ContentServer (5)

Educational Gerontology, 40: 77–90, 2014Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLCISSN: 0360-1277 print/1521-0472 onlineDOI: 10.1080/03601277.2012.701157

ARTICLES

Effects of Third Age Learning Programs on the Life Satisfaction, Self-Esteem, and Depression Level among a Select Group of Community Dwelling

Filipino Elderly

Rowena L. Escolar Chua

The Graduate School and College of Nursing, University of Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines

Allan B. de Guzman

The Graduate School and College of Nursing, Research Cluster on Cultural, Educational and Social Issues, University of

Santo Tomas, Manila, Philippines

With the growing number of older adults becoming a global concern, many countries have focused on education as a means of promoting successful aging. Although third age learning is gaining sub-stantial ground in other countries, it is not well-established in the Philippines. The overall intent of this experimental study was to assess the effectiveness of community-based third age learning pro-grams on the life satisfaction, self-esteem, and level of depression of a select group of Filipino elderly in a community setting. A pre- posttest study design was used on 40 community dwelling Filipino elderly who were randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group. Both groups accom-plished the Life Satisfaction Index for the Third Age Short Form (LSITA-SF), Rosenberg’s Self-esteem Scale (RSES), and the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS). The experimental group was exposed to a four-month program consisting of wellness, physical fitness, and livelihood training activities facilitated by volunteer faculty from a local university; the control group received no inter-vention. The results of t tests showed statistically significant group differences between the experi-mental and control group, with the former posting higher life satisfaction, self-esteem, and lower depression level compared to the control group. Findings of this study add to the knowledge base that active participation in third age learning programs—which include opportunities for physical activ-ity, cognitive learning, recreation, and social interaction—can improve the psychological and psy-chosocial health of an older adult.

Address correspondence to Allan B. de Guzman, Research Cluster on Cultural, Educational and Social Issues, Room 201, University of Santo Tomas, España, Manila 1015, The Philippines. E-mail: [email protected]

78 R. L. ESCOLAR CHUA AND A. B. DE GUZMAN

It is well-known the world’s population is aging (Narushima, 2008; Flood & Phillips, 2007; Elderhostel, 2007a; Cohen, 2006; Leung, Chi, & Lui, 2006; Tunney et al., 2006; Beck, 2005; Cohen, 2005; Dunnet & Farrell, 2003), and people aged 65 and over will soon outnumber chil-dren under the age 5 for the first time in history (U.S. Census Bureau, 2009). Consequently, development of programs that are aimed at protecting and promoting the well-being of the elderly have been given priority by many countries (Formosa, 2010; Narushima, 2008; McCaughan, 2007; Erisen, Sahin, & Kapicioglu, 2008; Swindell, 2007; Leung et al., 2006). Various studies have shown the numerous benefits of third age learning programs to the overall health of the elderly, which include increased social contact, enhanced coping mechanisms, physical and mental stimulation, and creative expression (Scourfield, 2006; Pincas, 2007; Nadasen, 2007; Zedlewski & Butrica, 2007; Russell, 2008; Ng, 2008; Seals & Clanton, 2008; Narushima, 2008; Wagner, 2009; Skingley & Vella-Burrows, 2010). Additionally, in a study done by Leung et al. (2006), older individuals who have been engaged in later-life learning view this as a venue to achieve personal satisfaction and social network building, as well as an opportunity to acquire skills for reemployment. These studies further highlighted the health benefits of later-life learn-ing, indicating that these benefits have much to do with the psychosocial resources senior citizens gain through third age learning programs, including increased life satisfaction, self-esteem and confidence, and reduced depression.

While there have been numerous studies about third age education and its impact around the globe, very few studies have examined the effect of third age educational programs on the Filipino elderly (de Guzman et al., 2011; Alcuitas et al., 2010; PRAMA Foundation, 2007). Hence, this investigation is purported to contribute to the dearth of information on third-age education in the local setting. It does this by implementing a program and exploring its effectiveness on the life satisfaction, self-esteem, and level of depression of the Filipino elderly.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Successful Ageing Model

Comprehensive studies conducted on the various facets of ageing have resulted to the formula-tion of several ageing models that focus on the positive ways in which the individual can inter-vene in the ageing process. Successful ageing, ageing well, active ageing, healthy ageing, productive ageing, and positive ageing are among a number of models of ageing. They propose that if people choose to adopt a few sensible lifestyle habits then they stand the best chance of maximizing their own longevity and independence (Swindell, 2009). However, there remains no clear definition and characterization of what successful ageing is. Various studies also offer nonuniform ways to describe this phenomenon—from healthy aging, successful aging, and pro-ductive aging to simply aging well (Swindell, 2007; Elderhostel, 2007a; Depp & Jeste, 2006; Rowe & Kahn, 1999; Lemieux, 1995).

The prevailing ageing model, advanced by Rowe and Kahn (1999), nonetheless offers a suc-cinct characterization of successful ageing and provided the theoretical basis of this study. The model is defined as including three main components: low probability of disease and disease-related disability, high cognitive and physical functional capacity, and active engagement with life. They further explained that each of the three components of their model is inherently

EFFECTS OF THIRD AGE LEARNING PROGRAMS 79

important and even somewhat hierarchical (in the sense that the absence of disease and disability may make it easier to maintain mental and physical function); and this, in turn, may enable engage-ment with life. However, it is the combination of these factors that represents the concept of suc-cessful ageing most fully (Rowe & Kahn, 1999).

