people

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Characteristics of EthnographyCharacteristics of Ethnography

Researchers are unlikely to have well-Researchers are unlikely to have well-developed research questions developed research questions

Researcher must work with data that do Researcher must work with data that do not fit neatly into categoriesnot fit neatly into categories

Focus is on one or a small number of Focus is on one or a small number of cases cases

Analysis produces deep, thick descriptionsAnalysis produces deep, thick descriptions

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Entering the SceneEntering the Scene

Gain entry by becoming part of the Gain entry by becoming part of the interaction environmentinteraction environment

May already be a natural actor in that May already be a natural actor in that environmentenvironment

Must become integrated so others Must become integrated so others interact normally with and toward the interact normally with and toward the researcherresearcher

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Recording ObservationsRecording Observations

Often not be able to take notes while Often not be able to take notes while participatingparticipating

Anything and everything is Anything and everything is considered as dataconsidered as data

Notes kept in detailed journals or Notes kept in detailed journals or diariesdiaries

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Strengths and Limitations of Strengths and Limitations of Ethnographic ResearchEthnographic ResearchStrengthsStrengths

1.1. Rich deep Rich deep descriptiondescription

2.2. Researcher Researcher develops intimacy develops intimacy with communicators with communicators and context and context otherwise not otherwise not possible possible

LimitationsLimitations

1.1. Time commitmentTime commitment

2.2. Researcher must be Researcher must be saturated in the data saturated in the data to write the research to write the research reportreport

3.3. Can over-identify Can over-identify with participantswith participants