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Journal of Psychology and Christianity

2013, Vol. 32, No.3, 234-244

Copyright 2013 Christian Association for Psychological Studies

ISSN 0733-4273

234

religiosity represents beliefs, practices, and ritualsaround the transcendent associated with formal,organized religion. However, it has been arguedthat the distinctions between these constructs arenot clear-cut, as religious institutions encouragepersonal experiences and rituals, and spiritualexperiences often occur within religious con-texts. Religiosity and spirituality might best beconceptualized as independent but overlapping(King & Benson, 2006). Similar to previousresearch with adolescents (e.g., Cotton, McGrady,& Rosenthal, 2010; Sallquist, Eisenberg, French,Purwono, & Suryanti, 2010), in the present study,we consider multiple aspects of adolescents’ spir-ituality and religiosity (e.g., daily spiritual experi-ences, spiritual practices, forgiveness, spiritualvalues); thus, we will use the termspirituality/religiosity (S/R) throughout this paper.

Social Contexts of Early AdolescenceAdolescent S/R is a burgeoning research topic

of particular significance given the developmen-tally-normative search for meaning and purposeand the desire for connectedness and relation-ships during this period (Benson et al., 2006; Fur-row et al., 2004; Good & Willoughby, 2008; King& Boyatzis, 2004), drives that are fulfilled bymany youth through religious and spiritual pur-suits. Furthermore, because the early solidifica-tion of identity and the dawn of abstract thought,deductive reasoning, and metacognitive abilities

Coping Strategies as a Mediator Between Adolescent Spirituality/Religiosity and

Psychosocial AdjustmentSarah E. Hall Kelly S. Flanagan

Wheaton College

Religiosity and spirituality have been identi-fied as developmental assets for youth, particu-larly in the face of adversity (Crawford, Wright,& Masten, 2006). Indeed, spirituality and reli-gious participation are associated with betterpsychosocial health (Yonker, Schnabelrauch, &DeHaan, 2012), stronger relationships and moreprosocial behavior (Eisenberg, Castellani, Pan-erai, Eggum, Cohen, Pastorelli, & Caprara, 2011;Furrow, King, & White, 2004), and fewer behav-ior problems (Desrosiers & Miller, 2008; Pearce,Jones, Schwab-Stone, & Ruchkin, 2003).Though there are many hypothesized mediatorsthat explain these links, little research has exam-ined the mechanisms by which spirituality andreligiosity are related to positive outcomes. Thecurrent study seeks to examine one possiblepathway—coping responses to negative peerinteractions—from spirituality/religiosity to psy-chosocial adjustment in early adolescence.

Spirituality and religiosity are best understoodas complex, multidimensional constructs with avariety of definitions (Benson, Scales, Sesma, &Roehlkepartain, 2006; Hill & Pargament, 2003).In general, spirituality has been understood asthe personal and private experiences of thesacred and divine (not necessarily occurring with-in the context of organized religion), whereas

Correspondence regarding this article should bedirected to Sarah Hall at [email protected]

Spirituality and religiosity have been linked to positive outcomes across development; however, themechanisms by which these links occur have rarely been studied. We explore these links with a focuson peer relationships in early adolescence, a period when spiritual and religious development is likelyto be particularly important for the promotion of positive outcomes due to the identity formation that isoccurring during this time. We propose adolescents’ strategies for coping with negative peer interac-tions as a potential mediator between spirituality/religiosity (S/R) and psychosocial outcomes. Specifi-cally, we explored the links among four aspects of S/R (daily spiritual experiences, forgiveness, spiritualpractices, and spiritual values), three types of coping (active, revenge, and distancing), and two out-comes (self-esteem and social anxiety). We examined both direct and indirect (mediation) effects. Sev-eral S/R variables had direct effects on adolescents’ self-esteem, and the use of revenge as a copingstrategy mediated the relation between S/R and both outcomes. Implications, limitations, and futureresearch directions are discussed.

