Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Unit 7A Memory. Memory Games Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007

Unit 7AUnit 7AMemory

Memory GamesMemory Games

http://www.exploratorium.edu/memory/



Human memory is learning what has persisted over time,

information that has been stored and can be retrieved

What is Memory?What is Memory?


What is Memory?What is Memory?

Memory – Any system – human, animal, or machine – that encodes, stores, and retrieves information

You are what you rememberYou are what you remember

Without memory you would have no past or future, only a present



EncodingEncoding StorageStorage RetrievalRetrieval

3 basic tasks of memory3 basic tasks of memory


EncodingEncoding Storage Retrieval

Putting info in the brain

Elaboration – trying to understand it

Making it meaningful to you

The way I see it!!The way I see it!!


Encoding StorageStorage Retrieval

Keeping the info in the brain



Encoding Storage RetrievalRetrieval

Getting stuff out of your brain


Models of memory By Atkinson and Models of memory By Atkinson and Shiffrin – the older modelShiffrin – the older model

Sensory memory – a fleeting needs to be remembered info

Short-term Memory- where we encode the information through rehearsal

Long-term memory- used to be retrieved later



What is Atkinson – Shiffrin model of memory storage?

Figure 7A.2 A modified three-stage processing model of memory Atkinson and Shiffrin’s classic three-step model helps us to think about how memories are processed, but today’s researchers recognize other ways long-term memories form. For example, some information slips into long-term memory via a “back door,” without our consciously attending to it. And so much active processing occurs in the short-term memory stage that many now prefer the term working memory.

© 2011 by Worth Publishers

Working memory: updated modelWorking memory: updated model

Process new information along with information from long term memory.Working memory associates new and old information and solves problems.



Let’s talk about Let’s talk about encoding.encoding.

Putting info into the brain

How we encodeHow we encode

Automatic processing- parallel processing doing many things at once. Ex: you automatically process info about space, time, frequency: Where you ate last night? Takes no effort

Effortful processing- encoded info with a great deal of effort – usually long-lasting memories- uses rehearsal- remembering vocab words: Unit’s vocabulary

Elaborative rehearsal- Relate the new information to something already in your Long Term Memory



Now let’s try Now let’s try something.something.


Can you remember this?Can you remember this?

GBX IYU CSE GWE LIY TRN

Ebbinghaus-Ebbinghaus- Those who learn quickly forget quickly. The Those who learn quickly forget quickly. The amount recalled depends on time spent learningamount recalled depends on time spent learning



What is spacing effect?What is spacing effect?

Memory is better for repeated information if repetitions occur spaced over time than if they occur massed, one after another. No cramming!

Why? 1.Spacing distributed practice (instead of massed practice) reduces retroactive and proactive interference. (Proactive- old memories, Retroactive- new memories)

2.REM sleep helps memory. So study Tuesday, sleep, study Wednesday, sleep. You’ll do better.

3.Distributed practice may cause you to encode it in different ways and in different moods.

Melton & Schulman, 1970


What is serial What is serial positioning effect?positioning effect?

Imagine a grocery list: milk, eggs, butter, bread, celery, chocolate, Big

Red, Beans, chips.

We most likely will remember the first few items and the last few.


Encoding: Serial Position EffectEncoding: Serial Position Effect

12

Percentage of words

recalled

0

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

Position of word in list

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Serial Position Effect-tendency to recall best the last items in a list

What we encodeWhat we encode

Levels of processing- when processing verbal information we associate it with what we already know. Depends on context, our experiences. What encoding gets the best results? Visual= images, acoustic= sounds and Semantic= meaning of words



Acoustic encodingAcoustic encoding

Click it or ticket, Drive Sober or get Pulled over, If the glove doesn’t fit you must equit


Acoustic encodingAcoustic encoding

Think of a song!!!!!!!!!

What are the parts of the human What are the parts of the human body?body?


Can you remember all 50 states?Can you remember all 50 states?

Make up a song. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=A9RlJq3IOHg


Semantic encodingSemantic encoding

“Semantic” means meaning. We remember stuff that has meaning better than their structure and sounds. Find meaning in what you are trying to remember

Visual encodingVisual encoding

How do the words appear? ALL CAPITALS

Using mental images to remember. Where is something located on the page?