In this study, being engaged in various learning programs can assist the older adult in meeting the three variables as presented by Rowe and Kahn (1997). Thus, an older adult is considered to have aged successfully if all of these components are met. This leads, therefore, to a more pro-ductive and satisfying ageing experience, increased self-esteem, and lowered incidence of depression.

Third Age Learning Programs and Life Satisfaction among the Elderly

Due to the ageing of the population and education’s numerous benefits to the overall state of the elderly, the number of people belonging to the third age who are looking to acquire new knowl-edge and skills is growing at an unprecedented rate (Hazzlewood, 2003). Many Third Agers are still mentally and physically alert and looking for opportunities to continue learning and keep their minds active. Benefits derived from third age learning are not only intellectual but also recreational, social, and psychological (Prieto, 2009). Moreover, participation in various activi-ties that integrate educational, social, and leisure activities among the elderly is positively related to higher levels of health and increased life satisfaction. These benefits can reduce the burden of health expenditures associated with population ageing (Krawczynski & Olszewski, 2000; Cohen, 2005; Elderhostel, 2007a, 2007b; Flood & Phillips, 2007; Nadasen, 2007; Hanna & Perlstein, 2008; Keogh, 2009). Further, sustained commitment to lifelong learning involving a variety of mentally stimulating activities leads to increased life satisfaction and successful ageing (Sabates & Hammond, 2008; Elderhostel, 2007a; Oswald & Powdthavee, 2007; Barrett, Murk, & Nickolich, 2006). Hence, the following hypothesis was suggested:

H1: The more the Filipino elderly are engaged in third age learning programs, the more satisfied in life they become

Self-esteem of The Elderly

Self-esteem is an important factor of psychological well-being, and it describes how a person perceives himself and his worth. The personal construct theory defines self-esteem as the dispar-ity between the actual and ideal self while Albert Bandura’s social learning theory (Bandura, 1997, as cited by Walker, Payne, Smith, & Jarrett, 2008), states that self-esteem depends on whether an individual is able to achieve important goals. A decrease in self-esteem can cause multiple problems like depression, anxiety, indifference, and feelings of loneliness (Shahbazzadeghan, Farmanbar, Ghanbari, & Roshan, 2010).

On the one hand, a number of researches suggest that older individuals maintain their self-esteem and well-being throughout their lifespan (Pullman, Allik, & Realo, 2009; Demo, 1992; Gove & Ortega, 1989). On the other hand, much of the literature about aging and its effect on self-esteem suggests that self-esteem declines with increasing age (McMullin & Cairney, 2004;


Robins, Trzesniewski, Potter, & Gosling, 2002). This might be due to deaths in the family, physi-cal debilitation, changes in living arrangements, the aging process, and lack of support resources (Rho, Han, Kim, & Lee, 2006). Consequently, various older adult programs have been very popular in recent years, empowering older adults to boost their self-esteem (Shahbazzadeghan et al., 2010; Rho et al., 2006). Indeed, there is growing evidence that third age education can enhance the self-esteem of older adults (Pike, 2011; Keogh, 2009; Prieto, 2009; Hanna & Perlstein, 2008; Nadasen, 2007; Elderhostel, 2007a; Barrett & Murk, 2009; Schuller, Preston, Hammond, Bassett-Grundy, & Bynner, 2004; Preston & Hammond, 2003) as well as providing physiological, educational, and social benefits (Formosa, 2010; Swindell, 2002). Therefore, a hypothesis was suggested:

H2: The more the Filipino elderly are engaged in third age learning programs, the higher their self-esteem will be.

Depression among the Elderly

Depression occurs when the feelings of loneliness of a person disturbs or disrupts their daily functioning (de Jong Gierveld & Hagestad, 2006; Mellilo & Houde, 2002; Pinquart & Sorensen, 2001). It is a common psychiatric disorder (Butler, Carney, & Cipriani, 2004; Mirowski & Ross, 2002) and can occur in childhood, adolescence, and in later life (Hammen & Watkins, 2008; Miech & Shanahan, 2000) because the process of aging imposes numerous stressors on the elderly. The elderly struggle to manage the many losses and changes they experience throughout the years. These events may include the loss of physical health, independence, employment and income, family and friends, house and comfortable environment (van Baarsen, Snijders, Smit, & van Duijn, 2001). This might be greatly overwhelming for the elderly, thus increasing the risk for developing depression should inadequate coping occur (Shahbazzadeghan et al., 2010; Drageset, Kirkevold, & Esephaug, 2010; Hammen & Watkins, 2008; Batistoni, Neri, & Cupertino, 2007;

FIGURE 1 The hypothesized model.


