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Contrastive linguistics: an introduction
Tadeusz Piotrowski
Contrastive linguistics: what is it?
Contrastive linguistics is the systematic comparison of two or more languages, with the aim of describing their similarities and
differences, focusing, however, on differences, it is predominantly practical.
The term “contrastive linguistics” was used for the first time by Whorf in 1941.
Basics
Form lecture attendance required
Prerequisites knowledge of basic linguistic notions
Textbooks
Fisiak J., Lipińska-Grzegorek M., Zabrocki T., 1978/1987. An Introductory English-Polish Contrastive Grammar
Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe
Krzeszowski T.P., 1984. Gramatyka angielska dla Polaków.
PWN. Warszawa
Willim,E. and Mańczak-Wohlfeld,E., 1997. A contrastive approach to problems with English.
Kraków: PWN.
CL and linguistics
general linguistics theory of linguistics
similarities in languages what is common to all languages in the world
comparative linguistics differences between languages typology of languages
aiming at classification of all languages in the world synchronic or diachronic
CL and comparative linguistics
comparative linguistics contrastive linguistics (CL)
differences (and similarities) between two (usually) languages
contrastive linguistics
differences (usually) between two (usually) languages basis for typological description mainly practical applications
translation foreign language teaching and learning bilingual lexicography (dictionaries)
why differences? it is assumed that the two languages are
similar except for the points described as different
CL in linguistics
the languages being compared can be related Polish and English
or can be unrelated like Polish and Chinese
can be from the same historical period Polish and English in the 20th c.
or can be from different historical periods English and Polish from the 16th and the 20th
c.
CL in linguistics
usually, however, CL is synchronic comparative linguistics
without the historical dimension CL can be
theoretical applied
theoretical CL
gives an exhaustive account of the differences and similarities between two or more languages,
provides an adequate model for their comparison.
applied CL
on the basis of the theoretical framework provided by theoretical CA/CS, gives the researcher the information
necessary to conduct actual contrastive analyses.
CL: terms
contrastive linguistics (or its methods) is also called contrastive studies contrastive analysis interlingual linguistics
the rationale for studying CL
who: prospective teachers of a foreign language
CL and a FL teacher
why: contrastive studies are (were) used as a
means of predicting and/or explaining difficulties of second language
learners with a particular mother tongue (Polish) in learning a particular target language
(English) however, CL does not explain all problems of
foreign language students
CL and a FL teacher
other hypotheses to explain the problems in learning/teaching a foreign language error analysis performance analysis interlanguage studies language awareness studies
these belong to applied linguistics foreign language learnign/teaching
methodology
advantages
it is suggested that when FL learners are made aware of L1:L2
contrasts this makes it easier for them to learn difficult FL structures
L1 interference accounts for some 30% of error.
what to compare
early contrastive studies focused on microlinguistic analysis phonology/phonetics grammar (syntax, inflection) lexis
today there are also contrastive pragmatics
cross-cultural/intercultural pragmatics contrastive rhetoric
what to compare
microlinguistic analysis: examples What are the consonant phonemes in
languages X and Y? How do they differ in inventory, realization, and
distribution? What is the tense system of languages X and
Y? What are the verbs of saying in languages X
and Y?
what to compare
pragmatic analysis: examples How is cohesion expressed in languages X
and Y? How are the speech acts of apologizing and
requesting expressed in languages X and Y? How are conversations opened and closed in
languages X and Y?
this course
mainly practical basic theoretical notions a review of microlinguistic contrasts
how to compare?
what is the basis for comparison? comparison of seemingly related phenomena:
“to compare them would be tantamount to putting ten-ton lorries and banana skins in the same class on the grounds that neither ought to be left on footpaths”.
Carl James (1980). Contrastive Analysis. London: Longman, p :167
how to compare?
object A object B
either have something in common and we can compare them
or do not have anything in common and we cannot compare them
it is arguably difficult to find objects that do not have anything in common but:
God and ...
how to compare?
that something in common is not A is not B is C
C is called Tertium Comparationis (TC)
Tertium Comparationis
what is common in comparison between languages
is probably the meaning of a pair of sentences, in other words, their translation equivalence
translation equivalence
there is one big problem CL
studies the systems of two languages translation is not about systems
it is about texts this is a basic distinction in linguistics
system and text langue and parole competence and performance
translation equivalence
text translation translation of a particular sentence depends on other sentences around it (context) on the function of the whole text
its stylistic level the user of the text
system translation translation of sentences without any context
though the most probable one is used
translation equivalence
Eng.: I loved you.
Pol.: Kochałem kochałam kochałom cię ciebie was Panów Panie Państwa
kochałom: an example
„...to chybam ja się przesuwało dalej i wchodziło w krąg następnego spojrzenia... w miarę postępów [mej wędrówki] powiększałom się i rozpoznawałom siebie...” Stanisław Lem Maska
system and text equivalence
that is why system equivalence can be called
correspondence text equivalence can be called
equivalence
Equivalence/Tertium Comparationis
What is, in fact, equivalence? we know it is based on a Tertium
Comparationis but what use as a TC?
TC: requirements
TC should be external to both languages
a category based on one language has no counterpart
usable for teachers: can be used without extensive
theoretical studies
TC in lexical equivalence
concept
(word) sign- - - - - - - -referent (object)
TC in lexical equivalence
Either referents or concepts can be treated as TCs.
We can reject referents as a TC because, there are no pure references, the very act of distinguishing a referent
depends to a large degree on the relevant language
Engl. finger Pol. palec
TC in lexical equivalence
Concepts can be also rejected. They are not suitably external to any
language an English word has an English meaning a Polish word has a Polish meaning
They are theoretical constructs depending on a language. Other views.
TC
TC should be external to the two languages but it should include them
language use? situation of use of both languages translation is used in situations when both
language are used
situations
"How meaning X is expressed in L1 and L2?„ This is a question based on meaning. This question goes from the vague notion of
meaning, about which there is little theoretical
agreement, goes to two unknowns:
L1 and L2 items. We can say that we have to do with three
unknown objects here.
situations
How else can one find similarities/contrasts in meaning between two languages? "In the situation S, when an expression X is
used by the L2 speaker to speak of Z, what would be the most natural expression Y used by the L1 speaker?".
This does not depend on any theoretical assumptions.
it includes two known entities (S and X), which are used to reach the third entity (Y).
Competent bilinguals can easily answer such questions.
Situations
Situations are either typical of L1 or of L2, and linguistic expressions are included in the
situations, not vice versa. Situations, in turn, cannot be separated from
wider contexts, ultimately from the context of culture.
Situations-applicability
Lyons (1977). Semantics. CUP. a particular lexeme (or expression, or whole
utterance) is applicable (i.e. may be correctly applied) in a certain context, situational or linguistic ...;
it is applicable to individuals or properties of individuals.
We may use the term 'applicability', in fact, for any relation that can be established between elements or units of language ... and entities in, or aspects of, the world in which the language operates.
Equivalence: other types
Tomasz Krzeszowski statistical equivalence system equivalence semanto-syntactic equivalence rule equivalence pragmatic equivalence