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MemoryMemory
Take out your spiral and label the next page Memory
Answer the following question in 3-5 sentences.
Recall as much detail as you can about your 6th birthday. What did you do? Who was there? Etc. The more details the better!
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Human memory is an information processing
system that works constructively to encode,
store, and retrieve information
What is Memory?What is Memory?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
What is Memory?What is Memory?
Memory – Any system – human, animal, or machine – that encodes, stores, and retrieves information
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It’s difficult because. . .It’s difficult because. . .
1. We haven’t encoded that info.
2. We haven’t stored that info.
3. Therefore, we cannot retrieve it easily.
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What is pseudoforgetting?What is pseudoforgetting?
Pseudoforgetting (false forgetting) is a failure to encode the information.
You didn’t forget; you just never cared enough to pay attention!
(pseudo = false)
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EncodingEncoding StorageStorage RetrievalRetrieval
3 basic tasks of memory3 basic tasks of memory
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EncodingEncoding Storage Retrieval
Putting info in the brain
Elaboration – trying to understand it
Making it meaningful to you
The way I see it!!The way I see it!!
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Encoding StorageStorage Retrieval
Keeping the info in the brain
The way I see it!!The way I see it!!
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Encoding Storage RetrievalRetrieval
Getting stuff out of your brain
The way I see it!!The way I see it!!
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Now, use computer Now, use computer terminology to terminology to describe the describe the processes of memory!processes of memory!
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ReviewReview
Getting information into the brain is called _____; getting information out of memory is called ______.
a. storage; retrieval
b. Encoding; storage
c. Encoding; retrieval
d. Storage; encoding
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It’s tough. You might remember the structure (all capital letters).
That’s structural encoding.
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Phonemic EncodingPhonemic Encoding
That was easier because they all rhymed.
Remembering sounds is easier than remembering structure.
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Acoustic encoding – Conversion of information to sound patterns in working memory
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Acoustic encodingAcoustic encoding
Think of a song!!!!!!!!!
What are the parts of the human What are the parts of the human body?body?
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Can you remember all 50 states?Can you remember all 50 states?
Make up a song.
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Acoustic encodingAcoustic encoding
I remember Rick’s name because it sounds like he acts on a daily basis.
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Semantic encodingSemantic encoding
“Semantic” means meaning. We remember stuff that has meaning better than their structure and sounds.
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ReviewReview
The word “big” is flashed on the screen. A mental picture of the word big represents a ______ code; the definition “large in size” represents a ______ code; “sounds like pig” represents a _______ code.
a. structural; phonemic; semantic
b. Phonemic; semantic; structural
c. Structural; semantic; phonemic
d. Phonemic; structural; semantic
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What is serial What is serial positioning effect?positioning effect?
Imagine a grocery list: milk, eggs, butter, bread, celery, chocolate, Big
Red, Beans, chips.
We most likely will remember the first few items and the last few.
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Encoding: Serial Position EffectEncoding: Serial Position Effect
12
Percentage of words
recalled
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
Position of word in list
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Serial Position Effect-tendency to recall best the last items in a list
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Encoding is effective whenEncoding is effective whenYou pay attention. “Selective attention” If you don’t pay
attention, your sensory memory will hear blah, blah. You have to pay attention to get info into your working memory
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Effective EncodingEffective EncodingWe encode what we are interested in. This
is called self-referent encoding.
Can you remember my phone number?
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Self referent encodingSelf referent encoding
We remember information that is personally relevant.
I’ll give you money if you remember something.
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Dual EncodingDual Encoding
Dual encoding (learning) involves combining different levels of processing.
Combine Semantic with phonemic with structural processing when you learn and study.
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A common way of dual A common way of dual encoding is encoding is MnemonicsMnemonics
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Mnemonics (encoding)Mnemonics (encoding)
Chunkingorganizing items into familiar, manageable units
like horizontal organization--1776149218121941
often occurs automatically
use of acronymsPEMDAS - ????
ROYGBIV - ?????
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Method of loci?Method of loci?
Aristotle talked about this. You have a grocery list: hot dogs, cat food, tomatoes, bananas, Dr. Pepper.
