contents · I the arena of contemporary human resource management 1 1 the nature of contemporary HRM John Bratton 2 Outline 2 Objectives 2 Introduction 3 The development of HRM 3

contents

List of figures xviiiList of tables xxAbout the authors xxiAbout the contributors xxiiPreface xxvAuthors’ acknowledgements xxxiiiTour of the book xxxivHRM as I see it: video and text feature xxxviPublisher’s acknowledgements xxxviiiKey topics grid xl

I the arena of contemporary human resource management 1

1 the nature of contemporary HRM John Bratton 2Outline 2Objectives 2Introduction 3The development of HRM 3

Keynesianism: collectivism and personnel management 3HRM in practice 1.1: A new role for HR professionals 4

Neo-liberalism: individualism and HRM 5Management and HRM 6

The meaning of ‘human resource’ 8The meaning of ‘management’ 9

The nature of the employment relationship 9Scope and functions of HRM 13Theoretical perspectives on HRM 16HRM in practice 1.2: Twenty-first-century senior HR leaders have a changing role 17

The Fombrun, Tichy and Devanna model of HRM 18The Harvard model of HRM 18The Guest model of HRM 20The Warwick model of HRM 22The Storey model of HRM 22

HRM and globalization: The HRM model in advancing economies? 24Ulrich’s strategic partner model of HRM 25

Studying HRM 27Critique and paradox in HRM 30

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Case study: Canterbury Hospital 33Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 34

2 corporate strategy and strategic HRM John Bratton 37Outline 37Objectives 37Introduction 38Strategic management 38

Model of strategic management 39Hierarchy of strategy 41

Ethics and corporate social responsibility 44Business ethics 44Corporate social responsibility 45

HRM in practice 2.1: Killer chemicals and greased palms 46Exploring corporate sustainability 48Strategic HRM 50HRM and globalization: Business urged to keep on eco-track 52HRM in practice 2.2: More women leaders: the answer to the financial crisis? 54

The matching model 55Human resources strategy models 56

The control-based model 56The resource-based model 58An integrative model of human resources strategy 60

Critiquing SHRM and models of human resources strategy 62Case study: Zuvan Winery 65Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 66

3 HRM and performance John Bratton 69Outline 69Objectives 69Introduction 70Rationale for evaluating HRM 70Modelling HRM and performance 71

Human resource management 72Employee performance measures 72Organizational performance measures 73Other factors 73

Demonstrating the HRM–performance relationship 74Embedding performance 77

HRM in practice 3.1: HR ‘can lower NHS death rates’ 78Questioning research on the HRM–performance relationship 80

Research design issues 81HRM and globalization: Evaluating HR practices: the role of qualitative methods 88Context, people and the social relations of performance 92

ixcontents

Case study: Vogue Apparel 100Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 101

II the micro context of human resource management 105

4 work and work systems John Bratton 106Outline 106Objectives 106Introduction 107The primacy of work thesis 107The nature of work 110HRM in practice: 4.1: Emotion at work 112Job design 114Classical work systems: scientific management 115

Scientific management 116Fordism 117

HRM and globalization: Bureaucracy 118Sociotechnical work systems: the neo-human relations movement 119Post-bureaucratic work systems: the self-management movement 125

Team-based systems 125HRM in practice 4.2: The home office 126

Japanese work systems 127High-performance work systems 128Business process re-engineering 129Knowledge-based work systems 130

Work redesign, sustainability and HRM 131Tension and paradox 135HRM in practice 4.3: Technology and HR 136Case study: Currency, Inc. 139Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 140

5 organizational culture and HRM John Bratton 143Outline 143Objectives 143Introduction 144Culture and modernity 144Organizational culture 148HRM and globalization: Multiculturalism’s magic number 149HRM as I see it: Keith Stopforth, Bupa Health and Wellbeing 153Perspectives on organizational culture 153

Managerially oriented perspectives 153Critically oriented perspectives 155

HRM in practice 5.1: Management surveillance: someone’s watching you … 158Managing culture through HRM 159

Leading cultural change 161

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Reframing of social networks and meanings 161HRM practices to change culture 161

Sustainability and green HRM 162HRM in practice 5.2: Can we measure changes in organizational culture? 164Paradox in culture management 167Case study: Big Outdoors 170Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 171

III employee resourcing 173

6 workforce planning and talent management Jeff Gold 174Outline 174Objectives 174Introduction 175People and planning 175Manpower planning 176

Diagnosing manpower problems 178Employee turnover 179

Human resource planning 180Workforce planning 182HRM in practice: 6.1: Planning the headcount on the policy roller-coaster 183

The use of ICT in workforce planning 184Flexibility 186

Flexible working today 187Teleworking 188Offshoring and outsourcing 190Attitudes to work 192Redundancy 193

Talent management 194Succession planning 196

HRM as I see it: Sarah Myers, Sky 197Career management 198

Diversity management 201HRM and globalization: What to do about macho? 202Human resource accounting 204Case study: TNNB Ltd 207Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 208

7 recruiting and selecting employees Jeff Gold 211Outline 211Objectives 211Introduction 212Recruitment and selection policies 212HRM in practice 7.1: Employer branding and the employment ‘deal’ 214Recruitment and attraction 215HRM as I see it: Tania Hummel, Macmillan Publishers 215

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Fitting the person to the environment, organization and job 216Recruitment channels 221Internships or placements 223Job descriptions 223

Selection 226HRM in practice 7.2: Trapped in the ‘marzipan layer’ 227

Reliability and validity issues 229CVs and biodata 229Selection interviewing 230

HRM and globalization: Unpacking the meaning of credentials 231Psychometric testing 234

Online testing 237Assessment centres 239Pre-employment activities 240

Case study: Watson and Hamilton Lawyers 242Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 243

IV employee performance and development 247

8 performance management and appraisal Jeff Gold 248Outline 248Objectives 248Introduction 249Performance measurement and human resource management 249The purpose and processes of performance management 252Performance, judgements and feedback 256HRM in practice 8.1: Performance target culture: ‘I have been near breaking point …’ 258Appraisal interviews 259Performance and development 263HRM and globalization: Mindset: how views of ability influence the quality of performance appraisals 265

Approaches to rating performance 270Self-appraisal 272Multisource feedback 273

Case study: Robertson Engineering 277Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 278

9 human resource development and workplace learning Jeff Gold 281Outline 281Objectives 281Introduction 282The meaning of HRD 282Strategy and HRD 283

Diversity and HRD 287

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National HRD 288Investors in People 292Union learning 293The vocational education system 293Apprenticeships 296

Implementing HRD 297A systematic training model 298An integrated and systemic approach 301Coaching 303

HRM as I see it: Helen Tiffany, Bec Development 306Evaluation and transfer of training 306

Workplace learning 309The learning organization 310Understanding learning 311Organizational learning 314

HRM and globalization: Learning in a global context 315Knowledge creation and management 317HRM in practice 9.1: Managing knowledge 318e-Learning 321Case study: Volunteers Together 324Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 325

10 leadership and management development Jeff Gold 328Outline 328Objectives 328Introduction 329Meanings of leadership, management and LMD 329

The reality of leadership and management work 330Defining LMD 331HRM and globalization: Leadership at Starbucks 332Strategic LMD 333HRM in practice 10.1: Much too macho? 334Strategy and LMD in organizations 336

Evidence for LMD 337Implementing LMD 339

Models of leaders and managers 339Assessing the need for LMD 343Approaches to learning in LMD 344Providing activities for LMD 346Can LMD activities add value? 352

Developing leaders and managers in small and medium-sized enterprises 354LMD in SMEs 354LMD provision for SMEs 355

Case study: The City of Sahali 357Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 358

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V the employment relationship 361

11 reward management John Bratton 362Outline 362Objectives 362Introduction 363The nature of reward management 363A model of reward management 366HRM in practice 11.1: ‘Duvet days’ or ‘presenteeism’? 367

Pay and work motivation 368HRM and globalization: Building a hybrid at Samsung 373The strategic pay paradigm 374HRM in practice 11.2: Performance-related pay 376

Variable payment schemes in UK workplaces 378Job evaluation and internal equity 380

Gathering the job analysis data 382Selecting compensable factors 382Evaluating the job 382Assigning pay to the job 384

Establishing pay structure and levels 384The role of collective bargaining and government in determining pay 387

Equal pay legislation 388Regulation of low pay 390

Tension and paradox 391HRM as I see it: Ruth Altman, Freelance HR Practitioner 393Case study: Cordaval University 394Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 396

12 industrial relations John Bratton 398Outline 398Objectives 398Introduction 399The nature of industrial relations 399

Understanding why employees join trade unions 401Trades unions in action 401

HRM and globalization: The role of unions in South Africa 403The legal context of industrial relations 404Management strategies 406Trade unions 409HRM in practice 12.1: BA told to hit union ‘where it hurts’ 410

Union membership 411Interpreting union decline 412Union structure 413

HRM as I see it: Ray Fletcher OBE, Unite the Union 415Collective bargaining 415

Collective bargaining structure 416The collective agreement: an overview 419

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Trade unions and HRM 419Union strategies and paradox 421HRM in practice 12.2: Partnership arrangements: the end of an era? 425Case study: Rama Garment factory 426Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 427

13 employee relations and involvement John Bratton 430Outline 430Objectives 430Introduction 431The nature of employee relations 431Employee communication 434HRM as I see it: Keith Hanlon-Smith, Norland Managed Services 435

A communications model 436HRM in practice 13.1: Creating union-free workplaces 438

Direct communication methods 439Information disclosed by management 440

Employee involvement and participation 441HRM and globalization: A warm welcome to the kooky and the wacky 442

A general theory of employee involvement 444Indirect employee participation 447Models of joint consultation 447Extent of joint consultation 448The structure and operation of joint consultative committees 449European Works Councils 451

Employee involvement and paradox 452Employee rights and grievances 453

Employee rights 453Employee grievances 454Sexual harassment as an employee relations issue 454

Employee discipline 456HRM in practice 13.2: Bullying at work: ‘My life became a living hell …’ 457

Disciplinary concepts 458Case study: Hawthorne Pharmaceuticals 459Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 460

14 health and safety management John Bratton 463Outline 463Objectives 463Introduction 464Sustainable health, wellness and human resource management 464

The changing approach to workplace health and safety 466The importance of health and wellness 468

Economic considerations 468Legal considerations 469Psychological considerations 469Ethical considerations 470

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Health and safety legislation 470The Robens Report 471The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 472European Union health and safety legislation 472

Workplace health and wellness issues 474Health issues 474

HRM in practice: 14.1: Juggling work and life 477HRM in practice 14.2: Work-related stress 482Workplace wellness 488Workplace and community health 489HRM and globalization: Food and eating at work: a matter of taste, politics or basic human rights? 490Paradox in workplace health and wellness 491Case study: The City of Kamloops 494Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 495

VI the global context of human resource management 499

15 international HRM John Bratton 500Outline 500Objectives 500Introduction 501Global capitalism 501Typologies of global business strategy 503

The integration–responsiveness grid 504International human resource management 507

Global capitalism and employment relations 507HRM and globalization: Is ‘the race to the bottom’ an inevitable consequence of globalization? 508

IHRM and SIHRM 509HRM in practice 15.1: ‘We are disposable people …’ 510

A model of SIHRM 511HRM as I see it: Lesley White, Huawei Technologies 513The internationalization of HRM practices 514

International recruitment and selection 515International rewards 517International training and development 518International performance appraisal 518Repatriation 520

The convergence/divergence debate 521HRM in practice 15.2: Japanese CEO breaks stereotype by firing 14,000 staff 522Case study: ICAN 526Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark 527

xvi contents

16 recession, sustainability, trust: the crisis in HRM John Bratton and Jeff Gold 530

Outline 530Objectives 530Introduction 531Post-crisis recession and sustainability 531The profession of HRM and trust 534The crisis in HRM 535Towards a practice perspective in HRM 540Towards critical HRM pedagogy 543Final comment 545

Appendix A: the European Union Social Charter 546Bibliography 547Name index 606Subject index 616

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part I

chapter 1 the nature of contemporary HRM

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chapter 2corporate strategy and

strategic HRM37

chapter 3HRM and performance

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œ œœ Introduction

œ œœ The development of HRM

œ œœ HRM in practice 1.1: A new role for HR professionals

œ œœ Management and HRM

œ œœ The nature of the employment relationship

œ œœ Scope and functions of HRM

œ œœ Theoretical perspectives on HRM

œ œœ HRM in practice 1.2: Twenty-first-century senior HR leaders have a changing role

œ œœ HRM and globalization: The HRM model in advancing economies?