HALL AND FLANAGAN 235

and lower levels of problem behaviors such assubstance use, aggression, delinquency, andsmoking (e.g., DesRosiers & Miller, 2008; Pearce etal., 2003). The research exploring links betweenS/R and internalizing difficulties, including socialanxiety and low self-esteem, has been more limit-ed, despite the prevalence of these difficulties inadolescence (Mann et al., 2011). Therefore, in thecurrent study, we focus on the relation betweenS/R and internalizing problems. Research doesindicate that adolescents who report higher levelsof S/R (e.g., daily spiritual experiences, forgive-ness, positive religious coping) have lower levelsof anxiety (Abdel-Khalek, 2011; Desrosiers &Miller, 2008; French et al., 2008), whereas adoles-cents and young adults who experience high lev-els of doubts in their religious beliefs experiencemore anxiety (Kézdy, Martos, Boland, & Horváth-Szabó, 2011). In contrast, adolescents with higherlevels of S/R (e.g., daily spiritual experiences, reli-gious practices and beliefs, religious attendance)have higher self-esteem (French, Eisenberg,Vaughan, Purwono, & Suryanti, 2008: Sallquist etal., 2010; Yonker et al., 2012).

Links between S/R and social anxiety havebeen found in adult samples (e.g., Flannelly,Galek, Ellison, & Koenig, 2010) but have not beenexplored in adolescent samples. However, S/Rhas been positively associated with adolescents’prosocial attitudes and behaviors, such as sympa-thy, perspective-taking, and prosocial behavior(Benson et al., 2006; Furrow et al., 2004). Due tothe important role of peer relationships in adoles-cence, we explore the links between S/R andsocial anxiety in the current study.

Why is S/R linked with lower anxiety andhigher self-esteem? Research with at-risk adoles-cents suggests that S/R reduces anxiety by pro-moting meaning, purpose, and sense-making,which helps them cope with stressors (Davis,Kerr, & Kurpius, 2003). When adolescentsbelieve in a benevolent God whose purposespredominate through all events, their generalsocial distress and fearfulness about negativeevaluations and social experiences in both thepresent and the future is likely to be reduced.Such meaningful and positive understandings ofcausality may also protect against decreases inself-esteem by reducing self-blame and stressduring the increased turbulence of adolescence(Yonkers et al., 2012). In addition, S/R likelypromotes self-esteem by representing andencouraging positive relationships with others.Adolescents who are involved with religious

are distinctive during adolescence, the abstract andpersonal construct of S/R and the development ofa particular worldview and ideology are develop-mentally relevant to adolescents (Good &Willoughby, 2008; King & Boyatzis, 2004).

In light of these developmental tasks and phe-nomena, S/R is a developmental asset for adoles-cents. It provides sources of ideals, role models,and self-images that influence identity develop-ment (Roeser, Isaac, Abo-Zena, Brittian, & Peck,2008). Indeed, the degree to which morality iscentral to one’s identity in adolescence has beenfound to be a mechanism through which S/Raffects prosocial behavior (Hardy, Walker, Rack-ham, & Olsen, 2012). S/R also provides connect-edness with others as well as a higher being,providing security, strength, confidence, andsocial capital (Mason, Schmidt, & Mennis, 2012),particularly in the presence of stressors. Thesecharacteristics make adolescence a developmen-tal period in which religious conversions or com-mitments are likely to occur (Good &Willoughby, 2008). S/R is important to a largepercentage of adolescents and serves as a pro-tective factor, positively influencing developmen-tal outcomes in the face of risk (Benson et al.,2006; Furrow et al., 2004; King & Boyatzis, 2004;Roeser et al., 2008).