Mnemonics (encoding)Mnemonics (encoding)

Chunkingorganizing items into familiar, manageable units

like horizontal organization--1776149218121941

often occurs automatically

use of acronymsHOMES--Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior

PEMDAS - ?????


ChunkingChunking

Can you remember this number?

19039848557


Levels of EncodingLevels of Encoding


How can we use this How can we use this as students?as students?


Encoding is effective whenEncoding is effective whenYou pay attention. “Selective attention” If you don’t pay

attention, your sensory memory will hear blah, blah. You have to pay attention to get info into your working memory


Encoding summaryEncoding summary

Encoding is most effective when we can see it, hear it, touch it, and UNDERSTAND it. Also, it’s most effective when we combine those elements. Encoding is best when we care.


If a subject is asked to remember this list of numbers in 10 seconds: 48, 31, 45, 76, 97, 84, 26, 12, 67, which numbers will she most likely remember?

a. 84, 45

b. 48, 67

c. 12, 31

d. 97, 76


Each of the three memory stages encodes and stores memories in a different way,

but they work together to transform sensory experience into a lasting record that has a

pattern of meaning

Now let’s talk about Now let’s talk about storagestorage


What are the Three Stages of Memory?What are the Three Stages of Memory?

Sensory Sensory MemoryMemory

Working Working Memory Memory (STM)(STM)

Long-term Long-term MemoryMemory


The First Stage: Sensory MemoryThe First Stage: Sensory Memory

On the next slide, you will see a series of letters for one second

Try to remember as many letters as you can


D J BX H GC L Y



How many can you recall?


D J BX H GC L Y



Sensory Memory has a large capacity, very short duration, allows quick/online commerce with environment.

It registers sensations coming into our "system" from the environment, allowing us to pick up on all the rich stimuli "out there." There are many "types" of sensory memories, corresponding to our different senses, as in eyes, hears, touch, taste, etc.


Sensory memorySensory memory

Sensory memory lasts no more than 2 seconds. The precise length of different types of sensory memories differs (e.g., visual sensory memory is shorter than auditory).

What is sensory memory?What is sensory memory?

Iconic memory- fleeting photographic memory. For a few 10ths of a second our eyes take an exact picture of a scene

Echoic memory- impeccable, yet fleeting, auditory memory – Auditory echoes last for about 3 – 4 seconds



Sensory MemorySensory Memory

Sensory memory traces fade fairly rapidly. We simply lose the information UNLESS we do something further with it. Pay attention to it Selective attention


The Three Stages of MemoryThe Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Memory

Working Working Memory Memory

STMSTM

Long-term Memory

Preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal.



Short Term Memory (working)Short Term Memory (working)

STM can hold unrehearsed information up to 20 seconds.

STM can hold 7 items +/- 2, according to some theories.


Encoding and Storage Encoding and Storage in Working Memory (STM)in Working Memory (STM)

Chunking – Organizing pieces of information into a smaller number of meaningful units


Okay, earlier we talked Okay, earlier we talked about chunking as a about chunking as a means of encoding means of encoding (understanding).(understanding).

Now we will mention it as a means of Short-term storage.


ChunkingChunking

Can you remember this number?

19039848557


ChunkingChunking

How about this one?

1-903-984-8557


Maintenance rehearsal – Process in which information is repeated or reviewed to keep it from fading while in working memory


Maintenance Rehearsal Maintenance Rehearsal

JLo says, “My phone Number is 469-259-5968”

You then repeat it to yourself until you canwrite it down somewhere.


Elaborative rehearsal – Process in which information is actively reviewed and related to information already in LTM Example: Suppose you had to know the following definition of the term "norm" for your sociology class: norms are standards of desirable behavior that people are supposed to follow in their interactions with others. If you were to use rote rehearsal, you would repeat this definition over and over many times. If, however, you were to use elaborative rehearsal, you would expand on the above definition by adding additional information and associating it with information already in your memory. Below, the meaning of the term is analyzed in greater detail and also includes examples that connect the information to knowledge you may already have in your memory system.Norms often differ depending on the situation. Example: It's okay to tell my problems to my parents or friends but not to strangers.