Blazer, 2003; van Baarsen et al., 2001; Drageset, 2004). Accordingly, third age education pro-grams were established to address this issue. Numerous studies have linked learning activities targeting older adults to positive health related outcomes (Formosa, 2010; Elderhostel, 2007a; Swindell, 2002; Dench & Regan, 2000; Aldridge & Lavender, 2000; Soulsby, 2000). Learning activities have been shown to reduce depression, anxiety and intellectual decline while improving the elderly’s enjoyment of life, self-confidence, and their ability to cope. Thus, a hypothesis was thereby suggested:

H3: The more the Filipino elderly are engaged in third age education, the lesser their level of depres-sion will be.

Figure 1 shows the hypothesized model of the study.

METHODS

Study Site and Sample

The locus of this experimental study was a suburban community located just outside a large met-ropolitan city in the Philippines. Inclusion criteria for the respondents were based on the follow-ing: (a) between 60 to 80 years of age (b) able to read and write in Filipino, (c) no mental illness present, (d) no history of stroke, cardiac arrest, or chronic pulmonary obstructive disorders that can impair ability to participate in the study’s activities, (e) have good muscle strength and good motor functioning skill, and (f) not currently involved in any educational programs being offered in the community. Exclusion criteria were the following: dementia or other severe cognitive impairment, psychiatric illness, other severe illness, inability to walk independently with or with-out assistive devices, and with fractures.

A total of 40 respondents who met the inclusion criteria volunteered to participate in the study. As indicated in Table 1, the study was primarily composed of females (60%), belonging to the age group of 60–65 years old (37.5%), married (55%), Roman Catholics (95%), and elementary school graduates (50%). All of the participants were retired and were mainly getting their pension from the Social Security System (SSS) (73.7%). Those who did not have any pension were mostly supported by their families (76.2%), and a majority were still living with their families (82.5%).

Outcome Measures

To gather the needed data for the study, four instruments were used: First, a robotfoto was used to establish the characteristics of the respondents. Robotfoto is a Dutch term that serves as a preliminary sketch to identify a subject (Keltchtermans & Ballet, 2002). The second was the Life Satisfaction Index for the Third Age-Short Form (LSITA-SF) developed by Barrett and Murk (2009), which measured the life satisfaction of the respondents (α = .90). LSITA-SF consists of 12 items that use a six-point Likert scale. For analytic purposes, the mean ratings for each of the five factors of life satisfaction were verbally interpreted using the following scale: 1.00–1.83 = Highly Dissatisfied; 1.84–2.66 = Dissatisfied; 2.67–3.49 = Somewhat Dissatisfied; 3.50–4.32 = Somewhat Satisfied; 4.33–5.15 = Satisfied; and, 5.16–6.00 = Highly Satisfied.


The third instrument was the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (RSES), a 10-item Likert type scale, with items answered on a four-point scale: from Strongly Agree (SA) to Strongly Disagree (SD). The scale is a reliable (α = .88) and valid quantitative tool for self-esteem assessment by asking the respondents to reflect on their current feelings. The scores on the RSES were verbally inter-preted as follows: 15–25 = normal self-esteem while a score of less than 15 = low self-esteem. Lastly, the Geriatric Depression Scale Short Form (GDS-SF), a 15-item self-report assessment, was used to identify depression in the elderly. The questions required Yes or No answers, with scores greater than or equal to 5 suggesting depression (Yesavage, 1986). The tool is moderately reliable (α = .749) and valid as a screening tool for depression in older adults. The data for the study were gathered between November 2011 to March 2012.

Research Intervention

The community-based educational programs implemented in the study were based on a needs assessment interview conducted in the community prior to the start of the study. The educational programs were a mix of activities that catered to the needs of the Filipino elderly for physical activity, mental stimulation, social engagement, health promotion and development of new skills. Three main programs were implemented: (a) a wellness program (b) a physical fitness activity

TABLE 1 Demographic Profile of Filipino Elderly (n = 40)

Profile Frequency % Profile Frequency %

Age* Retirement status*60–65 15 37.5 Retired with pension 19 47.566–70 14 35.0 Retired without pension 21 52.571–75 10 25.076–80 1 2.5

Gender* Source of pension**Male 16 40.0 SSS 14 73.7Female 24 60.0 GSIS 5 26.3

Marital status* If no pension, source of income***Married 22 55.0 Family 16 76.2Widowed 12 30.0 Business 5 23.8Separated 6 15.0

Educational attainment* Living arrangements*Elementary 20 50.0 Lives alone 7 17.5High school 17 42.5 Lives with family 33 82.5College graduate 3 7.5

Religion*Catholic 38 95.0Iglesia ni Kristo 1 2.5Others 1 2.5

*n = 40, **n = 19, ***n = 21


program, and (c) livelihood training programs. The programs were planned, developed, and facil-itated by volunteer professors from a local university and were offered over the course of four months. First, the wellness program (six sessions), facilitated by volunteer nurses, provided health instruction to the elderly about proper nutrition, diet, and exercise. The program also included discussions on conditions common among the elderly population and their proper man-agement. Second, the physical fitness activities were conducted by physical education (PE) instructors weekly for two months with each session lasting for 30–40 minutes. Prior to the con-duct of the physical fitness program, the instructors assessed the muscular strength and cardio-vascular endurance of the respondents to ensure that the program to be developed was appropriate for the respondents. Lastly, the livelihood training programs provided were facilitated by a food technology instructor. Six sessions were given on food preparation, proper handling and storage of food, and the actual making of food products such as banana chips, coconut jam, and bottled pickled papaya. All of the programs were scheduled to meet the availability of both the respon-dents and the instructors.