œ œœ Studying HRM

œ œœ Critique and paradox in HRM

œ œœ Case study: Canterbury Hospital

œ œœ Summary, Vocab checklist for ESL students, Review questions and Further reading to improve your mark

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

1 Explain the development of human resource management (HRM)

2 Define HRM and its relation to organizational management

3 Explain the central features of the contract in the employment relationship

4 Summarise the scope of HRM and the key HRM functions

5 Explain the theoretical issues surrounding the HRM debate

6 Appreciate the different approaches to studying HRM

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the nature of contemporary HRM

chapter 1

T his book is concerned with managing people, both individually and collectively, in the workplace. Emerging from the worst cyclical economic recession since 1945, human resource management (HRM) has assumed new prominence as concerns

about global competitiveness, the demographics of ageing and climate change persist. It is argued that these global drivers of change require managers to adjust the way in which they manage in order to achieve innovation, sustainable growth and an effective use of employees. For some, HRM is associated with a set of distinctive ‘best’ practices that aim to recruit, develop, reward and manage people in ways that create what are called ‘high-performing work systems’. For others, the HRM stereotype is simply a repackaging of ‘good’ personnel management practices – the ‘old wine in new bottles’ critique – or more fundamentally exposes enduring conflicts and paradoxes associated with labour manage-ment. As managers strive to reduce costs, most follow conventional wisdom – downsizing, restructuring and outsourcing work to ever cheaper labour markets – rather than looking to HRM in order to create competitive advantage or provide superior public services. Critical management theorists point to the need to address the conflict between the dual imperatives of competitiveness and control, and the cooperation and commitment of employees. Within the academic study of HRM, this conflict is often framed in terms of ‘the rhetoric versus the reality’ of HRM.

This chapter examines the complex debate surrounding the nature and significance of contemporary HRM. After defining HRM, we will examine the nature of the employment relationship and HRM functions. We will also explore some influential theoretical models that attempt to define HRM analytically. We will begin, however, by briefly examining the development of HRM.

reflective question

Based upon your reading or work experience, how important is HRM to individual performance at work or to organizational success?

The development of HRM

Despite the fact that ‘human resource management’ outwardly appears to be a relatively neutral management term, the language used to talk about it is imbued with ideologies that reflect radical changes in society over time. As understood in the approach we are taking here, innovations in management must be analysed within a framework of existing social relationships and interdependencies in society. The notion that HRM is embedded in society helps to capture and express the importance of culture, national politics, practising law and indigenous business-related institutions, for example employment tribunals, in explaining how work and people are managed. Thus, developments in HRM respond to and are shaped by changes in markets, social movements and public policies that are the products of the economic and political changes in society.

Keynesianism: collectivism and personnel management

The roots of people management can be traced back to the Industrial Revolution in England in the late eighteenth century. However, we begin our discussion on this history with the economic and political conditions prevailing after the Second World War. The

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There has been increased awareness and understanding of the impact that business activity has upon social and political systems as a result

of high-profile corporate scandals, such as the alleged phone hacking at News International and the politicians implicated. Awareness has also been raised by global development initiatives such as the Business Leaders Initiative on Human Rights (a business-led organization aiming to find practical ways of implementing the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in a business context). As a result, organizations are increasingly being pushed to develop their business practices in order to operate within socially acceptable parameters. The ‘triple bottom line’ (Elkington, 1998) of profit, people and planet provides a convenient manifesto for the ‘social contract’ now expected from business. There is little doubt that there is tension between social obligations and the demands of shareholders. But who is awarded the daunting task of integrating the economic, social and environmental objectives into an organization’s strategy, thus dealing with the complex task of balancing ethics and income? The need to define, balance and carry out these objectives has been intensified as the effects of the economic downturn are felt around the globe. A recent People Management article highlights this growing expectation that businesses will accept such responsibility:

The fallout from the world financial crisis continues unabated. For the first time since the Great Depression of the 1930s, some of the most sacred tenets of Western capitalism are being questioned in mainstream debate. Chief among these is our most basic assumption that growth is the primary goal of economic activity. There seems to be a widespread acceptance of the need for corporations to be more responsible as global tenants, to pay more attention to the broader consequences of economic activity

and to adopt more sustainable practices … While the recklessness of the financial services industry seems to have been pivotal, our research suggests that the crisis was the culmination of a far wider malaise affecting how organisations operate, what leaders do, and how they are developed ... Businesses are increasingly seen as participants in a wider ecology with responsibility for minimising their environmental impact and improving their contribution to social welfare. (Casserley and Critchley, 2010, p. 21)

Much is made of the wide-ranging responsibilities of the human resources (HR) function. Alongside the strategic influence of their new role as a business partner in many organizations, and the ongoing need for them to provide operational support, HR professionals are facing renewed and unrelenting pressure to act as moral and ethical compasses for organizations. This is rooted in the welfare role of the personnel function prior to the advent of HRM. The HR function has been awarded great responsibility as a guardian of the ethos and values that must be embedded in an organizational culture if HR specialists are to be successful. The changing expectations of organizational stakeholders can be attributed to notable cases of corporate mismanagement and stakeholders’ growing awareness that their reputation could be damaged. This has led to a competitive need to justify not only what organizations do with their profits, but also how those profits are generated in the first place. Cross-border business and an emphasis on employee welfare and social, legal and philanthropic responsibilities have all forced organizations to nominate ‘natural’ leaders to be responsible for internal and external ethical responsibility.

Stop! Should corporations behave in an ethical manner because it is morally right or because there is a ‘business case’ for management ethics? Should HR professionals act as the ‘moral compass’ for organizations?

Sources and further information: For further information, see the Business Leaders Initiative on Human Rights website www.blihr.org. See also Casserley and Critchley (2010), Francis and Keegan (2005) and Watson (2007).

Note: This feature was written by Lesley McLean (née Craig) at Edinburgh Napier University.

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A new role for HR professionalshrm in practice 1.1

years 1950–74 were the ‘golden age’ of the Keynesian economic doctrine, as evidenced by the post-war Labour government’s commitment ‘to combine a free democracy with a planned economy’ (Coates, 1975, p. 46). It was a period when both Conservative and Labour governments, anxious to foster industrial peace through conciliation, mediation and arbitration (Crouch, 1982), passed employment laws to improve employment condi-tions and extend workers’ rights, which also encouraged the growth of personnel special-ists. The Donovan Commission (1968) investigated UK industrial relations and recommended, among other things, that management should develop joint (trade union–management) procedures for the speedy settlement of grievances. The idea that there were both common and conflicting goals between the ‘actors’ – employers and trade unions – and the state’s deep involvement in managing and regulating employment relations provided the pluralist framework for managing the employment relationship.

hrm web links www Go to the website of the HR professional associations (for example, Australia www.hrhq.

com; Britain www.cipd.co.uk; Canada www.hrpa.org; and USA www.shrm.org). Then click on the ‘Mission statement’ or ‘History’. Evaluate the information you find in relation to the history of personnel management. What are the origins of the association?

Neo-liberalism: individualism and HRM

In the 1980s and 90s, there was a radical change in both the context and the content of how people were managed. Western economies saw the renaissance of ‘market disciplines’, and there was a strong belief that, in terms of economic well-being, too much government intervention was the problem. The new political orthodoxy focused on extending market power and limiting the role of the government, mainly to facilitate this laissez-faire agenda (Kuttner, 2000). The rise of the political ideology of Thatcherism in Britain represented a radical break from the consensual, corporatist style of government, which provided the political backcloth to this shift in managerial ideas and practices. Whereas it was alleged that traditional personnel management based its legitimacy and influence on its ability to deal with the uncertainties stemming from full employment and trade union growth, HRM celebrated the unitary philosophy and framework. Strongly influenced by the up-and-coming neo-liberal economic consensus, HRM subscribed to the idea that there was a harmony of goals and interests between the organization’s internal members. The new approach was therefore to marginalize or exclude ‘external’ influences such as the state or trade unions.

The landmark publication New Perspectives on Human Resource Management (1989), edited by John Storey, generated the ‘first wave’ of debate on the nature and ideological significance of the normative HRM model. Debate focused on ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ versions of the HRM model. The ‘hard’ version emphasizes the term ‘resource’ and adopts a ‘rational’ approach to managing employees, that is, viewing employees as any other economic factor – as a cost that must be controlled. The ‘soft’ HRM model emphasizes the term ‘human’ and thus advocates investment in training and development, as well as the adop-tion of ‘commitment’ strategies to ensure that highly skilled and loyal employees give the organization a competitive advantage. For some academics, the normative HRM model represented a distinctive approach to managing the human ‘input’ that fitted the new economic order (Bamberger and Meshoulam, 2000); in addition, being much more concerned with business strategy and HR strategy linkages, it signalled the beginnings of


a new theoretical sophistication in the area of personnel management (Boxall, 1992). For those who disagreed, however, the HRM stereotype was characterized as a cultural construct concerned with making sure that employees ‘fitted’ corporate values (Townley, 1994), even attempting to ‘govern the soul’ (Rose, 1999). In this way, the HRM model, among both its advocates and its detractors, became one of the most controversial topics in managerial debate (Storey, 1989). The displacement of personnel management by HRM can be seen as the outcome of neo-liberalism ideology, much as the ‘social contract’ of the 1970s was an outcome of Keynesian economic planning and the ‘Old’ Labour govern-ment–union partnership.

Management and HRM

HRM, in theory and in practice, encompasses a diverse body of scholarship and manage-rial activities concerned with managing work and people. An early definition of HRM by Michael Beer and his colleagues focuses on all managerial activity affecting the employ-ment relationship: ‘Human resource management (HRM) involves all management deci-sions and actions that affect the nature of the relationship between the organization and employees – its human resources’ (1984, p. 1). Acknowledging HRM as only one ‘recipe’ from a range of alternatives, Storey (1995a, 2001) contends that HRM plays a pivotal role in sophisticated organizations, emphasizing the importance of the strategic dimension and employee ‘commitment’ in generating HR activities. In his view:

Human resource management is a distinctive approach to employment management which seeks to achieve competitive advantage through the strategic deployment of a highly committed and capable workforce using an array of cultural, structural and personnel techniques. (Storey, 2007, p. 7)

Conceptualizing HRM as a high-commitment management strategy limits the disci-pline to the study of a relatively small number of distinct organizations as most firms continue to provide low wages and a minimal number of training opportunities (Bacon and Blyton, 2003). In contrast, Boxall et al. (2008, p. 1) define HRM as ‘the management of work and people towards desired ends’. These authors advance the notion of ‘analytical HRM’ to emphasize that the primary task of HRM scholars is to build theory and gather empirical data in order to identify and explain ‘the way management actually behaves in organizing work and managing people’ (Boxall et al., 2008, p. 4, emphasis added).

This approach to HRM has three interrelated analytical themes. The first is a concern with the ‘what’ and ‘why’ of HRM, with understanding management behaviour in different contexts and with explaining motives. The second is a concern with the ‘how’ of HRM, that is, the processes by which it is carried out. The third is concerned with questions of ‘for whom and how well’, that is, with assessing the outcomes of HRM. The third characteristic in particular implies a critical purpose and helps us to rediscover one of the prime objectives of the social sciences – that of asking tough questions about power and inequality. It also reminds all of those who are interested in studying the field that HRM is ‘embedded in a global economical, political and sociocultural context’ (Janssens and Steyaert, 2009, p. 146).

Almost 50 years ago, sociologist Peter Berger wrote that the first wisdom of sociological inquiry is that ‘things are not what they seem’ (1963, p. 23). A deceptively simple statement, Berger’s idea suggests that most people live in a social world that they do not understand.

part I – the arena of contemporary human resource management6

The goal of sociology is to shed light on social reality using what the late C. Wright Mills called the ‘sociological imagination’ – the ability to see the relationships between individual life experiences and the larger society, because the two are related (1959/2000, pp. 3–4). Sociologists argue that the sociological imagination helps people to place seemingly personal troubles, such as losing a job to outsourcing or local environmental degradation, into a larger national or global context. For Watson (2010), a critical approach to studying HRM provides inspiration and an invitation to apply Mills’ ‘sociological imagination’ to matters of HRM ‘outcomes’ that have ‘wider social consequences’. In the context of the post-2008 crisis and the search for the ‘new economic philosophy’, Delbridge and Keenoy (2010) provide a persuasive argument for critical HRM (CHRM), an intellectual activity, grounded in social science inquiry, that contextualizes HR practices within the prevailing capitalist society, challenges the maxims of what Alfred Schutz has called the ‘world-taken-for-granted’ and is more inclusive of marginal voices.

We need a definition of the subject matter that conceptualizes HRM in terms of employ-ment or people management, one that distinguishes it from a set of ‘neutral’ functional practices, and one that conceives it as embedded in a capitalist society and its associated ideologies and global structures. The following attempts to capture the essence of what contemporary HRM is about:

Human resource management (HRM) is a strategic approach to managing employment relations which emphasizes that leveraging people’s capabilities and commitment is critical to achieving sustainable competitive advantage or superior public services. This is accomplished through a distinctive set of integrated employment policies, programmes and practices, embedded in an organizational and societal context.