GoalGoal

The goal is to get information into our long term memories (LTM). LTM is limitless


The Biological Components of Memory



What parts of brain are involved in What parts of brain are involved in memory?memory?

The Prefrontal Cortex--Site of Working Memory (STM)


The The hippocampushippocampus is part of a network of regions in the is part of a network of regions in the brain important for memory. Research suggests that the brain important for memory. Research suggests that the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus, amygdala , and mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus, amygdala , and hippocampus may work in concert to regulate which hippocampus may work in concert to regulate which

information is consolidated in memoryinformation is consolidated in memory

Synaptic ChangesSynaptic Changes

Neurons communicate with each other via the neurotransmitter messengers.

Experience changes neural networks.

Sea Slug study

Kandal & Schwatz discovered when a sea slug learns Classical Conditioning) it releases more serotonin at certain synapses- These synapses become more efficient transmitting signals


Study ContinuedStudy Continued

• Increased synaptic efficiency makes efficient neural circuits

• These memory circuits increase their sensitivity for hours or weeks

• Sending neuron needs less prompting to release its neurotransmitter and receiving neuron site may increase

• This longer strengthening of potential neural firing is called Long Term Potentiation – LTP. Thi is the neural basis for learning and memory

• LTP is the physical basis for memory

• Drugs that block LTP interfere with learning


Drugs that boost glutamate. This neurotransmitter enhances LTP. Need to do so without nasty side effects. Best known memory enhancer : SLEEP


Stress Hormones and memoryStress Hormones and memory

When stressed or excited our emotion-triggered stress hormones create more glucose energy for the brain

Amygdala also elevates activity and available proteins in the brain . Result: Arousal can sear certain memories into the brain



Flashbulb memories?Flashbulb memories?

Stress and memory Memories we never forget because of the emotion involved. The brain commands: “Capture This”

Flashbulb Memories ContinuedFlashbulb Memories Continued

Although flashbulb memories are vivid- Misinformation can seep into them

Prolonged stress can corrode neural connections and shrink the brain area (hippocampus) Also when sudden hormones are flowing memories can be blocked – Mind Goes Blank



The Three Stages of MemoryThe Three Stages of Memory

Sensory Memory

Working Memory

Long-term Long-term MemoryMemory

Stores material organized according to meaning, also called LTM



Semantic memory

Includes memory for:language, factsgeneral knowledge

Episodic memory

Includes memory for:events, personal experiences

Includes memory for:motor skills, operant and classicalconditioning

Long-term memory

Declarative memory Procedural memory


3 types of amnesia?3 types of amnesia?

Infantile amnesia – stuff we don’t remember as babies

Anterograde amnesia –Inability to form memories for new information

Retrograde amnesia –Inability to remember information previously stored in memory

Note: procedural memory seems unaffected!


Retrograde amnesiaRetrograde amnesia

Any soap opera where someone can’t remember who they are, where they live, etc.

Quarterbacks who can’t remember games when they got concussions.


Anterograde AmnesiaAnterograde Amnesia

50 First Dates50 First Dates

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ehtk3NfnX4A



HM: AmnesicHM: AmnesicSevere epilepsy, treated with surgery to bilaterally remove medial temporal lobes, including hippocampus

Operation 9/1953, 27 years old

HIPPOCAMPUS MEDIAL TEMPORAL LOBES


http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IKP6tBhM2T4&safety_mode=true&persist_safety_mode=1&safe=active


LTMLTM

Consolidation –The process by which short-term memories are changed to long-term memories

Our ultimate goal as students!!!!! We want to remember this stuff on May 5!


How Do WeHow Do WeRetrieve Memories?Retrieve Memories?

Whether memories are implicit or explicit, successful

retrieval depends on how they were encoded and how

they are cued


How we get information out of memoryHow we get information out of memory

Retrieval cues – Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior

Example: hints that a teacher gives you during a test without giving you the answer. Mnemonic devices Every Good Boy Deserves Fudge


Retrieval CuesRetrieval Cues

What is Priming? – Technique for retrieving memories by providing cues that stimulate a memory without awareness of the connection between the cue and the retrieved memory. Giving hints to remember.