S/R and adjustment. Social competence, theability to achieve and maintain success withinthe social context (Ladd, 2005; Rose-Krasnor &Denham, 2009), is an important aspect of devel-opment in adolescence, particularly as peer rela-tions become more salient. A crucial change inearly adolescence is the increasing complexity ofpeer group dynamics. Along with greater inti-macy and closeness, there is an increase in therate of peer relationship difficulties such as vic-timization, social exclusion, and gossiping (Park-er et al., 2006). Early adolescents must acquiremultifaceted social and coping skills, includingconflict resolution and behavioral and emotionalself-regulation abilities, to adapt to these inter-personal demands (Parker et al., 2006; Skinner &Zimmer-Gembeck, 2007). Adolescents’ socialcompetence hinges in part on their ability to uti-lize coping strategies to navigate peer relationsand interpersonal conflicts.

There is a substantial body of literature linkingS/R with psychosocial adjustment in adolescents,including both internalizing and externalizing diffi-culties (Carter, Flanagan, & Caballero, 2013; Kim &Esquivel, 2011; Sallquist et al., 2010; Yonker et al.,2012). There is a strong relationship between S/R

236 COPING STRATEGIES AS A MEDIATOR

communities are generally valued by adults inthose congregations, which promotes a positivesense of self-worth in light of the care and con-cern of other people as well as God. It is likelythat the positive relationships and outlooks pro-moted by S/R affect adolescents’ outcomesthrough their impact on coping strategies, pro-moting the use of positive, adaptive strategiesand reducing reliance on maladaptive tech-niques. For this reason, we explore copingstrategies as a mechanism linking S/R with posi-tive adjustment in adolescence.

Coping. In general, interpersonal stressors arepervasive risk factors for the development ofpsychopathology in adolescence (Compas, Con-nor-Smith, Saltzman, Thomsen, & Wadsworth,2001; Seiffge-Krenke, 2011). The ways in whichchildren and adolescents cope with stress canmediate risk for current and future adjustmentand psychopathology (Compas et al., 2001), andit has been suggested that S/R contributes towell-being through its effects on children’s cop-ing with stress (Crawford et al., 2006; Good &Willoughby, 2008; Kim & Esquivel, 2011). Reli-gious involvement promotes social networkdevelopment and social capital that providesupport during times of stress (Smith, 2003). Itprovides a framework for meaning-making andthe promotion of a sense of agency. S/R alsoprovides social support and resources throughinvolvement in religious contexts, which in turnprovide models of effective coping and socialskills and opportunities for positive social inter-actions (Smith, 2003). Importantly, S/R is likelyto proscribe or emphasize certain values, goals,attitudes, and behaviors that are taught, mod-eled, and expected; when youth face stressors,they are likely to rely on these principles andselect coping responses which reflect them.Indeed, the limited research that has examinedcoping as a mediator between stressors and out-comes supports these ideas (Pérez, Little, &Henrich, 2009).

Several types of coping have been studied inyouth. Direct/active or approach coping repre-sents positive attempts to resolve or address thestressor directly (e.g., problem-solving, conflictresolution, support seeking) and is related topositive adaptation (Kochenderfer-Ladd, 2004;Sontag & Graber, 2010). Youth who are moresocially competent utilize active coping strate-gies more frequently than their less competentpeers (Zimmer-Gembeck, Lees, & Skinner,2011). In response to peer stressors such as

bullying, seeking social support is one of themost effective ways to prevent further bullying(Seiffge-Krenke, 2011). Youth who are morelikely to use active coping perceive the bullyingepisode as a challenge to directly address anddo not assign self-blame (e.g., Hunter & Boyle,2004), which most likely reflects their meaning-making, purpose, and self-worth. In dealingwith conflict with friends, active coping is themost effective coping strategy to resolve theconflict and maintain the friendship (Seiffge-Krenke, 2011).