Following on from this definition, CHRM underscores the importance of people – only the ‘human factor’ or labour can provide talent to generate value. With this in mind, it goes without saying that any adequate analytical conception of HRM should draw atten-tion to the notion of indeterminacy, which derives from the employment relationship: employees have a potential capacity to provide the added value desired by the employer. It also follows from this that human knowledge and skills are a strategic resource that needs investment and skilful management. Moreover, the emergent environmental manage-ment literature provides a role for HRM in improving an organization’s performance in terms of overall sustainability. Also implicit within our definition is the need for radical organizational and social change. Another distinguishing feature of HRM relates to the notion of integration. A cluster of employment policies programmes and practices needs to be coherent and integrated with the organization’s corporate strategy. Finally, the 2008 global financial implosion and the 2011 nuclear crisis in Japan remind us that the economy and society are part of the same set of processes, and that work and management prac-tices are deeply embedded in the wider sociocultural context in which they operate. The conception of CHRM put forward here resonates with analytical frameworks holding that HR practices can only be understood in the context of economic-societal factors that shape or direct those practices. The approach adopted can be summed up in the succinct phrase ‘context matters’.

This book is oriented towards helping people manage people – both individually and collectively – more effectively, equitably and with dignity. It is plausible to argue that if the workforce is so critical for sustainability performance, HRM is too important to be left solely to HR specialists but should be the responsibility of all managers. Furthermore,


human dignity in and at work is, or ought to be, at the heart of contemporary HRM (Bolton, 2007). The dignity dimension provides support for a reconceptualized HRM model of empowered, engaged and developed employees, the ‘missing “human” in HRM’ critique (Bolton and Houlihan, 2007). Recently, critics have voiced concerns regarding the ‘mori-bund and limited’ nature of mainstream HRM (Delbridge and Keenoy, 2010, p. 800). The demands for dignity in the workplace are a key dimension of CHRM that provides strong support for extending the analysis of HRM outcomes beyond employee performance and commitment to include the ‘dignity’ aspects of the employment relationship and equality. To grasp the nature and significance of HRM, it is necessary to understand the manage-ment process and the role of HRM within it. But before we do this, we should explain why managing people or the ‘human’ input is so different from managing other resources.

The meaning of ‘human resource’

First and foremost, labour is not a commodity. It is people in work organizations who set overall strategies and goals, design work systems, produce goods and services, monitor quality, allocate financial resources and market the products and services. Human beings, therefore, become human capital by virtue of the roles they assume in the work organiza-tion. Employment roles are defined and described in a manner designed to maximize particular employees’ contributions to achieving organizational objectives. Schultz (1981) defined human capital in this way:

Consider all human abilities to be either innate or acquired. Every person is born with a particular set of genes, which determines his [sic] innate ability. Attributes of acquired population quality, which are valuable and can be augmented by appropriate investment, will be treated as human capital. (Schultz, 1981, p. 21; quoted in Fitz-enz, 2000, p. xii)

In management terms, ‘human capital’ refers to the traits that people bring to the work-place – intelligence, aptitude, commitment, tacit knowledge and skills, and an ability to learn. But the contribution of this human resource to the organization is typically variable and unpredictable. This indeterminacy of an employee’s contribution to her or his work

organization makes the human resource the ‘most vexa-tious of assets to manage’ (Fitz-enz, 2000, p. xii) and is helpful in understanding Hyman’s (1987) assertion that the need to gain both control over and commitment from workers is the leitmotiv of HRM.

Managing people in a democratic market society extends beyond the issue of control. If the employer’s operational goals and the employee’s personal goals are to be achieved, there must necessarily be cooperation between the two parties. This reciprocal cooperation is, however, often accompanied by different forms of resis-tance and conflict. The nature of employment relations reminds us that people differ from other resources because their commitment and cooperation always has

These chefs provide an example of human capital in the context of a restaurant.

©istockphoto.com/Huchen Lu


to be won: they have the capacity to resist management’s actions and join trade unions to defend or further their interests and rights. At the same time, employment entails an economic relationship and one of control and cooperation. This duality means that the employment relationship is highly dynamic in the sense that it is forged by the coexistence of control, cooperation and conflict in varying degrees (Brown, 1988; Edwards, 1986; Watson, 2004). Thus, HRM is inevitably characterized by structured cooperation and conflict.

The meaning of ‘management’

The word manage came into English usage directly from the Italian maneggiare, meaning ‘to handle and train horses’. In the sixteenth century, the meaning was extended to include a general sense of taking charge or directing (Williams, 1976).

The answer to the question ‘Who is a manager?’ depends on the manager’s social posi-tion in the organization’s hierarchy. A manager is an organizational member who is ‘insti-tutionally empowered to determine and/or regulate certain aspects of the actions of others’ (Willmott, 1984, p. 350). Collectively, managers are traditionally differentiated horizontally by their function activities (for example, production manager or HR manager) and verti-cally by the level at which they are located in their organizational hierarchy (for example, counter manager or branch manager).

Management has been variously conceptualized as ‘the central process whereby work organizations achieve the semblance of congruence and direction’ (Mintzberg, 1973), as ‘art, science, magic and politics’ (Watson, 1986) and as a process designed to coordinate and control productive activities (see, for example, Thompson and McHugh, 2009). In his seminal work, Fayol (1949) envisioned management as a science. For Fayol, management is primarily concerned with internal planning, organizing, directing and controlling – known as the ‘PODC’ tradition. The creation of a formal organizational structure and work config-uration is, therefore, the raison d’être for management. This classical stereotype presents an idealized image of management as a rationally designed system for realizing goals, but there are competing theoretical perspectives, as we will explain later in this chapter.

The nature of the employment relationship

The nature of the social relationship between employees and their employer is an issue of central analytical importance to HRM. The employment relationship describes an asym-metry of reciprocal relations between employees (non-managers and managers) and their work organization. Through the asymmetry of the employment contract, inequalities of power structure both the economic exchange (wage or salary) and the nature and quality of the work performed (whether it is routine or creative). In contemporary capitalism, employment relationships vary: at one end of the scale, they can be a short-term, primarily but not exclusively economic exchange for a relatively well-defined set of duties and low commitment; at the other, they can be complex long-term relationships defined by a broad range of economic inducements and relative security of employment, given in return for a broad set of duties and a high commitment from the employee.

The employment relationship may be regulated in three ways: unilaterally by the employer; bilaterally, by the employer and the trade unions, through a process of collective bargaining; and trilaterally, by employers, trade unions and statutes, through the


intervention of the government or state (Kelly, 2005). What, then, is the essence of the employment relationship? Research into the employment relationship has drawn attention to economic, legal, social and psychological aspects of relations in the workplace.

At its most basic, the employment relationship embraces an economic relationship: the ‘exchange of pay for work’ (Brown, 1988). When people enter the workplace, they enter into a pay–effort bargain, which places an obligation on both the employer and the employee: in exchange for a wage or salary, paid by the employer, the employee is obligated to perform an amount of physical or intellectual labour. The pay–effort bargain is relevant for understanding how far the employment relationship is structurally conflictual or consensual. In the capitalist labour market, people sell their labour and seek to maximize their pay. To the employer, pay is a cost that, all things being equal, reduces profit and therefore needs to be minimized. Thus, as Brown (1988, p. 57) states, ‘Conflict is structured into employment relations’ as the benefit to one group is a cost to the other.

The ‘effort’ or ‘work’ side of the contract also generates tensions and conflict because it is inherently imprecise and indeterminate. The contract permits the employer to buy a potential level of physical or intellectual labour. The function of management is therefore to transform this potential into actual value-added labour. HR practices are designed to narrow the divide between employees’ potential and actual performance or, in Townley’s (1994, p. 14) words:

Personnel practices measure both the physical and subjective dimensions of labour, and offer a technology which aims to render individuals and their behaviour predictable and calculable … to bridge the gap between promise and performance, between labour power and labour, and organizes labour into a productive force or power.

The second component of the employment relationship is that it involves a legal rela-tionship: a network of contractual and statutory rights and obligations affecting both parties to the contract. Contractual rights are based upon case law (judicial precedent), and the basic rules of contract, in so far as they relate to the contract of employment, are fundamental to the legal relationship between the employer and the employee. It is outside the scope of this chapter to provide a discussion of the rules of contract. But, to use Kahn-Freund’s famous phrase, the contract of employment, freely negotiated between an indi-vidual and her or his employer, can be considered to be the cornerstone of English employment law (Honeyball, 2010).

Statutory rights refer to an array of legislation that affects the employer–employee rela-tionship and employer–union relationship: the ‘right not to be unfairly dismissed’ or the ‘right to bargain’, for example. Statutory employment rights provide a basic minimum or ‘floor’ of rights for all employees. A complex network of UK and European Union statutory rights regulates the obligations of employers and employees even though these are not (for the most part) formally inserted into the employment contract itself. If they are violated, legal rights can be enforced by some compulsory mechanisms provided by the state, for example a tribunal or the courts. Table 1.1 provides an overview of how UK employment legislation has helped to shape the legal regulation of employment relations. In broad terms, the employment laws of the 1979–97 Conservative government sought to regulate the activities of trade unions. Cumulatively, the changes marked ‘a radical shift from the consensus underlying “public policy” on industrial relations during most of the past century’ (Hyman, 1987, p. 93). The changes in the law tilted the balance of power in an industrial dispute towards the employer (Brown et al., 1997).


The influence of European Union (EU) law increased steadily during the same period. Although it is not a comprehensive body of employment legislation, EU employment law does draw on the Western European tradition, in which the rights of employees are laid down in constitutional texts and legal codes. Under the 1997 ‘New Labour’ government, a plethora of legislative reform in employment law facilitated trade union organization and collective bargaining and extended protection to individual employees. For example, the 2006 Work and Families Act gave additional protections in relation to pregnancy – the right to maternity leave, time off for antenatal care and the right to maternity pay (Lockton, 2010).

Table 1.1 Selective UK Employment Statutes and Statutory Instruments, 1961–2007

Year Act

1961 Factories Act (Safety)

1963/72 Contract of Employment Act

1965 Industrial Training Act

1968 Race Relations Act

1970 Equal Pay Act

1971 Industrial Relations Act

1973 Employment and Training Act

1974 Health and Safety at Work etc. Act

1974/76 Trade Union and Labour Relations Act

1975/86 Sex Discrimination Act

1975 Employment Protection Act

1978 Employment Protection (Consolidation) Act

1980 Employment Act

1982 Employment Act

1984 Trade Union Act

1986 Wages Act

1988 Employment Act

1989 Employment Act

1990 Employment Act

1992 Trade Union and Labour Relations (Consolidation) Act

Year Act

1993 Trade Union Reform and Employment Rights Act

1996 Employment Rights Act

1996 Employment Tribunals Act

1998 Employment Rights (Disputes Resolution) Act

1998 National Minimum Wage Act

1999 Employment Relations Act

2002 Employment Act

2003 National Minimum Wage (Enforcement) Act

2003 Employment Equality (Sexual Orientation) Regulations

2003 Employment Equality (Religion or Belief) Regulations

2004 Gender Recognition Act

2004 Employment Relations Act

2005 Disability Discrimination Act

2006 Employment Equality (Age) Regulations

2006 Work and Families Act

2006 Equality Act

2007 Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act

reflective question

Based on your own work experience or that of a friend or relative, can you identify three statutory employment rights?

The third distinguishing component of the employment relationship is that it involves a social relationship. Employees are not isolated individuals but members of social groups, who observe social norms and mores that influence their actions in the workplace. This observation of human behaviour in the workplace – which has been documented since the 1930s – is highly relevant given the increased prevalence of work teams. Furthermore, unless the employee happens to be an international football celebrity, the employment


relationship embodies an uneven balance of power between the parties. The notion in English law of a ‘freely’ negotiated individual agreement is misleading. In reality, without collective (trade union) or statutory intervention, the most powerful party, the employer, imposes the agreement by ‘the brute facts of power’ (Wedderburn, 1986, p. 106).

Inequalities of power in turn structure the nature of work. Most employees experience an extreme division of labour with minimal discretion over how they perform their tasks or opportunity to participate in decision-making processes. Thus, the social dimension is concerned with social relations, social structure and power – people with power over other people – rather than with the legal technicalities between the parties. As such, employ-ment relations are deeply textured and profoundly sociological (Bratton et al., 2009). Looking at the development of the mainstream HRM canon over the last 25 years, it can be seen how little these inherent inequalities figure, despite the fact that they can be readily observed in the contemporary workplace.

In recent years, mainstream HRM scholarship has focused on another component of the employment relationship: the psychological contract. This is conceptualized as a dynamic two-way exchange of perceived promises and obligations between employees and their employer. The concept has become a ‘fashionable’ framework within which to study aspects of the employment relationship (Guest and Conway, 2002; Rousseau and Ho, 2000). The ‘psychological contract’ is a metaphor that captures a wide variety of largely unwritten expectations and understandings of the two parties about their mutual obliga-tions. Rousseau (1995, p. 9) defines this as ‘individual beliefs, shaped by the organization, regarding terms of an exchange agreement between individuals and their organization’. Guest and Conway (2002, p. 22) define it as ‘the perceptions of both parties to the employ-ment relationship – organization and individual – of the reciprocal promises and obliga-tions implied in that relationship’. At the heart of the concept of the psychological contract are levers for individual commitment, motivation and task performance beyond the ‘expected outcomes’ (Figure 1.1).