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Method of loci?Method of loci?
Now imagine you are arriving home in the driveway you see hot dogs all over the driveway, INSIDE the garage your cat is eating its food, you see tomatoes spattered on the door, you hang your coat but see banannas hanging in the closet, you go to the sink and see Dr. Pepper face down in the sink.
What’s cool about the method of loci is you remember the items in a specific order.
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Encoding Specificity PrincipleEncoding Specificity Principle
What are context dependent effects: information learned in a particular context is better recalled if recall takes place in the same context
ex: mood congruence
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Godden & Baddeley (1975)Godden & Baddeley (1975)
Memory experiment with deep-sea diversDeep-sea divers learned words either on land or underwater
They then recalled the words either on land or underwater
If you study underwater, then test underwater!
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Mood CongruenceMood CongruenceEasier to remember happy
memories in a happy state and sad memories in a sad state.
mood primes certain
memory contents
Getting mad primes you to remember other times you were mad.
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Encoding summaryEncoding summary
Encoding is most effective when we can see it, hear it, touch it, and UNDERSTAND it. Also, it’s most effective when we combine those elements. Encoding is best when we care.
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What is spacing effect?What is spacing effect?
Memory is better for repeated information if repetitions occur spaced over time than if they occur massed, one after another. No cramming!
Why? 1.Spacing distributed practice (instead of massed practice) reduces retroactive and proactive interference.
2.REM sleep helps memory. So study Tuesday, sleep, study Wednesday, sleep. You’ll do better.
3.Distributed practice may cause you to encode it in different ways and in different moods.
Melton & Schulman, 1970
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If a subject is asked to remember this list of numbers in 10 seconds: 48, 31, 45, 76, 97, 84, 26, 12, 67, which numbers will she most likely remember?
a. 84, 45
b. 48, 67
c. 12, 31
d. 97, 76
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Each of the three memory stages encodes and stores memories in a different way,
but they work together to transform sensory experience into a lasting record that has a
pattern of meaning
Now let’s talk about Now let’s talk about storagestorage
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What are the Three Stages of Memory?What are the Three Stages of Memory?
Sensory Sensory MemoryMemory
Working Working Memory Memory (STM)(STM)
Long-term Long-term MemoryMemory
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The First Stage: Sensory MemoryThe First Stage: Sensory Memory
On the next slide, you will see a series of letters for one second
Try to remember as many letters as you can
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The First Stage: Sensory MemoryThe First Stage: Sensory Memory
How many can you recall?
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The First Stage: Sensory MemoryThe First Stage: Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory has a large capacity, very short duration, allows quick/online commerce with environment.
It registers sensations coming into our "system" from the environment, allowing us to pick up on all the rich stimuli "out there." There are many "types" of sensory memories, corresponding to our different senses, as in eyes, hears, touch, taste, etc.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Sensory memorySensory memory
Sensory memory lasts no more than 2 seconds. The precise length of different types of sensory memories differs (e.g., visual sensory memory is shorter than auditory).
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Sensory MemorySensory Memory
Sensory memory traces fade fairly rapidly. We simply lose the information UNLESS we do something further with it.
Did you remember when I clapped earlier?
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The First Stage: Sensory MemoryThe First Stage: Sensory Memory
Psychologists believe that, in this stage, memory images take the form of nerve impulses
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The Three Stages of MemoryThe Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Working Memory Memory
STMSTM
Long-term Memory
Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal.
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The Second Stage: Working MemoryThe Second Stage: Working Memory
Alan Baddeley’s model of Working memory (STM) consists of• A central executive• A phonological loop• The sketchpad
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Short Term Memory (working)Short Term Memory (working)
STM can hold unrehearsed information up to 20 seconds.
STM can hold 7 items +/- 2, according to some theories.
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Encoding and Storage Encoding and Storage in Working Memory (STM)in Working Memory (STM)
Chunking – Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units
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Okay, earlier we talked Okay, earlier we talked about chunking as a about chunking as a means of encoding means of encoding (understanding).(understanding).
Now we will mention it as a means of Short-term storage.
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Maintenance rehearsal – Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory
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Maintenance Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal
JLo says, “My phone Number is 469-259-5968”
You then repeat it to yourself until you canwrite it down somewhere.