Data Gathering Procedure and Data Analysis

The researchers initially coordinated with the head of the selected community to seek permission to conduct the study in the chosen site. After getting the approval, the respondents who volun-teered to join the study signed an informed consent form. The respondents were then randomly assigned to either the experimental or control group. Twenty-five subjects were assigned to the experimental group while 15 subjects went to the control group. Prior to the implementation of the programs, both groups answered the questionnaires. The control group was then allowed to continue with their usual routines while the programs were provided to the experimental group. After four months, the researcher administered the instruments again to all of the subjects.

Gathered data from the robotfoto were analyzed descriptively using SPSS 17.0. Unpaired t tests were used to evaluate differences in the pre- and posttest scores of the control and experi-mental group; and paired t tests were also used to analyze the differences between the pre- and posttest scores of the experimental group.

RESULTS

The community-based third age learning programs were offered over four months. Of the 25 participants, 15 had perfect attendance, 5 attended 90% of the classes, and the other 5 attended 80% of the classes. This resulted in an average attendance of 90%. Table 2 shows the results of the Independent t tests comparing the pre- and postintervention scores between the control group and the experimental group for the LSITA-SF, RSES, and GDS.

Effect of the Third Age Learning Programs on Life Satisfaction

The study compared the life satisfaction scores of the Filipino elderly who engaged in the community-based third age learning programs to those elderly who did not participate.


The experimental group had significantly higher life satisfaction (M = 3.98, SD = .96) compared to the control group (M = 3.36, SD = .81), t(34) = 2.14 , p = .03. Further, results of the dependent t test indicate that the experimental group had significantly higher LSITA-SF scores after the program (M = 3.98, SD = .96) than before it was implemented (M = 3.6, SD = .90), t(24) = 2.40, p = .02. These results suggest that third age learning programs do have an effect on life satisfac-tion. Specifically, our results suggest that the more the Filipino elderly are engaged in third age learning programs, the more satisfied in life they become; this supports hypothesis H1.

Effect of the Third Age Learning Programs on Self-Esteem

An independent samples t test was conducted to compare the self-esteem of the experimental group and control group. Based on the results, there was a significant difference in the self-esteem scores, with the experimental group showing higher scores on the RSES (M = 17.1, SD = 3.82) than the control group (M = 14.47, SD = 3.89), t(29) = 2.08, p = .04. The results showed that the Filipino elderly who engaged in the third age learning programs had higher self-esteem than the control group, thereby supporting hypothesis H2. In addition, paired samples t test revealed a statistically significant difference in the preintervention scores of the experimental group (M = 15.08, SD = 2.84) to their postintervention scores (M = 17.1, SD = 3.82), t(24) = 2.06, p = .04.

Effect of the Third Age Learning Programs on Depression Levels

The mean score of the experimental group on the GDS was 4.36 (SD = 1.77); the control group had a score of 7.8 (SD = 3.0). An independent samples t test was conducted to compare the scores

TABLE 2 Independent t Tests Comparing the Pre-and Postintervention Scores Between Control Group

and Experimental Group for LSITA-SF, RSES, and GDS

Control Experimental

t p value Mean scores SD

Meanscores SD

LSITA-SF Preintervention 3.40 0.92 3.61 0.90 0.67 0.51 Postintervention 3.36 0.81 3.98 0.96 2.17 0.04*RSES Preintervention 15.06 3.15 15.08 2.84 0.01 0.98 Postintervention 14.46 3.88 17.10 3.82 2.08 0.04*GDS Preintervention 7.26 3.19 5.72 2.07 1.67 0.10 Postintervention 7.80 3.00 4.36 1.77 4.03 .006*

Note. LSITA-SF = Life Satisfaction Index for the Third Age Short Form; RSES = Rosenberg Self-esteem scale; GDS = Geriatric Depression Scale.

*p ≤ .05


of both groups showed a significant difference (t(20) = 4.03, p = <.001), indicating that the depression level of the experimental group was lower than that of the control group. Paired samples t test also revealed a statistically significant difference in the pre- to post-GDS scores of the experimental group (t(24) = 2.92, p = .007), indicating that the third age learning programs resulted in a significant decrease in the depression level of the participants. Based on the verbal interpretation of the GDS results, the participants in the experimental group had mild depression prior to the intervention but had normal levels at the end of the intervention. Accordingly, hypoth-esis H3 is supported, which means that the more the Filipino elderly population is engaged in third age learning programs, the more their depression level decreases.

DISCUSSION

The results of this study indicate that a variety of community-based third age learning programs significantly improved the life satisfaction and self-esteem of the Filipino elderly and reduced their level of depression. Initially, there was no significant difference between the two groups prior to the start of the third age learning programs. But at the end of the intervention, the experi-mental group had higher life satisfaction and self-esteem while their level of depression was significantly reduced. These findings are consistent with other studies supporting the value of third age learning programs for the psychological and psychosocial health of older adults (Keogh, 2009; Sabates & Hammond, 2008; Hanna & Perlstein, 2008; Nadasen, 2007; Elderhostel, 2007a; Oswald & Powdthavee, 2007; Barrett, Murk, & Nickolich, 2006).