In contrast, some types of coping with peerdifficulties (e.g., revenge-seeking, avoidance)are generally considered maladaptive and havebeen associated with depression, anxiety, lone-liness, social problems, and school-relatedproblems (Kochenderfer-Ladd, 2004; Kochen-derfer-Ladd & Skinner, 2002; Sandstrom, 2004;Sontag & Graber, 2010; Visconti & Troop-Gor-don, 2010). Avoidance, such as wishful think-ing, ignoring, or refusing to think about thestressor (i.e. cognitive distancing), is considereda type of disengagement coping, as it involvesan orientation away from the stressor and thenegative thoughts and emotions that result fromthe stressor (Compas et al., 2001). In contrast,revenge-seeking is certainly active, but it isbased in negative emotions, such as anger andembarrassment, that lead to thoughts about oractions of retaliation (Kochenderfer-Ladd,2004). Revenge-seeking and cognitive distanc-ing are proposed to be linked with negativeoutcomes in the face of interpersonal stressorsbecause they do not enable adolescents to pro-ductively attend to the stressor or to build orutilize skills that might resolve the stressor in anadaptive manner. Revenge-seeking and cogni-tive distancing also fail to alter interpersonaldynamics to decrease the likelihood of thestressor reoccurring; rather, these coping strate-gies can signal weakness or vulnerability topeers and thus lead to increased peer difficul-ties, anxiety, and low self-esteem. We exploreseveral of these types of coping—direct/active,revenge-seeking, and avoidance—as mediatorsbetween S/R and psychosocial adjustment.

Current StudyIn the current study, we seek to better under-

stand the processes linking early adolescents’S/R to their well-being in the developmentalcontext of peer relationships. We hope to 1)contribute to the literature linking S/R with


anxiety and self-esteem in adolescence, and 2)elucidate one pathway by which these linksoccur. It is important to note that no previousstudies have focused on specifically interper-sonal aspects of self-esteem or internalizingproblems (e.g., social self-esteem, social anxi-ety), as the present study does. Given theimportance of social development during ado-lescence, we focus on adolescents’ coping inthe face of stressors encountered within theirpeer relationships.

We examined the direct associations betweenmultiple dimensions of S/R (daily spiritual expe-riences, spiritual practices, forgiveness, spiritualvalues) and internalizing difficulties (self-esteemand social anxiety) among seventh and eighthgraders. Specifically, we hypothesized that eachdimension of S/R would be associated withhigher self-esteem and lower social anxiety. Wealso hypothesized that each dimension of S/Rwould be linked with more frequent use ofactive coping strategies (conflict resolution,advice and support seeking) and less frequentuse of maladaptive coping strategies (cognitivedistancing, revenge-seeking). Finally, we exam-ined the role of coping strategies as a mediatorin these associations. We hypothesized thatcoping strategies would partially mediate therelations between S/R and psychosocial out-comes. Specifically, we expected S/R to be posi-tively associated with self-esteem and negativelyassociated with social anxiety through more fre-quent use of active coping strategies and lessfrequent use of maladaptive coping strategies.

Method

ParticipantsParticipants were 132 seventh- and eighth-grade

students from a private Christian middle school inthe Midwestern United States. Sixty-two (47%)were boys and 70 (53%) girls, evenly dividedbetween seventh and eighth grade and rangingfrom 11.3 to 14.9 years of age (M = 13.3 years).The sample included 102 Caucasian (77%), 12African-American (9%), seven Hispanic (5.3%),three Asian-American (2.3%), one Eastern Euro-pean (0.8%), and seven biracial (5%) participants.

ProcedureThis study was part of a larger project examin-

ing the social experiences and coping of middleschool students. In collaboration with theschool administration and following appropriate

IRB approval, letters and passive consent formsexplaining the study and its purpose were sentto all parents. Youth provided informed assentto participate on the day of administration afterthe study had been fully explained. Adolescentscompleted self-report measures of social anxietyand self-esteem, general coping strategies, andS/R during a single class period.