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What parts of brain are involved in What parts of brain are involved in memory?memory?
The Prefrontal Cortex--Site of Working Memory (STM)
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The hippocampus converts memory into long-term memory. The The hippocampus converts memory into long-term memory. The
amygdala processes scary or stressful memoriesamygdala processes scary or stressful memories
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Flashbulb memories?Flashbulb memories?
Memories we never forget because of the emotion involved.
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The capacity of STM (working memory) is
a. About 50, 000 words
b. Unlimited
c. About 25 stimuli
d. About 7 “chunks” of information
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The Three Stages of MemoryThe Three Stages of Memory
Sensory Memory
Working Memory
Long-term Long-term MemoryMemory
Stores material organized according to meaning, also called LTM
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Semantic memory
Includes memory for:language, factsgeneral knowledge
Episodic memory
Memory of life’sEpisodes like first kiss
Includes memory for:motor skills, operant and classicalconditioning
Long-term memory
Declarative memory Procedural memory
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Semantic memory
Includes memory for:language, factsgeneral knowledge
Episodic memory
Includes memory for:events, personal experiences
Includes memory for:motor skills, operant and classicalconditioning
Long-term memory
Declarative memory Procedural memory
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Your memory of how to brush your teeth is contained in your ______ memory.
a. Declarative
b. Procedural
c. Structural
d. episodic
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Your knowledge that birds fly, that the sun rises in the east, and that 2+2=4 is contained in your ______ memory.
a. Structural
b. Procedural
c. Implicit
d. semantic
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Motivated forgettingMotivated forgetting
AKA “repression” We want to forget awful things.
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3 types of amnesia?3 types of amnesia?
Infantile amnesia – stuff we don’t remember as babies
Anterograde amnesia –Inability to form memories for new information
Retrograde amnesia –Inability to remember information previously stored in memory
Note: procedural memory seems unaffected!
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Anterograde Amnesia –caused by damage Anterograde Amnesia –caused by damage to hippocampusto hippocampus
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Retrograde amnesiaRetrograde amnesia
Any soap opera where someone can’t remember who they are, where they live, etc.
Quarterbacks who can’t remember games when they got concussions.
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HM: AmnesicHM: AmnesicSevere epilepsy, treated with surgery to bilaterally remove medial temporal lobes, including hippocampus
Operation 9/1953, 27 years old
HIPPOCAMPUS MEDIAL TEMPORAL LOBES
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LTMLTM
Consolidation –The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories
Our ultimate goal as students!!!!! We want to remember this stuff on May 12!
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How do we How do we consolidateconsolidate??
Make it meaningful. Put notes in your own words. Relate stuff to your own experience.
See it, smell it, taste it, touch it, sing it, make a joke about it (preferably a dirty one).
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If decay theory is correct:
a. Information can never be permanently lost from long-term memory
b. Forgetting is simply a case of retrieval failure
c. The principal cause of forgetting should be the passage of time
d. All of the above
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Many amnesiacs demonstrate _____ memory, even though their ______ memory is extremely impaired.
a. declarative; procedural
b. Conscious; unconscious
c. Implicit; explicit
d. Semantic; episodic
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Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues
Retrieval cues – Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior
Example: hints that a teacher gives you during a test without giving you the answer.
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Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues
What is Priming? – Technique for retrieving memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory. Giving hints to remember.
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Remembering off the Remembering off the top of your head is top of your head is recall.recall.
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Now pick pick out the seven Now pick pick out the seven dwarves.dwarves.
Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy (this is recognition)
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Seven DwarvesSeven Dwarves
Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful
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What is Recall and Recognition?What is Recall and Recognition?
Recall – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must reproduce previously presented information (fill in blank) remember without priming
Recognition – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented (multiple choice) remember with priming
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TOT (tip of the tongue) phenomenon? –The inability to recall a word, while knowing that it is in memory
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PORN – Proactive – Old getting in the way of the new Retroactive – New getting in the way of the old.
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Proactive or retroactive?Proactive or retroactive?
I’ve used my locker combination for years. One day I had to learn a new one for just one day. Now I can’t remember my old one.