Active participation in third age learning programs that include opportunities for physical activity, cognitive learning, recreation, and social interaction, have various benefits for older adults (Keogh, 2009; Sabates & Hammond, 2008; Hanna & Perlstein, 2008; Nadasen, 2007; Lampinen , Heikkinen, Kauppinen, & Heikkinen, 2006). Cognitive enhancing activities, especially ones that are carefully planned with elderly stakeholders, have been shown to preserve intellectual capacities of older adults and help prevent cognitive decline (Cohen et al., 2006; Vance & Crowe, 2006; Richards & Sacker, 2003). Notably, the community-based third age learning programs implemented in the study included wellness programs that focused on the health needs of the Filipino elderly. Addressing these health needs through education empowers the older adults, making them more responsible for their health and, thus, improving their self-confidence and self-esteem (Edlund, Lufkin, & Franklin, 2003; Rowe & Kahn, 1997). Moreover, physical activities, such as the programs implemented in the study, have been found to have a positive effect not only on the physical health of older adults (Nelson et al., 2007; Spirdusso, Francis, & Mcrae, 2005) but also on their cognitive and psychological functioning (Newson & Kemps, 2006; Oswald, Gunzelmann, Rupprecht, & Hagen, 2006). Further, when third age learning programs involve social interaction, the older adults’ experience becomes more enjoyable and decreases their feelings of depression, loneliness, and isolation, which are very common in this stage of their lives (Formosa, 2010; Cohen et al., 2006; Edlund et al., 2003; Sorensen, Pinquart, & Duberstein, 2002).

Findings of our study regarding the effects of third age learning programs on the life satisfac-tion and self-esteem of the Filipino elderly are consistent with prior research into these areas. Similar to our study, Hebestreit (2008) noted that participation in third age learning programs increased the life satisfaction and self-esteem of older adults in Australia. Her findings were in concurrence with the study of Pinquart and Sorensen in 2001 that stated that third age learning


programs that promote cognitive functioning, physical activity, and social engagement contrib-uted to the older adult’s positive self-esteem, confidence, and increased life satisfaction. The results of the study, however, run counter to the findings of Sabates and Hammond (2008), Schuller, Preston, Hammond, Bassett-Grundy, and Bynner (2002), and Schuller et al. (2004) that state that education may not be beneficial to the self-esteem of older adults with lower educa-tional attainment. This concern exists because failure at new educational activities can lead to alienation and lowered self-esteem. Nevertheless, a majority of the respondents included in our study only reached primary and secondary schooling but despite their low educational attain-ment, their self-esteem and life satisfaction still improved. It might be due to the fact that partici-pation in the community-based third age learning programs allowed them to be more cognitively, physically, and socially active, which has been proven to be beneficial to the psychological and psychosocial health of an older adult. Therefore, results of this study further confirm that third age learning programs can indeed assist in health promotion and disease prevention in older adults. Further, third age learning programs have their most positive impact on life satisfaction and self-esteem when the content provided meets the current needs of the older adult learner.

Finally, it is also interesting to take note that the third age learning programs offered to the Filipino elderly included livelihood training programs. This was done because the respondents requested it during the planning sessions. This finds concurrence with the study of Leung et al. (2006) who noted that older adults living in China perceived lifelong learning programs as an opportunity to acquire skills for reemployment. A majority of Filipino elderly still wanted to remain productive and be involved in activities that can be of assistance to their families and com-munities. Being able to do so contributes to the enhancement of their self-esteem and life satis-faction and runs parallel to the studies done by Fernandez-Ballesteros et al. (2011) and Schwingel, Niti, Tang, and Ng (2009).

CONCLUSION

While third age learning programs have become increasingly popular in many countries because of their numerous physical and emotional benefits, such programs are not well-established in a developing country like the Philippines. This study explored the effect of community-based third age learning programs on the life satisfaction, self-esteem, and depression level of Filipino elderly. Overall, the results suggest that engaging older adults in education and empowering them increases their sense of self, increases their life satisfaction, and improves their mental health. Moreover, offering a variety of programs—such as wellness and livelihood programs that cater to the practical needs of the older adults—increases their participation because they know the content is something that they can use in their everyday lives.

Findings of this study supported the results of numerous investigations that state that partici-pation in third age learning programs is conducive to achieving a good quality of life and can assist in successful aging. Quality of life is more than just absence of disease in later life; it should also include a general sense of satisfaction and happiness. This paper has successfully shown that lifelong learning programs should not only focus on the physical health of the elderly but also on other concerns affecting their social, emotional, and financial health. By and large, effective, practical, responsive, and meaningful educational programs should be carefully planned with the elderly stakeholders. This will ensure that the programs will improve the general health


and increase the productivity and well-being of older adults. This study has demonstrated that creating community-based educational programs for the elderly can lessen the burdens of an aging population by allowing the elderly to remain active, independent, and socially engaged. Therefore, both public and private sectors need to develop strategic and research-based approaches that provide older adults meaningful and life-giving opportunities to have an active lifestyle and have an improved quality of life.