MeasuresSpirituality/religiosity. In order to assess

multiple aspects of adolescents’ S/R, we utilizedthe Multidimensional Measure ofReligiousness/Spirituality (Fetzer Institute, 1999),which was developed for use in health researchand assesses several specific dimensions of S/R.This multidimensional measure is one of themost widely used with adolescents and showsadequate to strong reliability (Cotton et al., 2010;Desrosiers & Miller, 2007; Sallquist et al., 2010).For the current study, we used the followingsubscales: Daily Spiritual Experiences, Forgive-ness, Spiritual Values, and Spiritual Practices.

The Daily Spiritual Experiences subscale (α =.86) consists of eight items assessing the frequen-cy of adolescents’ sense of love, peace, andcloseness to God (e.g., “I feel God’s love forme,” “I feel deep inner peace and harmony”).Items are rated on a 5-point scale (1 = never, 5 =always). The Forgiveness subscale (α = .72) iscomposed of six items assessing one’s sense ofbeing forgiven and forgiving others (e.g., “Iknow that God forgives me,” “I have forgiventhose who hurt me”). Items are rated on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = stronglyagree). The Spiritual Values subscale (α = .70) isa two-item scale assessing the centrality of S/R toone’s life (e.g., “My whole approach to life isbased on my religion”). Items are rated on a 5-point scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = stronglyagree. Finally, the Spiritual Practices subscale (α= .57) measures frequency of participation in pri-vate spiritual practices (e.g., “How often do youpray in places other than at a place of worship?”“How often do you read the Bible or other reli-gious literature?”). Items are rated on a 5-pointscale (1 = not at all, 5 = all the time). For allsubscales, total scores were calculated by aver-aging all items.

Coping. We assessed four types of copingstrategies for bullying, including Conflict Resolu-tion (“Make a plan with the kid to get along,”“Take some time to cool off before responding”),Advice and Support (“Get help or advice from a


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-.08

-.17

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3. --

.48*

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.26*

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.13

-.28

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-.22

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.38*

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.55*

*

.64*

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.50*

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.32*

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-.12

-.28

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-.21

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.36*

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friend”), Cognitive Distancing (“Make believenothing happened,” “Tell yourself it was no bigdeal”), and Revenge (“Think about getting evenwith the kid,” “Ask a friend to help you get backat the kid”). Following the data reduction methodutilized for this measure by Causey and Dubow(1992), twelve items with the highest factor load-ing (three items for each subscale) from Kochen-derfer-Ladd’s (2004) instrument wereadministered. Items were answered on a 5-pointLikert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = stronglyagree). We combined the Conflict Resolution andthe Advice/Support Seeking items to reflect oneActive Coping score; scale scores were calculatedby averaging item scores. Scale reliability was asfollows: Active Coping (α = .65), Distancing (α =.68), and Revenge (α = .78).

Self-esteem. We measured self-esteem usingthe Self-Esteem Questionnaire (DuBois, Felner,Brand, & Phillips, 1996). Thirteen items from thePeer and Global subscales (e.g., “I am as goodas I want to be at making new friends,” “I amthe kind of person I want to be”) were used inthe current study and were rated on a 4-pointLikert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 4 = stronglyagree. These subscales have demonstrated ade-quate internal consistency (DuBois et al., 1996).We calculated a mean score for each participant,with higher scores reflecting higher levels of self-esteem (α = .86).

Social anxiety. Adolescents completed theSocial Anxiety Scale for Adolescents (SAS-A; LaGreca & Lopez, 1998), a self-report measure ofsocial anxiety which has demonstrated good relia-bility and validity (La Greca & Lopez, 1998; Storchet al., 2005). Nine of the 12 items from the Fearof Negative Evaluation and Social Avoidance andDistress-General subscales were used in the cur-rent study (e.g., “I worry about what others thinkof me,” “I feel shy even with peers I know verywell”). Three items that could be considered peervictimization were removed to avoid constructoverlap, as has been done in previous studies(e.g., Nishina, Juvonen, & Witkow, 2005). Itemswere rated on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not atall, 5 = all the time and summed for a total SocialAnxiety score (α = .91).