EmploymentcontractEmployee effortand ruleadherence

+

Employer rewardand job security

Expectedoutcome

PsychologicalcontractCommitment andmotivation=

High performance

External contexts

Leadership

Human resourcemanagement practices

Figure 1.1 The employment and psychological contract between employees and employers

The psychological contract has a number of important features that employers need to appreciate. First, ineffective practices may communicate different beliefs about the recip-rocal promises and obligations that are present (Guest and Conway, 2002). Thus,


individuals will have different perceptions of their psychological contract, even when the legal contract is identical. Managers will therefore be faced with a multitude of perceived psychological contracts (PPCs) within the same organization (Bendal et al., 1998). Second, the PPC reaffirms the notion that the employment relationship is thought to be one of exchange – the promissory exchange of offers and the mutual obligation of the employer and employee to fulfil these offers. Third, PPCs are shaped in particular contexts, which includes HR practices. Rousseau argues that HR practices ‘send strong messages to indi-viduals regarding what the organization expects of them and what they can expect in return’ (Rousseau, 1995, pp. 182–3). In the current post-crisis era, ‘downsizing’ has become a ubiquitous fact of organizational life (Datta et al., 2010; Mellahi and Wilkinson, 2010). Research suggests that those organizations downsizing can reduce the likelihood of psychological contract violation by ensuring that HR practices contribute to employees’ perceptions of ‘procedural fairness’ (Arshad and Sparrow, 2010).

On any reading, the essence of the PPC thesis is the idea that a workforce is a collection of free, independent people, as though individual beliefs are fixed features of an employee’s day-to-day behaviour. However, this addresses concerns of individual motivation and commitment within a unitary ideological framework. In doing this, in total contrast to critical paradigms, it neglects a well-established body of research grounded in sociology showing that people’s beliefs and expectations about employment form outside the work-place. The work experiences of parents, for instance, shape the attitudes and career aspira-tions of their teenage children. The idea that family members and peer groups can influence expectations about career opportunities and the everyday reality of work is called ‘orienta-tion to work’ (Goldthorpe et al., 1968; Hyman and Brough, 1975).

reflective question

What do you think of the concept of the psychological contract? Why does there appear to be more interest now in managing it? How important is it to manage the psychological contract for (1) non-managerial employees, and (2) managerial employees?

Scope and functions of HRM

HRM is a body of knowledge and an assortment of practices to do with the organization of work and the management of employment relations. The mainstream literature identi-fies three major subdomains of knowledge: micro, strategic and international (Boxall et al., 2008).

The largest subdomain refers to micro HRM (MHRM), which is concerned with managing individual employees and small work groups. It covers areas such as HR plan-ning, job design, recruitment and selection, performance management, training and development, and rewards. These HR subfunctions cover a myriad of evidence-based practices, training techniques and payment systems, for instance, many of them informed by psychology-oriented studies of work (see, for example, Warr, 2008). The second domain is strategic HRM (SHRM), which concerns itself with the processes of linking HR strategies with business strategies and measures the effects on organizational performance. The third domain is international HRM (IHRM), which focuses on the management of people in companies operating in more than one country.


Drawing on the work of Squires (2001), these three major subdomains help us address three basic questions:

• What do HRM professionals do? • What affects what they do? • How do they do what they do?

To help us answer the first question, the work of Harzing (2000), Millward et al. (2000) and Ulrich (1997) identifies the key MHRM subfunctions of HR policies, programmes and practices that have been designed in response to organizational goals and contingencies, and have been managed to achieve those goals. Each function contains alternatives from which managers can choose. How the HR function is organized and how much power it has relative to that of other management functions is affected by both external and internal factors unique to the establishment. A regulation-oriented national business system, with strong trade unions, employment laws on equity and affirmative action, and occupational health and safety regulations, elevates the status of the HR manager and strengthens the corporate HR function. In contrast, a market-oriented corporate culture, with employee pay based on going market rates, minimum investment in employee training and shorter employment contracts, is associated with outsourcing and decentralization of the HR function, which weakens the corporate HR function (Jacoby, 2005).

The size of the organization also appears to negatively affect the extent to which HR services are provided internally by HR specialists from the central HR unit. Klass et al.’s (2005) study, for example, found that an increasing number of small and medium-sized organizations – defined as those with 500 or fewer employees – have established a busi-ness relationship with a professional employer organization that assumes responsibility for delivering their HR services and interventions, a process usually referred to as ‘outsourcing’. Klass et al. argue that the choice is not between an internal HR department and outsourcing the HR services, but is one in which limited resources mean that it is a case of either obtaining HR expertise and services externally or foregoing such services. In addition, an increasing number of European organizations have transferred responsibility for their HR functions from the central HR department to line management. This process of ‘decentral-ization’ has occurred as HR has assumed a more strategic role (Andolšek and Štebe, 2005; CIPD, 2006a).

SHRM underscores the need for the HR strategy to be integrated with other manage-ment functions, and highlights the responsibility of line management to foster the high commitment and motivation associated with high-performing work systems. SHRM is also concerned with managing sustainability, including, for example, establishing a low-carbon work system and organization, communicating this vision, setting clear expecta-tions for creating a sustainable workplace, and developing the capability to reorganize people and reallocate other resources to achieve the vision. As part of the integrative process, all managers are expected to better comprehend the strategic nature of ‘best’ or better HR practices, to execute them more skilfully, and at the same time to intervene to affect the ‘mental models’, attitudes and behaviours needed, for instance, to build a high-performing sustainable culture (Pfeffer, 2005). Furthermore, national systems of employ-ment regulation shape SHRM: ‘the stronger the institutional framework … the less [sic] options a company may have to impose its own approach to regulating its HRM’ (Andolšek and Štebe, 2005, p. 327).


hrm web links www Go to the website of the 2004 Workplace Employment Relations Survey (www.dti.

gov.uk/employment/research-evaluation/grants/wers/index.html) for data on the job responsibilities of HR specialists. Has there been any change in the functions performed by HR specialists over the past decade? Are HR specialists involved in all the key areas of activity described in the text?

The peculiarities of national employment systems and national culture shape the employ-ment relationship, and these forces and processes create different tendencies in HR practice operating across national boundaries. As such, they relate to the second question we posed earlier – what affects what managers and HR professional do? The HR activities that managers perform vary from one workplace to another depending upon the contingencies affecting the organization. These contingencies can be divided into three broad categories: external context, strategy and organization. The external category reinforces the notion that organiza-tions and society are part of the same set of processes – that organizations are embedded within a particular market society that encompasses the economic and cultural aspects (see Chapter 5). The external variables frame the context for formulating competitive strategies (see Chapter 2). The internal organizational contingencies include size, work, structure and technology (see Chapter 4). Global as well as local factors can affect what managers do. For those managers in companies that cross national boundaries, micro HR policies and practices relating to global and local recruitment and selection, training and development, rewards and the management of expatriates will be affected by a particular country’s institutional struc-ture and cultural setting. These micro HR functions, when integrated with different macro contexts and overall strategy considerations, define the subdomain of IHRM (see Chapter 15).

It is important, therefore, to recognize that HR policies and practices are contingent upon external and internal contexts and are fundamentally interrelated. For example, a company responding to competitive pressures may change its manufacturing strategy by introducing ‘self-managed’ teams. This will in turn cause changes in recruitment and selec-tion (for example, hiring people perceived to be ‘team players’), and training and reward priorities (for example, designing crossfunctional training and designing a reward system that encourages the sharing of information and learning). HR practices, therefore, aim to achieve two objectives: to produce a synergy that improves employee performance and to enhance organizational effectiveness.

The third of our three basic questions – how do managers and HR professionals do what they do? – requires us to discuss the means or skills by which managers accomplish their HRM goals. Managers and HR specialists use technical, cognitive and interpersonal – such as mentoring and coaching – processes and skills to accomplish their managerial work (Agashae and Bratton, 2001; Senge, 1990; Squires, 2001; Yukl, 2005). Power is important because it is part of the influence process, as are legal procedures. In addition, communi-cation practices and skills convey the formal and psychological contract to employees (Guest and Conway, 2002). Managing people is complex, and individual managers vary in terms of their capacity or inclination to use established processes and skills. These processes and skills therefore concern human relationships and go some way to explaining different management styles and the distinction between a manager and a leader (Bratton et al., 2004a). The micro, strategic and international domains, the contingencies influ-encing domestic and international HR policies and practices, and managerial skills are combined and diagrammatically shown in a three-dimensional model in Figure 1.2.


FunctionsPlanningIntegratingStaffingDevelopingMotivatingDesigning Managing relationsManaging changeEvaluating

Skills

External context Strategy Organization

Contingencies

CommunicationLegal

PowerInstructional

InterpersonalCognitive

Technical

Figure 1.2 HRM functions, contingencies and skills

Source: Adapted from Squires (2001)

The model implies not only that HRM is a multidimensional activity, but also that its analysis has to be multidirectional (Squires, 2001). We might, for that reason, examine the effect of new technology (a contingency) on HR functions, such as training and develop-ment, and how HR functions are translated into action, such as learning processes. The model is useful in other ways too: it serves as a pedagogical device that allows its users to discover and connect a specific aspect of HRM within a consistent, general framework. It also helps to develop an ‘analytical conception’ of HRM by building theory and generating data based on managers’ actual social actions in managing work and people across work-places, sectors and different market societies (Boxall et al., 2008) – the classic rhetoric–reality gap notably highlighted by Legge (1995, 2005). It also offers HR specialists a sense of professional ‘identity’ by detailing professional functions, processes and skills. Finally, it helps HR specialists to look beyond their immediate tasks and to be aware of the ‘totality of management’ (Squires, 2001, p. 482).

hrm web links www Go to the website of the HR professional associations (for example Australia www.

hrhq.com; Britain www.cipd.co.uk; Canada www.hrpa.org; or the USA www.shrm.org). Click on the ‘Accreditation and/or certification’ button. Using the information you find, compare the practices that HR professionals are formally accredited to practise with those practices listed in Figure 1.2. Does the information on the website give a comprehensive picture of ‘What HRM specialists do’?

Theoretical perspectives on HRM

Practice without theory is blind. (Hyman, 1989, p. xiv)

So far, we have focused on the meaning of management and on a range of HRM practices used in the contemporary workplace. We have explained that HRM varies across


E arly debate on HRM centred on the question ‘How does HRM differ from personnel management?’ For some, HRM represents a new

approach to managing people because, in theory at least, it was envisioned to be integrated into strategic planning. HRM models also make reference to performance outcomes, predicting that a coherent ‘bundle’ of HR practices will enhance employee commitment and improve performance. To meet the challenges of the twenty-first century, it is argued, organizations therefore need a new senior manager, the chief human resources officer (CHRO). As one writer put it:

The modern CHRO is required increasingly to act as both strategist and steward. Jeff Schwartz, of Deloitte Consulting, said: ‘The requirements and perception of HR are changing dramatically as this function’s leadership is now expected to play a central role in building and shaping – not just staffing – the enterprise strategy.’ ‘The role of the CHRO as an enterprise business leader is still evolving – but this transformation has never been more timely or relevant.’ ‘This is an environment that HR leaders have longed for – where their executive peers would view HR as a business partner, rather than as a back-office administrator.’1

In contrast, detractors argue that HRM is more a matter of repackaging ‘progressive’ personnel management. They emphasize that relatively few organizations have integrated HRM planning into strategic business planning, a central element in the HRM model. They also point to the incontrovertible evidence of a shift towards ‘individually oriented’ cultures that is symbolized by the growth of contingency pay, as well as the fact that a large proportion of UK firms are still

preoccupied with traditional cost-focus strategies. The empirical evidence therefore suggests a lack of fit between knowledge of the normative HRM model and actual management practice.

Stop! Debates on HRM offer an interesting perspective on the issues of state intervention in a market society. Among academics, HRM is highly contentious, and its antecedents, its defining characteristics and its outcomes are much disputed. What is your view? Is HRM different from personnel management?

Sources and further information: 1Deloitte Consulting’s Strategist and Steward report, available at www.deloitte.com/us, and search for ‘Strategist and Steward’. For a discussion on employee commitment and HRM, see Guest (1998); for evidence of the growth of ‘individualism’, see Kersley et al. (2005); and for further insight into the HRM debate, see Legge (2005).

Note: This feature was written by John Bratton.

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Twenty-first-century senior HR leaders have a changing role

hrm in practice 1.2

organizations and market societies depending upon a range of external and internal contingencies. In addition, we have identified the skills by which managers accomplish their HRM goals. We will now turn to an important part of the mainstream HRM discourse – the search for the defining features and goals of HRM – by exploring the theoretical perspectives in this area.