I keep calling my new girlfriend by my old girlfriend’s name!
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Why Does Memory Why Does Memory Sometimes Fail Us?Sometimes Fail Us?
Most of our memory problems arise from
memory’s “seven sins” – which are really by-products
of otherwise adaptive features of human memory
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Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting CurveEbbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve
Recall decreases rapidly, then reaches a plateau, after which little more is forgotten
Pe
rce
nt r
eta
ined
60
50
40
30
20
10
0Days
5 10 15 20 25 30
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Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitnesses:Eyewitnesses:
Recollections are less influenced by leading questions if possibility of memory bias is forewarned
Passage of time leads to increase in misremembering information (JFK assassination)
Age of the witness matters
Confidence in memory is not a sign of accuracy
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Who is Elizabeth Loftus?Who is Elizabeth Loftus?
Elizabeth Loftus studied how false memories are planted into people’s minds. Questioned reliability of eyewitness testimony.
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Let’s review.Let’s review.
1. The three stages of Atkinson-Shiffrin process of memory are:
a) iconic, echoic, encoding
b) sensory, short term, long term
c) shallow, medium, and deep processing
d) semantic, episodic, procedural
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2. Which of the following examples best illustrates episodic memory?
a) telling someone how to tie a shoe
b) answering correctly that the Battle of Hastings was in 1066
c) knowing that the word for black in French is noir
d) remembering that a clown was at your fifth birthday party
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When Sue memorized her shopping list, she got to the store and forgot many items from the middle of the list. This is due to the
a. Inappropriate encoding
b. Retrograde amnesia
c. Proactive interference
d. The serial-position effect
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3. Doug wrote a grocery list of 10 items, but leaves it at home. The list included in order: peas, corn, squash, onions, apples, pears, bananas, flour, milk, and eggs. If the law of primacy holds, which of the following is Doug most likely to remember when he gets to the store?
a) peas, pears, eggs
b) banana, flour, peas
c) apples, pears, bananas
d) peas, corn, squash
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4. Mnemonic devices
a) can only be used to remember concrete words
b) have existed since ancient times
c) are generally ineffective and are unnecessary in modern times
d) are the main element for improving everyday memory
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5. According to the levels of processing theory of memory
a) we remember items that are repeated again and again
b) maintenance rehearsal will encode items into our long-term memory
c) deep processing involves elaborative rehearsal, ensuring encoding into long-term memory
d) input, output, and storage are the three levels
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6. Which of the following brain structures plays a key role in transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory?
a) hypothalamus
b) thalamus
c) hippocampus
d) frontal lobe
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7. Dan was drunk, so his girlfriend convinced him to get out of his car, and she drove him home in her car. He could not remember where his car was parked when he got up the next morning, but after drinking some liquor, Dan remembered where he left his car. This phenomenon best illustrates:
a) the misinformation effect
b) mood-congruent memory
c) the framing effect
d) state-dependent memory
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8. Which of the following terms is synonymous with “motivated forgetting”?
a) regression
b) repression
c) sublimation
d) rationalization
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9. A retrieval cue is
a) a brain structure stimulus used to locate a particular memory
b) the same thing as an elaboration encoding variable
c) a stimulus associated with a memory that is used to locate that memory
d) always based on the mood you were in when a memory was first encoded
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10. Focusing awareness on a narrow range of stimuli or events involves
a) encoding
b) attention
c) elaboration
d) clustering
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11. If you were attempting to recall a memory, the memory process you would be using is
a) encoding
b) storage
c) retrieval
d) acquisition
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12. A memory code that emphasizes the meaning of the verbal input is called
a) a structural code
b) a phonemic code
c) a semantic code
d) an episodic code
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13. Which level of processing should result in the longest lasting memory codes?
a) structural encoding
b) mnemonic encoding
c) semantic encoding
d) phonemic encoding
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14. Pseudoforgetting is viewed as a function of
a) interference effects
b) lack of attention
c) hippocampal damage
d) insufficient retrieval cues
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15. Overlearning material will
a) not improve retention
b) improve retention
c) improve retention for nonsense syllables, but not much else
d) result in “burnout”