Results

Analyses were conducted in three steps. First,we examined one-tailed correlations among vari-ables. Second, we used linear regression toexamine the direct effects of 1) dimensions of

S/R and 2) coping over and above S/R on socialanxiety and self-esteem. Third, we tested media-tion using the bootstrapping approach, which isthe preferred method of analysis because of itsincreased power and reduced likelihood of errorover the traditional Sobel test (Preacher & Hayes,2004; Zhao, Lynch, & Chen, 2010).

Relations among VariablesAs anticipated, the study variables were highly

related (see Table 1). All four S/R variables werepositively correlated with one another and withactive coping; daily spiritual experiences and for-giveness were negatively correlated with revengecoping. Social anxiety and self-esteem were neg-atively correlated with one another and also asso-ciated with the S/R and coping variables inhypothesized directions. Adolescents with higherlevels of daily spiritual experiences, forgiveness,and spiritual practices had lower levels of socialanxiety and higher levels of self-esteem. Spiritualvalues were also positively correlated with self-esteem. Finally, adolescents who utilized revengecoping had lower self-esteem and higher socialanxiety. Conflict resolution/advice seeking (activecoping) and cognitive distancing as coping strate-gies were not linked to outcomes.

Direct EffectsTwo hierarchical linear regressions were con-

ducted (see Table 2). In the first, we regressedthe S/R and coping variables on self-esteem; inthe second, we regressed the same variables onsocial anxiety. The S/R variables as a group pre-dicted adolescents’ self-esteem (F = 6.93, p <.01). Specifically, adolescents who reportedmore frequent daily spiritual experiences hadmarginally higher self-esteem (β = .21, p = .067),and higher levels of forgiveness predicted higherlevels of self-esteem (β = 2.69, p < .01). Thecoping methods as a group did not predict self-esteem over and above spirituality/religiosity;however, revenge coping was marginally predic-tive of lower levels of self-esteem (β = -.16, p =.088). In contrast, no variables significantly pre-dicted social anxiety.

Indirect Effects (Mediation)We tested mediation using the bootstrapping

approach. Revenge coping mediated the linksbetween daily spiritual experiences and self-esteem (point estimate = .03, CI [.00, .09]), for-giveness and self-esteem (point estimate = .04,CI [.00, .11]), and spiritual practices and self-esteem (point estimate = .03, CI [.00, .08]).


Revenge coping also mediated the link between

spiritual practices and social anxiety (point esti-

mate = .02, CI [-.13, -.00]).

Discussion

Longitudinal research suggests that there are

likely to be “third variables” that help explain the

associations between S/R and psychosocial adjust-

ment (Sallquist et al., 2010). The goal of the cur-

rent study was to examine one set of potential

mediating variables in the context of early adoles-

cents’ peer relationships during a developmental

period in which social relationships are increasing

in importance.

As predicted, we found significant relationsamong S/R, coping with negative peer interac-tions, and self-esteem and social anxiety. Interms of direct effects, higher levels of S/R pre-dicted higher self-esteem, with daily spiritualexperiences and forgiveness playing the mainroles in this relation. This association wasexplained in part by the use of revenge coping,which predicted lower levels of self-esteem andmediated the link between S/R and self-esteem.That is, adolescents who reported less frequentexperiences of peace and closeness to God, aweaker sense of being forgiven and being ableto forgive, and less frequent engagement in per-sonal spiritual practices were more likely toengage in revenge as a coping strategy and, in