Over the past two decades, HRM scholars have debated the meaning of the term ‘human resource management’ and attempted to define its fundamental traits by producing polar or multiconceptual models. A number of polar models contrast the fundamental traits of HRM with those of traditional personnel management, while others provide statements on employer goals and HR outcomes. These models help to focus debate around such ques-tions as ‘What is the difference between HRM and personnel management?’ and ‘What outcomes are employers seeking when they implement a HRM approach? Here, we iden-tify six major HRM models that seek to demonstrate in analytical terms the distinctiveness and goals of HRM (Beer et al., 1984; Fombrun et al., 1984; Guest, 1987; Hendry and Petti-grew, 1990; Storey, 1992). These models fulfil at least four important intellectual functions for those studying HRM:

• They provide an analytical framework for studying HRM (for example, HR practices, situ-ational factors, stakeholders, strategic choice levels and HR and performance outcomes).

• They legitimize HRM. For those advocating ‘Invest in People’, the models help to demonstrate to sceptics the legitimacy and effectiveness of HRM. A key issue here is the distinctiveness of HRM practices: ‘it is not the presence of selection or training but a distinctive approach to selection or training that matters. It is the use of high perfor-mance or high commitment HRM practices’ (Guest, 1997, p. 273, emphasis added).

• They provide a characterization of HRM that establishes the variables and relationships to be researched.

• They serve as a heuristic device – something to help us discover and understand the world of work – for explaining the nature and significance of key HR practices and HR outcomes.

The Fombrun, Tichy and Devanna model of HRM

The early HRM model developed by Fombrun et al. (1984) emphasizes the fundamental interrelatedness and coherence of HRM activities. The HRM ‘cycle’ in their model consists of four key constituent components: selection, appraisal, development and rewards. In terms of the overarching goals of HRM, these four HR activities are linked to the firm’s performance. The weaknesses of Fombrun et al.’s model are its apparently prescriptive nature and its focus on four HR practices. It also ignores different stakeholder interests, situational factors and the notion of management’s strategic choice. The strength of the model, however, is that it expresses the coherence of internal HR policies and the importance of ‘matching’ internal HR policies and practices to the organization’s external business strategy (see Chapters 2 and 15). The notion of the ‘HRM cycle’ is useful as a heuristic framework for explaining the nature and significance of key HR practices that make up the complex field of HRM.

The Harvard model of HRM

As was widely acknowledged in the early HRM literature, the ‘Harvard model’ offered by Beer et al. (1984) provided one of the first comprehensive statements on the nature of


HRM and the issue of management goals and specific HR outcomes. The Harvard frame-work (Figure 1.3) consists of six basic components:

1 Situational factors2 Stakeholder interests3 HRM policy choices4 HR outcomes5 Long-term consequences6 A feedback loop through which the outputs flow directly into the organization and to

the stakeholders.

Long-termconsequences

Individual well-being

Organizational effectiveness

Societal well-being

Stakeholder interests

Shareholders

Management

Employee groups

Government

Community

Unions

Situational factors

Workforce characteristics

Business strategy and conditions

Management philosophy

Labour market

Unions

Task technology

Laws and societal values

Human resourceoutcomes

Commitment

Competence

Congruence

Cost-effectiveness

Human resourcemanagement policychoices

Employee influence

Human resource flow

Reward systems

Work systems

Figure 1.3 The Harvard model of HRM

Source: Beer, M. et al. (1984), Managing Human Assets, The Free Press

In the Harvard model of HRM, the situational factors influence management’s choice of HR strategy. This normative model incorporates workforce characteristics, management philosophy, labour market regulations, societal values and patterns of unionization, and suggests a meshing of ‘product market’ and ‘sociocultural logics’ (Evans and Lorange, 1989). Analytically, both HRM scholars and practitioners will be more comfortable if contextual variables are included in the model because this reflects the reality of what they know: ‘the employment relationship entails a blending of business and societal expecta-tions’ (Boxall, 1992, p. 72).

The stakeholder interests recognize the importance of ‘trade-offs’, either explicitly or implicitly, between the interests of business owners and those of employees and their organizations, the trade unions. Although the model is still vulnerable to the charge of ‘unitarism’, it is a much more pluralist frame of reference than is found in later models.

HRM policy choices emphasize that management’s decisions and actions in HR management can be fully appreciated only if it is recognized that they result from an interaction between


constraints and choices. The model depicts management as a real actor, capable of making at least some degree of unique contribution within the environmental and organizational param-eters present and of influencing those parameters itself over time (Beer et al., 1984).

In terms of understanding the importance of management’s goals, the HR outcomes of high employee commitment and competence are linked to longer term effects on organi-zational effectiveness and societal well-being. The underlying assumptions built into the framework are that employees have talents that are rarely fully utilized in the contempo-rary workplace, and that they show a desire to experience growth through work. Thus, HRM is indivisible from a ‘humanistic message’ about human growth and dignity at work. In other words, the Harvard framework takes the view that employment relations should be managed on the basis of the assumptions inherent in McGregor’s (1960) classic approach to people-related issues, commonly called ‘Theory Y’, or, to use contemporary parlance, in conditions of human dignity at work.

The long-term consequences distinguish between three levels: individual, organizational and societal. At the level of the individual employee, the long-term HR outputs comprise the psychological rewards that workers receive in exchange for their effort. At the organi-zational level, increased effectiveness ensures the survival of the firm. In turn, at the soci-etal level, as a result of fully utilizing people at work, some of society’s goals (for example, employment and growth) are attained. The strength of the Harvard model lies in its clas-sification of inputs and outcomes at both the organizational and the societal level, creating the basis for a critique of comparative HRM (Boxall, 1992). A weakness, however, is the absence of a coherent theoretical basis for measuring the relationship between HR inputs, outcomes and performance (Guest, 1997).

The sixth component of the Harvard model is a feedback loop. As we have discussed, situational factors influence HRM policy and choices. Conversely, however, long-term outputs can influence the situational factors, stakeholder interests and HR policies, and the feedback loop in Figure 1.3 reflects this two-way relationship.

As was observed by Boxall (1992), the Harvard model clearly provides a useful analytical basis for the study of HRM. It also contains elements that are analytical (that is, situational factors, stakeholders and strategic choice levels) and prescriptive (that is, notions of commitment, competence, and so on).

The Guest model of HRM

In David Guest’s (1989, 1997) framework, different approaches to labour management are examined in the context of goals, employee behaviour, performance and long-term finan-cial outcomes. According to this HRM model, managers are advised to consider the effects of a core set of integrated HR practices on individual and organizational performance.

For Guest, HRM differs significantly from personnel management, and he attempts to identify the major assumptions or stereotypes underpinning each approach to employ-ment management. Personnel management seeks ‘compliance’, whereas HRM seeks ‘commitment’ from employees. In personnel management, the psychological contract is expressed in terms of a ‘fair day’s work for a fair day’s pay’, whereas in HRM it is ‘reciprocal commitment’. In the area of employee relations, personnel management is said to be pluralist, collective and ‘low trust’, whereas HRM is unitarist, individual and ‘high trust’. The points of differences between personnel management and HRM are also reflected in the design of organizations. Thus, organizations adopting the personnel management


model exhibit ‘mechanistic’, top-down and centralized design features, whereas firms adopting HRM are allegedly ‘organic’, bottom-up and decentralized. Finally, the policy goals of personnel management and HRM are different. In the former, they are administra-tive efficiency, standard performance and minimization of cost. In contrast, the policy goals of HRM are an adaptive workforce, an improvement in performance and maximum utilization of human potential.

According to these stereotypes, HRM is distinctively different from personnel manage-ment because: (1) it integrates HR into strategic management; (2) it seeks employees’ commitment to organizational goals; (3) the HR perspective is unitary with a focus on the individual; (4) it works better in organizations that have an ‘organic’ structure; and (5) employer goals prioritize the full utilization of human assets.

Implicit in the contrasting stereotypes is an assumption that the dominant HRM model is ‘better’ (allowing enhanced commitment and flexibility) within the current more flexible labour markets and in decentralized, flexible, empowering and organic organizational structures. However, as Guest correctly states, ‘variations in context … might limit its effectiveness’ (1987, p. 508). The central hypothesis of Guest’s (1997) framework is that managers should adopt a distinct set or ‘bundle’ of HR practices in a coherent fashion; the outcome will be superior individual and organizational performance.

Guest’s model has six components:

1 An HR strategy2 A set of HR policies3 A set of HR outcomes4 Behavioural outcomes5 Performance outcomes6 Financial outcomes.

The model acknowledges the close links between HR strategy and the general business strategies of differentiation, focus and cost (see Chapter 2). The ‘core’ hypothesis, however, is that HR practices should be designed to lead to a set of HR outcomes of ‘high employee commitment’, ‘high quality’ and ‘flexibility’. Like Beer et al., Guest sees high employee commitment as a critical HR outcome, concerned with the employer’s goals of binding employees to the organization and obtaining the behavioural outcomes of increased effort, cooperation and organizational citizenship. ‘Quality’ refers to all aspects of employee behaviour that relate directly to the quality of goods and services. Flexibility is concerned with how receptive employees are to innovation and change. The model focuses on the link between HR practices and performance. Only when all three HR outcomes – commit-ment, quality and flexibility – are achieved can superior performance outcomes be expected. As Guest (1989, 1997) emphasizes, these HRM goals are a ‘package’: ‘Only when a coherent strategy, directed towards these four policy goals, fully integrated into business strategy and fully sponsored by line management at all levels is applied will the high productivity and related outcomes sought by industry be achieved’ (1990, p. 378).

Guest (1987, 1989, 1997) recognizes a number of conceptual issues associated with the dominant HRM model. The first is that the values underpinning the model are predomi-nantly individualist-oriented: ‘There is no recognition of any broader concept of pluralism within society giving rise to solidaristic collective orientation’ (Guest, 1987, p. 519). The second concerns the status of some of the concepts, such as that of commitment, which is suggested to be ‘a rather messy, ill-defined concept’ (Guest, 1987, pp. 513–14). A third issue


is the explicit link between HRM and performance. This raises the problem of deciding which types of performance indicators to use in order to establish the links between HR practices and performance (see Chapter 3). It has been argued elsewhere that Guest’s model may simply be a polar ‘ideal type’ towards which organizations can move, thus proposing unrealistic conditions for the practice of HRM (Keenoy, 1990, p. 367). It may also make the error of criticizing managers for not conforming to an image constructed by academics (Boxall, 1992). Furthermore, it presents the HRM model as being inconsistent with collective approaches to managing the employment relationship (Legge, 1989).

In contrast, the strength of the Guest model is that it clearly maps out the field of HRM and classifies its inputs and outcomes. The model is useful for examining the key employer goals usually associated with the normative models of HRM: strategic integration, commit-ment, flexibility and quality. The constituents of the model hypothesizing a relationship between specific HR practices and performance can be empirically tested by research. Guest’s constructed set of theoretical propositions can also provide a framework for a critical dialogue on the precise nature, tensions and contradictions of HRM.

The Warwick model of HRM

The Warwick model emanated from the Centre for Corporate Strategy and Change at the University of Warwick, UK, and with two particular researchers: Hendry and Pettigrew (1990). The Warwick framework extends the Harvard model by drawing on its analytical aspects. The model takes account of business strategy and HR practices, the external and internal context in which these activities take place and the processes by which such changes take place, including interactions between changes in both context and content. The strength of the model is that it identifies and classifies important environmental influ-ences on HRM. It maps the connections between the outer (wider environment) and the inner (organizational) contexts, and explores how HRM adapts to changes in context. The implication is that those organizations achieving an alignment between the external and internal contexts will experience superior performance. A weakness of the model is that the process whereby internal HR practices are linked to business output or performance is not developed. The five elements of the model are as follows:

1 Outer context – socioeconomic, technical, political-legal, competitive2 Inner context – culture, structure, leadership, task-technology, business outputs3 Business strategy content – objectives, product market, strategy and tactics4 HRM context – role, definition, organization, HR outputs5 HRM content – HR flows, work systems, reward systems, employee relations.

The Storey model of HRM

The Storey framework attempts to demonstrate the differences between what John Storey terms the ‘personnel and industrials’ and the HRM paradigm by creating an ‘ideal type’. He devised the model by reconstructing the ‘implicit models’ conveyed by some managers during research interviews. We should note that the usage of an ‘ideal type’ is a popular heuristic tool in the social sciences. It is a ‘mental image’ and cannot actually be found in any real workplace. Its originator Max Weber wrote in The Methodology of the Social Sciences, that ‘In its conceptual purity, this mental construct [Gedankenbild] cannot be found empirically anywhere in reality’ (Bratton et al., 2009, p. 216). An ideal type is not a


description of reality; neither is it an average of something, or a normative exemplar to be achieved. It is a Utopia. Its purpose is to act as a comparison with empirical reality in order to establish the differences or similarities between the two positions, and to understand and explain causal relationships.

Storey posits that the HRM model emerged in the UK as a ‘historically situated phenom-enon’ and is ‘an amalgam of description, prescription, and logical deduction’ (Storey, 2001, p. 6). The four main elements in his HRM framework (Table 1.2) are:

• Beliefs and assumptions • Strategic aspects • Role of line managers • Key levers.