PrimingPriming

If you are presented with the following words:

assassin, octopus, avocado, mystery, sheriff, climate


PrimingPriming

An hour later, you would easily be able to identify which of the following words you had previously seen:

twilight, assassin, dinosaur, mystery


ch_ _ _ _ nk o _ t _ _ _ us _ og _ y _ _ _

_ l _ m _ te

PrimingPriming

However, an hour later, you would also have a much easier time filling in the blanks of some of these words than others:


PrimingPriming

While you did not actively try to remember “octopus” and “climate” from the first list, they were primed in the reading, which made them easier to identify in this task

chipmunk

octopus

bogeyman

climate


Name the Seven Dwarves Name the Seven Dwarves


Remembering off the Remembering off the top of your head is top of your head is recall.recall.


Now pick pick out the seven Now pick pick out the seven dwarves.dwarves.

Grouchy Gabby Fearful Sleepy Smiley Jumpy Hopeful Shy Droopy Dopey Sniffy Wishful Puffy Dumpy Sneezy Pop Grumpy Bashful Cheerful Teach Snorty Nifty Happy Doc Wheezy Stubby Poopy (this is recognition)


Seven DwarvesSeven Dwarves

Sleepy, Dopey, Grumpy, Sneezy, Happy, Doc and Bashful


What is Recall and Recognition?What is Recall and Recognition?

Recall – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must reproduce previously presented information (fill in blank) remember without priming

Recognition – Technique for retrieving explicit memories in which one must identify present stimuli as having been previously presented (multiple choice) remember with priming

déjà vu- already seendéjà vu- already seen

Being in a context similar to one we have been in before can trigger déjà vu

A current situation may be filled with cues that unconsciously retrieve an earlier, similar experience

Possible dual processing is the cause



Other Factors Affecting RetrievalOther Factors Affecting Retrieval

Mood congruent memory –A memory process that selectively retrieves memories that match one’s mood

A good mood reminds you of good times.

A fight with your boyfriend reminds you of something else he did to piss you off.


Godden & Baddeley (1975)Godden & Baddeley (1975)

Memory experiment with deep-sea diversDeep-sea divers learned words either on land or underwater

They then recalled the words either on land or underwater


Why do we forget?Why do we forget?

Three sins of ForgettingThree sins of Forgetting

Absent-mindedness- inattention to detail leads to encoding failure – where are my glasses?

Transience- storage decays over time- don’t use it lose it! Who was in your first grade?

Blocking- stored information is inaccessible- remembering someone in a movie or Proactive and Retroactive interference


Sins of DistortionSins of Distortion

Misattribution- confused on the source of the information time or place or person- NCIS episode

Suggestibility- an aftereffect of misinformation- a leading question- Did ? Touch you? Becomes a false memory

Bias- memories jaded by beliefs- My child could not have done what you said


Sin of IntrusionSin of Intrusion

Persistence- Haunted by unwanted memories Cannot seem to forget



Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting CurveEbbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

Recall decreases rapidly, then reaches a plateau, after which little more is forgotten

Pe

rce

nt r

eta

ined

60

50

40

30

20

10

0Days

5 10 15 20 25 30


Motivated forgettingMotivated forgetting

AKA “repression” We want to forget awful things.


SuggestibilitySuggestibility

Process of memory distortion as a result of deliberate or inadvertent suggestionMisinformation effect –

The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation: Did Mr. Smith touch your private parts?


Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Factors Affecting the Accuracy of Eyewitnesses:Eyewitnesses:

Recollections are less influenced by leading questions if possibility of memory bias is forewarned

Passage of time leads to increase in misremembering information (JFK assassination)

Age of the witness matters

Confidence in memory is not a sign of accuracy


What is repressed memory controversy?What is repressed memory controversy?

Elizabeth Loftus studied how false memories are planted into people’s minds. The misinformation effect is the planting of misleading information into one’s memory

Misinformation effectMisinformation effect

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=il0u2s_WGXA

Video in psych folder: repressed memories memory distortion



Let’s review.Let’s review.