Variables F R2 change B β t

Outcome: Social Anxiety

Step 1: 2.43 .07

Daily Spiritual Experiences -.15 -.13 -1.03

Forgiveness -.21 -.15 -1.44

Spiritual Values .10 .10 .82

Spiritual Practices -.13 -.11 -1.09

Step 2: 1.85 .02

Coping: Active .12 .10 1.03

Coping: Distancing .02 .02 .19

Coping: Revenge .13 .16 1.70t

Outcome: self-esteem

Step 1: 6.93** .18

Daily Spiritual Experiences .16 .21 1.85t

Forgiveness .23 .27 2.69**

Spiritual Values .02 .03 .27

Spiritual Practices -.03 -.04 -.42

Step 2: 4.39 .02

Coping: Active -.04 -.06 -.61

Coping: Distancing -.01 -.01 -.16

Coping: Revenge -.08 -.16 -1.72t

Table 2

tp < .10, *p < .05, **p < .01

Regressions Predicting Social Anxiety and Self-esteem from Spirituality / Religiosity and Coping


turn, to have lower self-esteem. Although theprediction of self-esteem was more consistentthan prediction of social anxiety, revenge copingalso mediated the impact of spiritual practices onsocial anxiety. Adolescents who engaged lessfrequently in practices such as private prayer andScripture reading were more likely to seekrevenge when hurt by a peer, which in turn pre-dicted higher levels of social anxiety.

Revenge coping appears to be the specificmediator in our sample through which adoles-cent S/R is linked with self-esteem and socialanxiety. Though S/R promotes adaptive, activecoping in adolescents, its impact on the reduc-tion of maladaptive coping strategies, such asrevenge seeking and retaliation, appears to be aparticularly important mechanism throughwhich S/R impacts psychosocial outcomes inthe context of peer relationships. A sense ofbeing forgiven by God and thus being willingto forgive others may help youth cope with thenegative emotions that can result from interper-sonal offenses and avoid engaging in revengewhen they are wronged by a friend or a peer(Egan & Todorov, 2009; Flanagan, Loveall, &Carter, 2012). Moral teachings and verbal andnonverbal messages about kindness, empathy,compassion, peace, and love within religious,family, and peer contexts generally discouragerevenge-seeking by placing a high value onsuch principles as forgiveness, empathy, andgrace. Further, youth may obtain support with-in their S/R context that helps them cope adap-tively with their negative emotions, focusinginstead on prosocial concerns and making posi-tive meaning of social difficulties (e.g., an ado-lescent may be able to see pain caused by apeer as an opportunity to learn to become abetter friend to others). In turn, their anxietyand the impact of these conflicts on self-esteemare reduced. In contrast, adolescents who donot garner purpose, meaning, or social supportfrom S/R may find revenge-seeking to be a sat-isfying or valuable manner of reacting to peerconflict, despite its clear negative impact onfunctioning. These findings are consistent withliterature regarding positive youth developmentthat links adolescent S/R with prosocial con-cerns and behaviors (Benson et al., 2006; Mark-strom, Huey, Stiles, & Krause, 2010).

The current findings have important implica-tions for understanding and promoting positivedevelopment in youth. It is clear that peerrelationships—including the challenges they

present —are an important context in whichadolescent S/R play out and affect outcomes.Interactions with peers provide youth withopportunities to apply their identity, values,and beliefs in practical ways, and personal S/Rengagement affects how adolescents react tointerpersonal conflict. Adults who work andinteract with youth can use peer conflicts as anopportunity to support adolescents in theapplication of their S/R values and principlesas they navigate the interpersonal difficultiesthat are inevitable in middle and high school.Those who work specifically in a religious con-text can be open to listening to the difficultiesyouth experience in coping with actual inter-personal offenses. They can focus on scripturethat emphasizes the triumph of good over eviland the value of forgiveness over revenge(Matthew 5:38-45, 6:12-14; Luke 6:27-36;Romans 12:9-21). Directly addressing theseissues within a critical developmental contextmay strengthen youths’ S/R and enable them topurposefully apply their beliefs and values intheir social contexts, acknowledging theiragency within the process of spiritual develop-ment (Benson et al., 2003).