Table 1.2 The Storey model of HRM

Personnel and industrial relations (IR) and human resource management (HRM): the differences

Dimension Personnel and IR HRM

Beliefs and assumptions

Contract Careful delineation of written contracts Aim to go ‘beyond contract’Rules Importance of devising clear rules/

mutuality ‘Can do’ outlook; impatience with ‘rules’

Guide to management action Procedures/consistency/control ‘Business need’/flexibility/commitmentBehaviour referent Norms/custom and practice Values/missionManagerial task vis-à-vis labour Monitoring NurturingNature of relations Pluralist UnitaristConflict Institutionalised De-emphasisedStandardisation High (for example ‘parity’ an issue) Low (for example ‘parity’ not seen as

relevant)

Strategic aspects

Key relations Labour–management Business–customerInitiatives Piecemeal IntegratedCorporate plan Marginal to Central toSpeed of decision Slow Fast

Line management

Management role Transactional Transformational leadershipKey managers Personnel/IR specialists General/business/line managersPrized management skills Negotiation Facilitation

Key levers

Foci of attention for interventions Personnel procedures Wide-ranging cultural, structural and personnel strategies

Selection Separate, marginal task Integrated, key taskPay Job evaluation; multiple fixed grades Performance-related; few if any gradesConditions Separately negotiated HarmonisationLabour–management Collective bargaining contracts Towards individual contractsThrust of relations with stewards Regularised through facilities and

training Marginalised (with exception of some bargaining for change models)

Communication Restricted flow/indirect Increased flow/directJob design Division of labour TeamworkConflict handling Reach temporary truces Manage climate and cultureTraining and development Controlled access to courses Learning companies

Source: Storey (1992)


C ontemporary globalization is the defining political economic paradigm of

our time. In terms of HR strategy, HRM policies and practices have to be aligned to the global activities of transnational enterprises, and must be able to attract and retain employees operating internationally but within different national employment structures. The word ‘globalization’ became ubiquitous in the 1990s. It was, and still is, a thoroughly contested concept depending on whether scholars view it as primarily an economic, a political or a social phenomenon.

In the economic sphere, globalization is understood as a worldwide process of integration of production and consumption resulting from the reduction of transport and communication costs – a global system of economic interdependences. Arguments that build only on these technical conceptions emphasize the positive aspects of globalization, and draw attention to the outsourcing of manufacturing jobs to China and India from high-wage Western economies. The economic argument is captured by this extract from a Foresight2020 research report:

On a per-capita basis, China and India will remain far poorer than Western markets and the region faces a host of downside risks,’ Laza Kekic, director of forecasting services at the Economist Intelligence Unit, says. ‘Asia will narrow the gap in wealth, power and influence, but will not close it.’ The report assumes that world economic growth depends on the pace of globalization. Labour-intensive production will continue to shift to lower-cost countries but the report concludes that fears of the death of Western manufacturing are premature. Workers in the low-cost economies will benefit but Chinese average wages, for example, will rise only to about 15% of the developed-country average in 2020 compared with today’s 5%.

Writers who conceptualize globalization in terms of politics and power argue that ‘big business’ has relegated national

governments to being the ‘gatekeepers’ of free unfettered markets. Because there is little competition from alternative ideologies, twenty-first century capitalism ‘is more mobile, more ruthless and more certain about what it needs to make it tick’ (Giddens and Hutton, 2000, p. 9). Modern capitalism has been called a ‘febrile capitalism’ that is serving the needs of Wall Street and the financial and stock markets.

Stop! Critics charge that national governments have lost power over their own economies as a handful of large corporations are being permitted to control natural resources and social life. In other words, civil society is perceived principally through the ‘prism of economics’. Take a moment to assess critically the various standpoints in the globalization debate. What economic and political forces encourage outsourcing? What are the implications of outsourcing for HRM?

Sources and further information: See Giddens and Hutton (2000), Hoogvelt (2001), Chomsky (1999), and Gereffi and Christian (2009). To download Foresight2020 free of charge, visit www.eiu.com/foresight2020.

Note: This feature was written by John Bratton.

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The HRM model in advancing economies?

hrm and globalization

According to the stereotypes depicted in Table 1.2, the HRM ‘recipe’ of ideas and prac-tices prescribes certain priorities. In this framework, the most fundamental belief and assumption is the notion that, ultimately, among all the factors of production, it is labour that really distinguishes successful firms from mediocre ones. It follows logically from this that employees ought to be nurtured as a valued asset and not simply regarded as a cost. Moreover, another underlying belief is that the employer’s goal should not merely be to seek employees’ compliance with rules, but to ‘strive’ for ‘commitment and engage-ment’ that goes ‘beyond the contract’ (Storey, 2001). The strategic qualities contained in Storey’s framework show that HRM is a matter of critical importance to corporate plan-ning. In Storey’s words, ‘decisions about human resources policies should … take their cue from an explicit alignment of the competitive environment, business strategy and HRM strategy’ (p. 10).

The third component, line management, argues that general managers, and not HRM specialists, are vital to the effective delivery of HRM practices (Purcell et al., 2009). Research evidence from 15 UK ‘core’ organizations suggests that line managers have emerged in almost all cases as the crucial players in HR issues (Storey, 1992).

The key levers element in the model focuses on the methods used to implement HRM. In researcher–manager interviews on HRM, Storey found considerable unevenness in the adoption of these key levers, such as performance-related pay, harmonization of condi-tions and investment to produce a work-related learning company. What is persuasive about the HRM narrative, observes Storey (2007), is evidence of a shift away from personnel procedures and rules as a basis of good practice, to the management of organi-zational culture as proof of avant-garde practice.

Ulrich’s strategic partner model of HRM

To overcome the traditional marginalization of the personnel function and to strengthen the status of the profession, the UK Chartered Institute for Personnel and Development (CIPD) has long sought to demonstrate the added value of HR activities in business terms. Such a position requires a transition from the functional HR orientation, with the HR department primarily involved in administering policies, towards a partnership orienta-tion, with the HR professional engaged in strategic decisions that impact on organizational design and organizational performance. In the last decade, the HRM model most favoured to support such a move has been provided by David Ulrich’s (1997) ‘business partner’ model. Ulrich presents a framework showing four key roles that HR professionals must accomplish in order to add the greatest value to the organization (Figure 1.4). The two axes represent focus and activities. HR professionals must focus on both the strategic and the operational, in the both the long and the short term. Activities range from managing processes to managing people. Therefore these two axes delineate four principal roles:

• Strategic partner – future/strategic focus combined with processes • Change agent – future/strategic focus combined with people • Administrative expert – operational focus combined with process • Employee champion – operational focus combined with people.

A later variant of the model integrates the change agent role into the strategic partner role, and gives greater emphasis to HR professionals playing a leadership role (Ulrich and Brockbank, 2005). As such, the first two roles require a strategic orientation; for example,


as a strategic partner, HR professionals work with other managers to formulate and execute strategy, and as a change agent, they facilitate transformation and significant change. During the 2000s, the Ulrich business partner model was widely espoused in the main-stream HRM literature, partly because of the perceived increase in status and prestige of HRM, because the strategic partner and change agent roles proved highly attractive to many ambitious HR practitioners, and because of its rhetorical simplicity (Brown et al., 2004). Furthermore, the administrative role provides for processes to ‘re-engineer’ the organization towards great efficiency, while the employee champion relates to listening to employees and providing resources for employees. Research shows, however, that, of the small sample surveyed, few HR practitioners considered their primary roles to be those of the ‘less trendy’ employee champion and administrative expert (Guest and King, 2004; Hope-Hailey et al., 2005).

Although it has been influential, the way in which this model has been implemented would suggest a degree of pragmatism, probably to reduce cost, with the four roles being combined into three, but with implications for how HR departments are structured (Reilly et al., 2007). For example, administrative roles would be structured into a shared services centre, with the task of providing cost-effective processes to run transactional services such as payroll, absence monitoring and simple advice for employees. Centres of excel-lence provide specialist knowledge and development to produce innovations in more complex areas such as talent, engagement and leadership and management development. Strategic business partners take on the work with managers and leaders, influencing and helping the formation of strategy, perhaps as members of a management team.

Perhaps inevitably, the role of the strategic business partner attracts most attention, while the employee champion role, which concerns the well-being of staff, tends to be left to line managers and is therefore likely to be neglected (Francis and Keegan, 2006). With the recession following the 2008 financial crisis, there has been concern with sustaining organizational performance through leadership, shared purpose, engagement, assessment and evaluation, agility and capacity-building (CIPD, 2011). It is, however, suggested that none of these can be achieved without a good process of learning and development for HR practitioners. Despite the popularity of the business partners’ model, a survey of managers revealed that only 47 per cent polled believed that Ulrich’s model was successful in their organization, and 25 per cent said the model was ineffective (Pitcher, 2008).

Future/strategic focus

Operational focus

Processes People

Strategic partner

Administrative expert

Changeagent

Employeechampion

Figure 1.4 Ulrich’s human resources business partner model


hrm web links www For more information on Ulrich’s HRM model, go to: http://hrmadvice.com/hrmadvice/

hr-role/ulrichs-hr-roles-model.html.

reflective question

Reviewing the six models, what beliefs and assumptions are implied in them? What similarities and/or differences can you see? How well does each model define the characteristics of HRM? Is there a contradiction between the roles of ‘change agent’ and ‘employee champion’ as outlined in Ulrich’s model? Is it realistic to expect HR professionals to be ‘employee champions’?

Studying HRM

It has become commonplace to point out that HRM is not a discipline in its own right, but a field of study drawing upon concepts and theories from core social science disciplines including anthropology, psychology, sociology, law and political science. This provides relatively elastic boundaries within which to analyse how the employment relationship is structured and managed. In addition, these elastic boundaries generate multiple ways of making sense of the same organizational phenomenon or the differing standpoints found in the HRM canon. How we understand work and HRM is very much influenced by key social discourses, a discourse being a number of ideas that together form a powerful body of thought that influences how people think and act. Management in the twenty-first century is being influenced by multiple social discourses that include globalization, envi-ronmental destruction, social injustice and fundamental neo-liberal economic failure. We should also note that management research and education is going through a process of post-crisis reflexivity (Currie et al., 2010).

In understanding the recent debate that management education and pedagogy should be more reflexive and critical, it is crucial to develop a knowledge base of competing ideo-logical perspectives or paradigms. For our purposes here, we will define paradigms as established frameworks of interrelated values, beliefs and assumptions that social science scholars use to organize their reasoning and research. Each paradigm in the social sciences makes certain bold assertions about the nature of social reality and, in turn, provides legiti-macy and justification for people’s actions (Babbie and Benaquisto, 2010). When people ask, ‘What paradigm are you using?’ they might just as well be asking, ‘What is your own bias on this aspect of social life?’, as each paradigm has a particular bias based on a partic-ular version of knowing about social reality (Hughes, 1990). Paradigms are a ‘lens’ through which we view the world of work. Thus, when we refer to a particular paradigm to study the HRM phenomenon, we are speaking of an interconnected set of beliefs, values and intentions that legitimize HR theory and practice. For the purpose of developing a critical, analytical conception of HRM, we will in this section compare and contrast three major paradigms – structural-functionalism, conflict and feminism – that have emerged to make sense of work, organizations and HRM.

The intellectual roots of the structural-functional paradigm can be traced to the work of the French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798–1857) and French sociologist Emile Durkheim (1858–1917). Comte believed that society could be studied and understood logi-cally and rationally, and he used the term positivism to describe this research approach.


Durkheim studied social order and argued that the increased division of labour in modern societies created what he called ‘organic solidarity’, which maintained social harmony: ‘The division of labour becomes the chief source of social solidarity, it becomes, at the same time, the foundation of moral order’ (Durkheim, 1933/1997, p. 333).

The popularity of the structural-functionalist approach is commonly attributed to the US sociologist Talcott Parsons (Mann, 2011). For Parsons, organizations can function in a stable and orderly manner only on the basis of shared values. In his words: ‘The problem of order, and thus the nature of the integration of stable systems of social interaction … thus focuses on the integration of the motivation of actors with the normative cultural stan-dards which integrate the action system’ (1951, p. 36). Although there are variations and tensions, the structural-functional paradigm takes the view that a social entity, such as a whole market society or an organization, can be studied as an organism. Like organisms, a social system is composed of interdependent parts, each of which contributes to the func-tioning of the whole. A whole society or an organization is held together by a consensus on values, or a value system. The view of an organization as a social system thus looks for the ‘functions’ served by its various departments and members and the common values shared by its members.

It is frequently assumed that managerial functions and processes take place in organiza-tions that are rationally designed to accomplish strategic goals, that organizations are harmonious bodies tending towards a state of equilibrium and order, and that the basic task of managers is to manage resources for formal organizational ends. Thus, the struc-tural-functionalism paradigm, sometimes also known as ‘social systems theory’, becomes inseparable from the notion of efficiency. The focus of much of the research and literature on management using this ‘lens’ is about finding the ‘winning formula’ so that more managers can become ‘effective’ (Thompson and McHugh, 2009). Common to all varia-tions of structural-functionalism, which is often seen as the dominant or mainstream perspective, is a failure to connect management processes to the ‘master’ public discourse on market-based societies and globalization.