There are a number of limitations with this study that need to be considered. First, there were a limited number of participants in the study, which limits the generalizability of the results. Moreover, the study was done in a single geographic area and the elderly who were included mostly had low income and low educational attainment. Future studies then should involve a larger number of subjects coming from various socioeconomic levels with different educational and ethnic backgrounds. Longitudinal follow-up studies can also be done to confirm the mainte-nance of the effect of the third age learning programs on the psychoemotional state of the elderly. Such studies should also seek to determine which specific programs are really most effective in contributing to the older adults’ increased quality of life. Further, one of the biggest challenges in the implementation of the intervention was getting all the elderly participants to the learning programs. Personal reasons related to illnesses and family responsibilities resulted in some of the participants not attending some sessions. Therefore, anticipating these kinds of problems and providing for make-up sessions should be made part of program planning and scheduling of future adult education endeavors.

REFERENCES

Alcuitas, T., Alejo, J., Alejo, M., Alivia, K., Alovera, M., Alumia, D., & Escolar-Chua, R. (2010). The effectiveness of fall prevention module in increasing the knowledge and reduction of the risk of falls among Filipino elderly. Research Journal of the Senior Academy, Transactions on Nursing, 10(1), 21–95.

Aldridge, F., & Lavender, P. (2000). The impact of learning on health. Retrieved from National Institute of Adult Continuing Education: http://www.niace.org.uk/Publications/I/ImpactHealth.htm

Barrett, A., & Murk, P. (2009, October). Life Satisfaction Index for the Third Age-Short Form (LSITA-SF): An improved and briefer measure of successful aging. Paper presented at the Midwest Research-to-Practice Conference in Adult, Continuing and Community Education, Chicago, IL.

Barrett, A., Murk, P., & Nickolich, D. (2006). How to age successfully: Achieving life satisfaction. Michigan State University. Retrieved from https://www.msu.edu/~mwr2p/BarrettMurkNickolich-MR2P-2010.pdf

Batistoni, S., Neri, A., & Cupertino, A. (2007). Validity of the center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale among Brazilian elderly. Revista de Saúde Pública, 41, 598–605.

Beck, C. (2005). Creative elderhood: What’s art got to do with it? Retrieved from http://www.imagineaging.com/generic.html?pid

Blazer, D. (2003). Depression in late life: Review and commentary. Journals of Gerontology, Series A: Medical Sciences, 58, 249–265.

Butler, R., Carney, S., & Cipriani, A. (2004). Depressive disorders. London, UK: BMJ.Cohen, G. (2005). The mature mind: The positive power of the aging brain. New York, NY: Basic Books.Cohen, G. (2006). Creativity and aging study: Initial results for chorale. Retrieved from http://www.gwumc.edu/cahh/

rsch/nea studt.htmCohen, G., Perlstein, S., Chapline, J., Kelly, J., Firth, K., & Simmens, S. (2006). The impact of professionally conducted

cultural programs on the physical health, mental health and social functioning of older adults. The Gerontologist, 46(6) 726–734.

de Guzman, A., Satuito, J., Satumba, M., Segui, D., Serquina, F., Serrano, L., & Sevilla, M. (2011). Filipino arts among elders in instituionalized care settings. Educational Gerontology, 37(3), 248–261.


de Jong Gierveld, J., & Hagestad, G. (2006). Perspectives on the integration of older men and women. Research on Aging, 28(6), 627–637.

Demo, H. (1992). The self-concept over time: Research issues and directions. Annual Review of Sociology, 18(1), 303–326.Dench, S., & Regan, J. (2000). Learning in later life: Motivation and impact. Nottingham, UK: Department for Education

and Skills.Depp, C., & Jeste, D. (2006). Definitions and predictors of successful aging: A comprehensive review of larger quantita-

tive studies. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 20(1), 6–20.Drageset, J. (2004). The importance of activities of daily living and social contact for loneliness: A survey among resi-

dents in nursing homes. Sandinavian Journal of Caring Services, 18, 65–71.Drageset, J., Kirkevold, M., & Esephaug, B. (2010). Loneliness and social support among nursing home residents without

cognitive impairment: A questionnaire survey. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 48(5), 611–619.Dunnett, C., & Farrell, C. (2003). Senior citizens … still learning. Retrieved from http://users.adam.com.au/colind/

Seniors.htmlEdlund, B., Lufkin, S., & Franklin, B. (2003). Long-term care planning for baby boomers: Addressing an uncertain

future. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 8(2).Elderhostel, Inc. (2007a, February). Mental stimulation and lifelong learning activities in the 55+ population. Retrieved

from http://www.roadscholar.org/research/default.aspElderhostel, Inc. (2007b, January). What will Baby Boomers want from educational travel? Retrieved from http://www.

roadscholar.org/research/babyboomers/BabyBoomersandEducationalTravel.pdfErisen, Y., Sahin, M., & Kapicioglu, M. (2008, October). The need analysis for further education of the retired and

elderly. Paper presented at the 11th International Conference on Further Education in the Balkan Countries, Konyn, Turkey.