1. The three stages of Atkinson-Shiffrin process of memory are:

a) iconic, echoic, encoding

b) sensory, short term, long term

c) shallow, medium, and deep processing

d) semantic, episodic, procedural


2. Which of the following examples best illustrates episodic memory?

a) telling someone how to tie a shoe

b) answering correctly that the Battle of Hastings was in 1066

c) knowing that the word for black in French is noir

d) remembering that a clown was at your fifth birthday party


When Sue memorized her shopping list, she got to the store and forgot many items from the middle of the list. This is due to the

a. Inappropriate encoding

b. Retrograde amnesia

c. Proactive interference

d. The serial-position effect


3. Doug wrote a grocery list of 10 items, but leaves it at home. The list included in order: peas, corn, squash, onions, apples, pears, bananas, flour, milk, and eggs. If the law of primacy holds, which of the following is Doug most likely to remember when he gets to the store?

a) peas, pears, eggs

b) banana, flour, peas

c) apples, pears, bananas

d) peas, corn, squash


5. According to the levels of processing theory of memory

a) we remember items that are repeated again and again

b) maintenance rehearsal will encode items into our long-term memory

c) deep processing involves elaborative rehearsal, ensuring encoding into long-term memory

d) input, output, and storage are the three levels


6. Which of the following brain structures plays a key role in transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory?

a) hypothalamus

b) thalamus

c) hippocampus

d) frontal lobe


7. Dan was drunk, so his girlfriend convinced him to get out of his car, and she drove him home in her car. He could not remember where his car was parked when he got up the next morning, but after drinking some liquor, Dan remembered where he left his car. This phenomenon best illustrates:

a) the misinformation effect

b) mood-congruent memory

c) the framing effect

d) state-dependent memory


8. Which of the following terms is synonymous with “motivated forgetting”?

a) regression

b) repression

c) sublimation

d) rationalization


9. A retrieval cue is

a) a brain structure stimulus used to locate a particular memory

b) the same thing as an elaboration encoding variable

c) a stimulus associated with a memory that is used to locate that memory

d) always based on the mood you were in when a memory was first encoded


10. Focusing awareness on a narrow range of stimuli or events involves

a) encoding

b) attention

c) elaboration

d) clustering


11. If you were attempting to recall a memory, the memory process you would be using is

a) encoding

b) storage

c) retrieval

d) acquisition


12. A memory code that emphasizes the meaning of the verbal input is called

a) a structural code

b) a phonemic code

c) a semantic code

d) an episodic code


13. Which level of processing should result in the longest lasting memory codes?

a) structural encoding

b) mnemonic encoding

c) semantic encoding

d) phonemic encoding


14. Pseudoforgetting is viewed as a function of

a) interference effects

b) lack of attention

c) hippocampal damage

d) insufficient retrieval cues


15. Overlearning material will

a) not improve retention

b) improve retention

c) improve retention for nonsense syllables, but not much else

d) result in “burnout”


Chapter 7 Answer KeyChapter 7 Answer Key

1. B

2. D

3. D

4. B

5. C

6. C

7. D

8. B

9. C

10. B

11. C

12. C

13. C

14. B

15. B


Essay Question Possibilities!!Essay Question Possibilities!!

One of the following essay questions will appear on your test, be familiar with all of them!!


Essay Question # 1Essay Question # 1

Using the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of memory, describe the capacity, the durability, and the typical form of information storage in each of the three human memory systems, and identify the processes that transfer information from one system to another.



Compare the Atkinson and Shiffrin model of short-term memory with Baddely’s more complex model of short-term memory.



Compare and evaluate decay theory and interference theory as explanations of forgetting.



Distinguish between implicit and explicit memory, declarative and procedural memory, and semantic and episodic memory, and explain how these are interrelated.



Outline some strategies that can be used to improve everyday memory.


Good Luck!Good Luck!

Make sure to double check all of your answers and study them for the upcoming exam. Remember, AT LEAST FIVE of the questions from this quiz will make some sort of appearance on the chapter test along with one of the essay questions.

Take advantage of this study guide and good luck on your test!

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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007 Unit 7A Memory. Memory Games Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007