The intellectual roots of the conflict paradigm are most obviously found in the works of the German philosopher Karl Marx (1818–1883). The German sociologist Max Weber (1864–1920) also devoted much research to work and organizations within advanced capi-talist societies. In his early manuscripts of 1844, Marx analysed the fundamental contra-diction of capitalism that arose from structured tensions between capital (employers) and labour (employees). Specifically, he made the assumption that these two social classes have competing interests. For Marx, the relationship between capitalists and workers was one of contradiction. Each is dependent upon the other, and the two must cooperate to varying degrees. Yet there is a fundamental conflict of interest between capital and labour: the capitalist seeks to minimize labour costs; the workers seek the opposite. As a result, economic forces compel employers and employees to cooperate, but also there are forces that simultaneously cause conflict between the two groups.

Equally importantly, workers experience alienation or ‘estrangement’ through the act of labour. Marx describes alienation explicitly as an absence of meaning or self-worth. Alien-ated workers are people ‘robbed’ of the unique characteristic or the ‘essence’ of human beings – their ability to be creative through productive work. Marx’s analysis of alienation continues to inform contemporary studies of work and the prerequisites for dignity in and at work (see, for example, Bolton, 2007).


Similar to Marx, Weber’s analyses of advanced capitalist societies centre on work and organizations, especially large bureaucracies. Two themes within Weber’s work are espe-cially relevant to understanding contemporary theories of work and management. One is the notion of paradox in market societies. In The Protestant Ethic (1904–05/2002), Weber pessimistically warns of creeping rationalization and of the tendency of people to experi-ence a debilitating ‘iron cage’. The process of rationalization is, according to Weber, unre-mittingly paradoxical (Bratton et al. 2009). He, and subsequent writers in the Weberian tradition, focused on the notion of ‘paradox of consequences’ – two or more positions that each sound reasonable yet conflict or contradict each other. For example, an organization invests in new technology and achieves higher levels of efficiency, and ultimately rising profits. However, the performance benefits of the technology are accompanied by behav-iours that reduce long-term efficiency as work becomes increasingly devoid of meaning or dignity for the employees. Thus, a paradox of consequence results when managers, in pursuit of a specific organizational goal or goals, call for or carry out actions that are in opposition to the very goals the organization is attempting to accomplish.

A second theme that lies at the centre of Weber’s sociology is his analysis of power and domination by social elites (Bratton et al., 2009, p. 235). In Economy and Society (1922/1968), Weber stresses that power is an aspect of virtually all social relationships. However, Weber was primarily interested in legitimate forms of domination or power, or what he called ‘legitimate authority’, which allocates the right to command and the duty to obey. He argued that every form of social elite attempts to establish and cultivate belief in its own legitimate authority. For example, legal-rational domination, which Weber defined as ‘a belief in the legality of enacted rules and the right of those elevated to authority under such rules to issue commands’ (Weber, 1922/1968, p. 215), is exercised through bureaucracy, itself a product of the systematic rationalization of work and society. Weber viewed bureaucratic domination with some apprehension. The more perfectly bureaucracy is developed, ‘the more it is ‘dehumanized’ (p. 975) as it ‘reduces every worker to a cog in this [bureaucratic] machine and, seeing himself in this light, he will merely ask how to trans-form himself from a little into a somewhat bigger cog’ (p. iix).

Critical scholars draw heavily on the works of Marx, and to a lesser extent Weber, to explain management activities in terms of basic ‘logics’ underlying capitalist production and society: goods and services are produced for a profit; technology and bureaucratic principles provide new opportunities for increasing both the quantity and the quality of work; and the agents acting for the capitalists – the managers – decide how and where goods and services are to be produced within the context of powerful economic impera-tives that do not allow for substantial differences in management style or approach. Thus, managerial control is a structural imperative of capitalist employment relations, causing what Edwards’ (1986) calls ‘structural antagonism’. Labour process analysis is part of the conflict school of thought. It represents a body of theory and research that examines ‘core’ themes of technology, skills, control and worker resistance, as well as, more recently, new ‘postmodern territories’ with a focus on subjectivity, identity and power (Thompson and Smith, 2010). The conflict paradigm, when applied to work organizations, sets out to discover the ways in which power, control, conflict and legitimacy impact on contempo-rary employment relations. It emphasizes that HRM can only be understood as part of a management process embedded within the wider sociocultural and political economy order of a capitalist society, which determines the nature of work and employment


practices. The various critical approaches to HRM attempt to demystify and contextualize the situation of HRM by focusing on the interplay of economic, social and political forces, power and systematic inequality, and structured antagonism and conflict (see Delbridge and Keenoy, 2010; Thompson and Harley, 2008; Watson, 2010).

The third social science paradigm examined here, the feminist paradigm, traces its intel-lectual roots to eighteenth-century feminist writings, such as Mary Wollstonecraft’s A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792/2004) and, in the 1960s, to Betty Friedan’s Femi-nine Mystique (1963). Whereas Marx chiefly addressed the exploitation of the working class, the early feminist writers provided a ‘sophisticated understanding into gender-based, persistent, and pervasive injustices that women continue to experience in all areas of life’ (Bratton et al., 2009, p. 11). Researchers looking at the market society from a feminist perspective have drawn attention to aspects of organizational life that are overlooked by other paradigms. In part, feminist scholarship has focused on gender differences and how they relate to the rest of society. Over the decades, gender has become a concept to be wrestled with, but here we use the word to refer to a set of ideas that focuses on the processes of gender roles, inequalities in society and in the workplace, problems of power, and women’s subordination and oppression.

Theoretically, one of the most important consequences of gender analysis is its power to question the research findings and analysis that segregate studies of HRM from those of gender divisions in the labour market (Dex, 1988), patriarchal power (Witz, 1986), issues of workplace inequality (Phillips and Phillips, 1993) and ‘dual-role’ and work–life issues (Knights and Willmott, 1986; Platt, 1997; Warhurst et al., 2008). More importantly, however, including the dimension of gender in the study of contemporary HRM has the potential to move the debate forward by examining the people who are deemed to be the ‘recipients’ of HRM theory and practice (Mabey et al., 1998a). For example, Dickens (1998) has noted that the equality assumption in the HRM model, which emphasizes the value of diversity, is part of the rhetoric rather than the reality. Reinforcing this observation, a large-scale Canadian study showed that women face a gender bias when it comes to career advancement. In addition, women from visible minorities face a ‘double bias’ favouring white men at all levels, from entry-level to middle managers right up to chief executive officers (Yap and Konrad, 2009). The feminist paradigm takes it as self-evident that gender inequality in the workplace can only be understood by developing a wider gender-sensitive understanding of society and employment practices.

reflective question

It is important to explore your own values and views and therefore your own perspective on HRM. What do you think of these social science paradigms? How do they help us to explain the actions and outcomes of behaviour in organizations? Which perspective seem to you to be more realistic, and why? How do these paradigms help us to understand the uncertainties and conflicts evident in contemporary workplaces?

Critique and paradox in HRM

Since Storey’s (1989) landmark publication, the HRM canon has been subject to ‘external’ and ‘internal’ criticism (Delbridge and Keenoy, 2010). The external critique has come from


academics within the broad field of critical management studies and labour process theory. These critics include Alvesson and Willmott (2003), Godard (1991), Thompson and McHugh (2009) and Watson (2004). They expose structured antagonisms and contradic-tions, and contend that HR practices can only be understood in the context of the wider cultural and political economy factors that shape or direct those practices. Critical management theorists also argue that mainstream HRM researchers have routinely neglected or marginalized those most directly impacted by HR practices – the employees. Generally, there has been an intellectual failure to engage in the process of ‘denaturaliza-tion’ – of questioning ‘taken-for-granted’ beliefs and assumptions and ‘unmasking’ the questionable results of HRM research. Finally, critics hold that most HRM researchers have largely failed to subject employment practices to a critical scrutiny of ‘unintended consequences’, ‘contradictions’ or the ‘collateral damage’ resulting from their application (Delbridge and Keenoy, 2010, p. 803).

The principal ‘internal’ critics of HRM include Karen Legge (2005), who provides a sustained critique with respect to the divide between what she describes as the ‘rhetoric’ and the ‘reality’ of HRM. Similarly, Barbara Townley (1994) offers a sustained Foucauldian analysis and critique of HRM, and Winstanley and Woodall (2000) present a sustained ethical critique of HRM. More generally, Keenoy and Anthony (1992) have sought to explore the ambiguity associated with the term ‘human resource management’ itself. This relates to the question of where the emphasis of strategic management policy is placed: is it on the word ‘human’ or on ‘resource’ in management? This ambiguity generated the notion of ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ HRM and, more recently, provoked a collection titled Searching for the ‘H’ in HRM in the ‘moral’ market society (Bolton and Houlihan, 2007).

Analytically, critical commentaries of the HRM phenomenon echo the belief that the contemporary workplace mirrors the capitalist society at large: a social entity that may be characterized by creativity, innovation, wealth, but also one that exhibits constant change, strategic variation, human degradation, inequality, social power, differential interests, contradiction and paradox. Charles Dickens (1859/1952), in A Tale of Two Cities, nicely captures the existence of paradox in modernity: ‘It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness …’. This duality of creativity and wealth alongside degradation and inequality in the workplace is neatly captured by a well-known drawing found in first-year psychology textbooks, an image that can be seen at the same time as a beautiful young woman and an old crone.

Drawing upon Weber’s work, the ‘internal’ critics of HRM have used the paradox of consequence to encourage their audiences to view the reality of HRM differently. For example, new job and work designs (see Chapter 4) were promoted to revitalize organiza-tions in order to enlist workers’ knowledge and commitment, but what have emerged are downsizing and work intensification. A similar contradiction emerges in new reward systems (see Chapter 11) with the introduction of variable pay arrangements, but what can emerge is a ‘bonus culture’ that undermines other espoused employer goals such as loyalty and commitment, or, as the 2008 banking crisis attests, risk-aversion. Legge’s incisive critique identifies the basic paradox that the dominant HRM model simultaneously seeks both control over and the commitment of employees, the tensions in the ‘soft’ and ‘hard’ schools of HRM, and the rhetoric that asserts ‘we are all managers now’. Paradoxically, the inclusion of the HR director in the strategic management team, the process of ‘decentral-ization’ or the act of ‘giving away HR management’ to line managers, as well as the outsourcing of HR activities, might ultimately lead to the demise of the HR professional,


thereby undermining the ongoing quest of HRM specialists for centrality and credibility (Legge, 2005).

Critical accounts of HRM also suggest a paradox of consequence arising from new networked organizational designs (Rubery et al., 2002). The short-lived nature of multiem-ployer networks, differentiated by employer, business contracts and employment contracts, encourages subcultures that may counter any efforts to create a ‘high-commitment’ culture and/or violate the psychological contract. As Legge explains, in discussing interfirm rela-tionships: ‘When flexibility is the justification and watchword … pragmatism … is likely to moderate, if not supplant, a truly strategic approach to HR’ (2007, p. 54). Furthermore, when employers are urged to adjust to Britain’s ageing workforce (Brindle, 2010), invest-ment in work-based learning is at odds with the reality of ‘HRM’s organizationally spon-sored ageism’ (Lyon and Glover, 1998, p. 31).

In our view, studying HRM remains relevant. The global and environmental drivers of change that are reshaping Western economies and societies will cast a long shadow over contemporary organizations as managers struggle to control work and employment activi-ties. Analytical HRM is, therefore, highly relevant given that its raison d’être is, using a variety of approaches or styles, to leverage people’s knowledge and capabilities and manage employment relationships. In particular, given the need for organizations to develop sustainably oriented strategies, a reflexive, critical analysis of HRM is increasingly impor-tant to understanding organizational life.

Furthermore, with regard to concerns about an absence of reflexive critique in business schools, Delbridge and Keenoy’s (2010) contribution elaborating what constitutes CHRM is both important and timely. In writing this text, we have found concepts from the social science paradigms to be highly relevant, albeit through the lens of our own cultural bias. As in previous editions of Human Resource Management: Theory and Practice, we are concerned with developing a context-sensitive understanding of work and practices of HRM. Throughout the book, we emphasize that paradox and antagonism is structured into the employment relationship. Many mainstream HRM writers have not been realistic about the nature of capitalism (Thompson and Harley, 2008). From our perspective, it goes without saying that different work systems and HR strategies and practices can only be understood in the context of the wider cultural-political economy, technological, environ-mental and market factors that direct or influence work regimes.