Fernandez-Ballesteros, Zamarron, M., Diez-Nicolas, J., Lopez-Bravo, M., Molina, M., & Schettini, R. (2011). Productivity in old age. Research in Aging, 33(1), 205–226.

Flood, M., & Phillips, K. (2007). Creativity in older adults: A plethora of possibilities. Issues in Mental Health Nursing, 28(1), 389–411.

Formosa, M. (2010). Lifelong learning in later life: The Universities of the Third Age. Lifelong Learning Institute Review, 12, 1–12.

Gove, W., & Ortega, S. (1989). The maturational and role prespectives on aging and self through the adult years: An empirical evaluation. American Journal of Sociology, 94(1), 1117–1145.

Hammen, C., & Watkins, E. (2008). Depression. London, UK: Psychology Press/Taylor & Francis.Hanna, G., & Perlstein, S. (2008). Creativity matters: Arts and aging in America. National Center for Creative Aging.

Retrieved from www.creativeaging.org/storage/Creativity%20Matters%20AFTA%20Hazzlewood, J. (2003, November–December). Third age learners and new technology: Issues affecting use and access.

Paper presented at the AARE 2003 Conference, Auckland, New Zealand.Hebestreit, L. (2008). The role of the University of the Third Age in meeting needs of adult learners in Victoria, Australia.

Australian Journal of Adult Learning, 48(3), 547–565.Kelchtermans, G., & Ballet, K. (2002). The micropolitics of teacher induction: A narrative biographical study on teacher

socialization. Teaching and Teacher Education, 18(1), 105–120.Keogh, J. K. (2009). Physical benefits of dancing for healthy older adults: A review. Journal of Aging and Physical

Activity, 17(1), 479–500.Krawczynski, M., & Olszewski, H. (2000). Psychological well-being associated with a physical activity programme for

persons over 60 years old. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 1(1), 7–63.Lampinen, P., Heikkinen, R., Kauppinen, M., & Heikekinen, E. (2006). Activity as a predictor of mental well-being

among older adults. Aging and Mental Health, 10, 454–466.Lemieux, A. (1995). The Univeristy of the Third Age: Role of senior citizens. Educational Gerontology, 21(4),

337–344. Leung, A., Chi, I., & Lui, Y. (2006). A cross-cultural study in older adults’ learning experience. Asian Journal of

Gerontology & Geriatrics, 1(2), 78–83.McCaughan, K. (2007). Learners’ expectations of an adult education program. Proceedings of the 2007 International

Study Association for Teachers and Teaching (ISATT). St Catharines, ON, Canada: Brock University.McMullin, J., & Cairney, J. (2004). Self-esteem and the intersection of age, class and gender. Journal of Aging Studies,

18(1), 75–90.


Melillo, K., & Houde, S. (2002). Cardiovascular health and physical activity in older adults: An integrative review of research methodology and results. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 38(3), 219–234.

Miech, R., & Shanahan, M. (2000). Socioeconomic status and depression over the life course. Health and Social Behavior, 41(2), 162–176.

Mirowsky, J., & Ross, C. (2002). Depression, parenthood and age at first birth. Social Science and Medicine, 54, 1281–1298.

Nadasen, K. (2007). We are too busy being active and enjoying ourselves to feel the aches and pains: Perceived health benefits of line dancing for older women. Quality in Ageing, 8(3), 4–11.

Narushima, M. (2008). More than nickels and dimes: The health benefits of a community-based lifelong learning pro-gramme for older adults. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 27(6), 673–692.

Nelson, M., Rejeski, W., Blair, S., Duncan, P., Judge, J., & King, A. (2007). Physical activity and public health in older adults: Recommendation from the American College of Sports Medicine and the American Heart Association. Medicine and Science in Sport and Exercise, 39, 1435–1445.

Newson, R., & Kemps, E. (2006). The influence of physical and cognitive activities on simple and complex cognitive tasks in older adults. Experimental Aging Research, 32, 341–362.

Ng, C. (2008). Motivation among older adults in learning computing technologies: A grounded model. Educational Gerontology, 34, 1–14.

Oswald, A., & Powdthavee, N. (2007, November). Death, happiness and the calculation of compensation damages. IZA Discussion Paper No. 3159. Retrieved from http://ssrn.com/abstract=1033387

Oswald, W., Gunzelmann, T., Rupprecht, R., & Hagen, B. (2006). Differential effects of single versus combined cognitive and physical training with older adults: The SimA study in a 5-year perspective. European Journal of Ageing, 3, 179–192.

Pike, P. (2011). Using technology to engage third -age (retired) leisure learners: A case study of a third age MIDI piano ensemble. International Journal of Music Education, 29(2), 116–123.