We did not have enough power in our smallsample to examine sex differences, although sexdifferences in the constructs of interest (e.g.,coping, social anxiety, self-esteem) are com-monly found. For example, girls tend to reporthigher levels of S/R in adolescence and tend torate religion as more important to them (Bensonet al., 2006; Desrosiers & Miller, 2007). Further,associations between particular dimensions ofS/R and adjustment (e.g., depression, prosocialconcerns) differ between girls and boys(Desrosiers & Miller, 2007; Furrow et al, 2004;Pérez et al., 2009). Given such findings, genderdifferences in the relations among S/R, coping,and socioemotional outcomes is an importantdirection for future study.

An area of strength of the current study is theinclusion of multiple dimensions of S/R, beyondwhat is often used in research. The multidimen-sional nature of S/R requires assessment of morethan a single item (e.g., church attendance, fre-quency of prayer) or dimension (e.g., perceivedcloseness to God, religious beliefs). Yet, becausethe current study focused on specific interper-sonal strategies pertinent to coping with peerdifficulties, we only assessed one type of poten-tial mediator (coping) between S/R and adjust-ment. We did not assess S/R coping, which may


represent a unique aspect to adolescents’ copingthat could add to the prediction of psychosocialadjustment in the face of peer stressors (Carpen-ter, Laney, & Mezulis, 2012; Eisenberg et al.,2011). In addition, it is important to rememberthat coping is only one of many mechanismsthrough which S/R can affect adolescents’ out-comes, even within the specific context of peerrelationships. The S/R dimensions assessed didnot include such developmentally importantconstructs as parental S/R, religious youthgroups, and other sources of supports withinthe religious context (Cotton et al., 2010). Ideal-ly, future studies would incorporate multiplepotential mediators from a variety of domains(peer, school, family, intrapersonal) in order toimprove our understanding of the dynamicimpact of S/R on youth development.

Finally, it is important to note that this studywas not longitudinal. By using regression, weassessed the degree to which S/R and copingmathematically predicted self-esteem and socialanxiety; however, without measuring these vari-ables over time, we cannot know whether S/Rand coping truly alter adolescents’ social andpersonal outcomes. It is likely that there is amore complex interaction among our variables,including bidirectionality and multiple causality.For example, adolescents with high self-esteemmight be better at forgiving their peers and lesslikely to seek revenge, which in turn may furtherboost their self-esteem and reduce their socialanxiety. Certainly, adolescents’ social experi-ences impact their S/R and well-being (Carter etal., 2013). Future studies should examine media-tional processes over time, such as whether S/Rbehaviors or attitudes predict a change in self-esteem or anxiety, in order to more clearly eluci-date the dynamics of adolescent spiritual andsocial development.

In summary, the findings from the currentstudy suggest that early adolescents’ S/R is asso-ciated with aspects of their psychosocial adjust-ment through the strategies they use to copewith negative peer interactions. Because “spiri-tual development is likely a wellspring for thebest of human life (e.g., generosity, unity, sacri-fice, altruism, social justice) as well as for ourdarkest side” (Benson et al., 2003, p. 211), weshould not ignore the very real contexts inwhich adolescents are embedded. Rather, weshould seek a better understanding of howaspects of youths’ S/R impact their interpersonalrelationships and overall functioning as a basis

for both formal and informal prevention andintervention efforts.

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Authors

Sarah E. Hall (Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology, Pennsylva-nia State University) is Assistant Professor of Psychology atWheaton College. Dr. Hall's research interests focus on theemotion regulation in early childhood as well as risk andprotective factors for the development of psychopathologyin children and adolescents.

Kelly S. Flanagan (Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology, Penn-sylvania State University) is Associate Professor and pro-gram director for the PsyD Clinical Psychology programat Wheaton College. Her research focuses on the recipro-cal influences between children’s relationships and theirindividual functioning, with particular interest in nega-tive peer experiences and the role of forgiveness and spir-itual well-being in children’s adjustment.


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