Pincas, A. (2007). How do mature learners learn? Quality in Ageing- Policy, practice and research, 8(4), 28–32.Pinquart, M., & Sorensen, S. (2001). Influences on loneliness in older adults: A meta-analysis. Basic and Applied Social

Psychology, 23(4), 245–266.PRAMA Foundation, Inc. (2007). An assessment of the laws and programs the senior citizens in the Philippines. Journal

of Gerontologic Nursing, 35(3), 39–34.Preston, J., & Hammond, C. (2003). Practitioner views on the wider benefits of further education. Journal of Further and

Higher Education, 27(2), 211–222.Prieto, C. (2009). Relationship between Third Age University programs, degree of satisfaction during retirement and

quality of life. ICERI2009 (pp. 6862– 6873). Madrid, Spain: Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia.Pullman, H., Allik, J., & Realo, A. (2009). Global self-esteem across the life span: A comparison between representative

and self-selected Internet samples. Experimental Aging Research, 35, 20–44.Rho, K., Han, S., Kim, K., & Lee, M. (2006). Effects of aromatherapy masasge on anxiety and self-esteem in Korean

elderly women: A pilot study. International Journal of Neuroscience, 116(12), 1447–1455.Richards, M., & Sacker, A. (2003). Lifetime antecedents of cognitive reserve. Journal of Clinical and Experimental

Neuropsychology, 25, 614–624.Robins, R., Trzesniewski, K., Potter, J., & Gosling, S. (2002). Global self-esteem across the life span. Psychology and

Aging, 17, 423–434.Rowe, J., & Kahn, R. (1997). Successful ageing. The Gerontologist, 37(4), 433–440.Rowe, J., & Kahn, R. (1999). Successful aging. New York, NY: Random House.Russell, H. (2008). Later life: A time to learn. Educational Gerontology, 34, 206–224.Sabates, R., & Hammond, C. (2008). The impact of lifelong learning on happiness and well-being. Retrieved from http://

www.niace.org.uk/lifelonglearninginquiry/docs/Ricardo-Wellbeingevidence.pdfSchuller, T., Preston, J., Hammond, C., Bassett-Grundy, A., & Bynner, J. (2002). Learning, continuity and change in adult

life. London, UK : London Institute of Education.Schuller, T., Preston, J., Hammond, C., Bassett-Grundy, A., & Bynner, J. (2004). The benefits of learning: The impacts of

formal and informal education on social capital, health and family life. London, UK: Routledge.Schwingel, A., Niti, M., Tang, C., & Ng, T. (2009). Continued work employment and volunteerism and mental well-being

of older adults: Singapore longitudinal ageing studies. Age Ageing, 38(5), 531–537.Scourfield, P. (2006). The symbolic value of Tai Chi for older people. Quality in Ageing, 7(2), 4–9.


Seals, C., & Clanton, K. (2008). Lifelong learning: Becoming computer savvy at a later age. Educational Gerontology, 34(1), 1055–01069.

Shahbazzadeghan, B., Farmanbar, R., Ghanbari, A., & Roshan, Z. (2010). The study of the effects of the regular exercise program on the self-esteem of the elderly in the Old People Home of Rasht. European Journal of Social Sciences, 13(2), 271–278.

Skingley, A., & Vella-Burrows, T. (2010). Therapeutic effects of music and singing for older people. Nursing Standard, 24(19), 35–41.

Sorensen, S., Pinquart, M., & Duberstein, P. (2002). How effective are interventions with caregivers? An updated meta-analysis. Gerontologist, 42, 356–372.

Soulsby, J. (2000). Fourth age learning report. Retrieved from http://www. lifelonglearning.co.uk/Spirduso, W., Francis, K., & Macrae, P. (2005). Physical dimensions of aging. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.Swindell, R. (2002). U3A online: A virtual university of the third age for isolated older people. International Journal of

Lifelong Education, 21(5), 414–429.Swindell, R. (2007). Educational initiatives for the elderly. International Journal of Aging & Human Development, 64(3),

263–297.Swindell, R. (2009). Educational initiatives for the elderly. Hong Kong: Hong Kong Elder Academy at the Hong Kong

Institute of Education.Tunney, N., Billings, K., Blakey, B., Burch, D., Hill, M., & Jackson, K. (2006). Mental practice and motor learning of a

functional motor task in older adults: A pilot study. Physical and Occupational Therapy in Geriatrics, 24(3), 63–80.U.S. Census Bureau. (2009). An aging world: 2008, International population reports. Washington, DC: U.S. Government

Printing Office.van Baarsen, B., Snijders, T., Smit, J., & van Duijn, M. (2001). Lonely but not alone: Emotional isolation and social isola-

tion as two distinct dimensions of loneliness in older people. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 61(1), 119–135.

Vance, D., & Crowe, M. (2006). A proposed model of neuroplasticity and cognitive reserve in older adults. Activities, Adaptation & Aging, 30, 61–79.

Wagner, M. (2009). Art and aging. Gerontology, 55(1), 361–370.Walker, J., Payne, S., Smith, P., & Jarrett, N. (2008). Psychology for nurses and caring professions. New York, NY: Open

University Press.Yesavage, J. (1986). The use of rating depression series in the elderly. Chicago, IL: American Psychological Association.Zedlewski, S., & Butrica, B. (2007). Are we taking full advantage of older adults’ potential? Washington, DC: The Urban

Institute. Retrieved from http://www.urban.org/publications/411582.html

Copyright of Educational Gerontology is the property of Routledge and its content may not becopied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder'sexpress written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles forindividual use.

Documents

ContentServer (5)