We are aiming to provide a more critical, nuanced account of the realities of the work-place in market societies, one that encourages a deeper understanding and sensitivity with respect to employment and HR-related issues. We hope that Human Resource Manage-ment: Theory and Practice captures the range of change evident in today’s workplaces, and will moreover lead to the kind of sensibilities that encourage the reader to question, to be critical and to seek multicausality when analysing contemporary HRM.


case study

SettingIn the twenty-first century, New Zealand is tackling environmental issues similar to those of many countries: the more sustainable use of water, managing marine resources, reducing waste and improving energy efficiency. The country is particularly concerned about the decline of its unique plants, animals and ecosystems. The country is striving to build a positive image of New Zealand through exporting environmentally sensitive products and maintaining a reputation of being sustainable at home and abroad. The government has therefore recognized that there is a need to increase reporting on sustainable practices among New Zealand businesses in order to raise the profile of New Zealand globally on this important issue.

For the last few years, the Ministry for the Environment has promoted several grant-funding programmes to support environmental initiatives. In an attempt to control administration costs and improve the evaluation of the programme’s outcomes, a decision was recently made to combine the funds supporting environmental initiatives at the community level. It is hoped that merging these funds will mean that the programme will be more streamlined and that there will be more flexibility to meet government priorities.

The combined funding programme, called the Community Environment Fund (CEF), aims to support community groups, businesses and local government in taking environmental actions. To be eligible for funding, applicants have to demonstrate that their projects will support one or more of the following objectives:

• Raise awareness of environmental damage• Support and strengthen partnerships between

community, industry, Maori populations and local government on practical environmental initiatives

• Involve the community in practically focused action for the environment

• Empower the community to take action that improves the quality of the environment

• Increase community-based advice, educational opportunities and public information about environmental legislation.

Eligible environmental projects will be considered for a minimum of $10,000 and up to a maximum of $300,000 of funding per financial year.

The problemCanterbury Hospital, located near the city of Christchurch, provides a wide range of complex medical, surgery and mental health services, and is not only one of New Zealand’s largest healthcare centres, but also its

oldest. The hospital has a poor reputation in terms of its HRM and struggles with adversarial union relations. Workers are given low autonomy in their jobs, and the organizational structure contains several layers of management. Decision-making is primarily centralized.

©is

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The CEF funding process

Checkeligibility

online

Eligible to apply

Projectselection

Fundingapproval

Apply forfunding

Stage I

Developproject plan

Stage II

Signfunding deed

Startproject

Source: www.mfe.govt.nz/withyou/funding/community-environment-fund/; Ministry for the Environment (New Zealand) (2011)

33

Canterbury Hospital

sum

mar

y œ œœ In this introductory chapter, we have emphasized the importance of managing people, individually and collectively, over other ‘factor inputs’. We have examined the history of HRM and emphasized that, since its introduction, it has been highly controversial. The HRM phenomenon has been portrayed as the historical outcome of rising neo-liberalism ideology, closely associated with the political era of Thatcherism.

œ œœ We have conceptualized HRM as a strategic approach, one that seeks to leverage people’s capabilities and commitment with the goal of enhancing performance and dignity in and at work. These HRM goals are accomplished by a set of integrated employment policies, programmes and practices within an organizational and societal context. We suggest that the HRM approach as conceptualized here constitutes CHRM, extending the analysis of HRM outcomes beyond performance to include equality, dignity and social justice.

œ œœ To show the multiple meanings of the term ‘human resource management’, we have examined five theoretical models. We have discussed whether HRM now represents a new orthodoxy; certainly, the language is different.

The hospital’s administration recently became aware of the funding provided by the government’s new environmental initiative. Subsequently, in a public meeting, Chief Executive Officer Heather Nicol announced the creation of an Environmental/Sustainability Innovation Committee, made up of staff members chosen by management from the various hospital departments: ‘Environmental stewardship is a key component of our hospital’s strategic and operational planning, and through this new committee we will be contributing to our organization’s and the country’s goals to become more sustainable.’ The committee, she said, would recommend and develop projects that would meet the funding criteria outlined by the government.

This new and revolutionary approach by the hospital administration took most of the staff by surprise. Although many were eager to learn about the environmental issues and contribute their ideas through this experience, others were suspicious of management’s motives in involving staff members when they had never been asked to participate in such a public initiative before. Shortly before the initial meeting of the selected group, the HR department received an angry call from the union executive questioning why they had not been asked to sit on the committee and asking what criteria had been used to select the employees who were to participate. The union demanded a meeting with management to discuss how workloads and jobs would be impacted by the employees’ involvement.

AssignmentWorking either alone or in a study group, prepare a report drawing on this chapter and other recommended material addressing the following:

1 Using one of the five major HRM models, identify which aspects of the case illustrate traditional personnel management and HRM approaches.

2 What contribution can a set of ‘best’ HR practices make to this organization?

3 Reflecting upon the national business system, discuss how the effectiveness of HR practices depends on the context of an organization.

Note: Your report may be written to fit your own national business and legal context.

Essential readingDunphy, D. C., Griffiths, A. and Benn, S. (2003)

Organizational Change for Corporate Sustainability: Understanding Organizational Change. London: Routledge.

Enhert, I. (2009) Sustainability and human resource management: reasoning and applications on corporate websites. European Journal of International Management, 3(4): 419–38.

Jones, G. (ed.) (2011) Current Research in Sustainability. Prahan: Tilde University Press.

Tyler, M. and Wilkinson, A. (2007) The tyranny of corporate slenderness: ‘corporate anorexia’ as a metaphor for our age. Work, Employment and Society, 21(3): 537–49.

For more on New Zealand’s Community Environment Fund, go to: www.mfe.govt.nz/withyou/funding/community-environment-fund.

Note: This feature was written by Lori Rilkoff, HR Manager at City of Kamloops, BC, Canada.

Visit the companion website at www.palgrave.com/business/bratton5 for guidelines on writing reports.

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34

œ œœ We have explained that tensions are omnipresent. These include tensions between profitability and cost-effectiveness and employee security; between employer control and employee commitment; and between managerial autonomy and employee dignity. Throughout this book, we illustrate and explain some of these tensions and inevitable paradoxes to encourage a deeper understanding of HR-related issues.

œ œœ Finally, workplace scholars use a variety of theoretical frames of reference or paradigms – here the focus has been on structural-functionalism, conflict and feminist paradigms – to organize how they understand and conduct research into HRM.

voca

b

chec

klis

t fo

r E

SL

stu

den

ts œ œœ analyse (v), analysis (n), analytical (adj)

œ œœ arbitrate (v), arbitrator (n), arbitration (n)

œ œœ bureaucrat (n), bureaucracy (n), bureaucratic (adj)

œ œœ capitalize (v), capital (n), capitalist (n), capitalism (n)

œ œœ conflict (n), conflict perspective (n)

œ œœ contract (v), contract (n), contractor (n), contractual (adj)

œ œœ controversy (n), controversial (adj)

œ œœ criticize (v), critic (n), critical (adj)

œ œœ downsize (v), downsizing (n)

œ œœ economize (v), economics (n), economy (n), economist (n), economical (adj)

œ œœ employ (v), employee (n), employer (n), employment (n)

œ œœ equity (n), equitable (adj), equal (adj)

œ œœ globalize (v), globe (n), globalization (n), global (adj)

œ œœ idea (n), ideology (n), ideological (adj)

œ œœ interdepend (v), interdependencies (n), interdependent (adj)

œ œœ international human resource management (IHRM) (n)

œ œœ liberalize (v), liberalism (n), liberal (n) (adj)

œ œœ manage (v), manager (n), management (n), managerial (adj)

œ œœ mediate (v), mediator (n), mediation (n)

œ œœ micro human resource management (MHRM) (n)

œ œœ norm (n), normative (adj), normal (adj)

œ œœ oblige (v), obligation (n), obligatory (adj)

œ œœ outsource (v), outsourcing (n)

œ œœ paradigm (n)

œ œœ paradox (n), paradoxical (adj), paradoxically (adv)

œ œœ recruit (v), recruit (n), recruitment (n)

œ œœ restructure (v), restructuring (n)

œ œœ rhetoric (n), rhetorical (adj)

œ œœ sociology (n), sociologist (n), sociological (adj)

œ œœ stakeholder (n)

œ œœ stereotype (v), stereotype (n), stereotypical (adj)

œ œœ strategic human resource management (SHRM) (n)

œ œœ strategize (v), strategy (n), strategist (n), strategic (adj)

œ œœ sustain (v), sustainability (n), sustainable (adj)

œ œœ theorize (v), theory (n), theorist (n), theoretical (adj)

œ œœ unionize (v), union (n), unionization (n)

Note: some words are denoted as nouns (n) when in fact the word is a gerund; for example, ‘restructuring’ is in the gerund form; however, gerunds function grammatically as nouns, so the general term of noun (n) is used.

Visit www.palgrave.com/business/bratton5 for a link to free definitions of these terms in the Macmillan Dictionary, as well as additional learning resources for ESL students.

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1 What is ‘human resource management’ and what role does it play in work organizations?

2 To what extent does the emergence of HRM reflect the rise and ideology of neo-liberalism?

3 To what extent is HRM different from conventional personnel management – or is it simply ‘old wine in new bottles’?

Reading these articles and chapters can help you gain a better understanding and potentially a higher grade for your HRM assignment.

œ œœ The changing role of HRM is explored in R. Caldwell (2001) Champions, adapters, consultants and synergists: the new change agents in HRM. Human Resource Management Journal, 11(3): 39–52.

Critical studies are also found in the following:

œ œœ Delbridge, R. and Keenoy, T. (2010) Beyond managerialism? International Journal of Human Resource Management, 21(6): 799–817.

œ œœ Dickens, L. (1998) What HRM means for gender equality. Human Resource Management Journal, 8(1): 23–45.

œ œœ Kochan, T. (2008) Social legitimacy of the HRM profession: a US perspective. In P. Boxall, J. Purcell and P. Wright (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Human Resource Management (pp. 599–619). Oxford: OUP.

œ œœ Legge, K. (2005) Human Resource Management: Rhetorics and Realities. London: Palgrave Macmillan.

œ œœ Storey J. (ed.) (2007) Human resource management today: an assessment. In J. Storey (ed.) Human Resource Management: A Critical Text (pp. 3–20). London: Thompson Learning.

œ œœ Thompson, P. and Harley, B. (2008) HRM and the worker: labour process perspectives. In P. Boxall, J. Purcell and P. Wright (eds) The Oxford Handbook of Human Resource Management (pp. 147–65). Oxford: OUP.

œ œœ Watson, T. (2010) Critical social science, pragmatism and the realities of HRM. International Journal of Human Resource Management Studies, 21(6): 915–31.

Visit www.palgrave.com/business/bratton5 for lots of extra resources to help you get to grips with this chapter, including study tips, HRM skills development guides, summary lecture notes, and more.

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name index

AAaltio-Marjosola, I. 159Abbott, A. 118, 535Abeysekera, L. 160Abraham, S. E. 271ACAS 434Accounting for People Task

Force 206Ackers, P. 425Ackroyd, S. 93, 155, 169, 276,

454Action on Smoking and Health

485Adair, J. 350Adams, J. S. 369Adams, R. J. 415, 416, 419Adamson, S. J. 198Addison, J. 77, 79, 452Adler, L. 516Adler, N. J. 145, 225, 514, 520Adler, P. 544Advanced Institute of

Management 335Advisory, Conciliation and

Arbitration Service (ACAS) 434

Agashae, Z. 15, 96Aguinis, H. 259Ahlstrand, B. 40, 53, 55Albizu, E. 129Alban-Metcalfe, J. 331Albrecht, C. 160, 515, 516Akerjordet, K. 237Alimo-Metcalfe, B. 331Alis, D. 186Allen, M. R. 38Allinson, C. 312Alvesson, M. 31, 144, 150, 155,

162, 544Amati, C. xxii, 112, 482Amiti, M. 190Anderson, B. A. 516Anderson, C. 257Anderson, D. 111, 188, 475, 478Anderson, J. 311Anderson, L. 351Anderson, M. 321Anderson, V. 305, 308, 353Andolšek, D. M. 14Anseel, F. 256, 257Anthony, P. 31

Antonacopoulou, E. 309, 314, 347

Antonioni, D. 274, 343Appelbaum, E. 127Appelbaum, S. H. 194Apprenticeship Task Force 297Arber, S. 144Argyris, C. 314Aries, E. 439Armson, G. 96Armstrong, J. 540Armstrong, M. 253, 266Armstrong, T. 213Arrowsmith, J. 363, 378, 380Arshad, R. 13Arthur, J. 74–5, 96Arthur, M. B. 198Arthurs, A. J. 184Arvey, R. D. 232Ashman, I. 45Ashton, D. 74, 291Ashkanasy, N. 94Asmuß, B. 260Atkinson, C. 111Atkinson, J. S. 127, 186Atwater, L. E. 273, 274Avolio, B. 331, 341

BBabbie, E. 27, 89Bach, S. 183Bacon, N. 6, 408, 420, 422,

423, 425Bae, J. 521, 523–4Baglioni, G. 400Bahro, – 133Bailey, R. 412Bain, G. S. 411, 412Bain, P. 124, 158, 474, 475, 493Baldamus, W. 365Baldry, C. xxii, 126, 158, 183,

227, 258, 318, 334, 367, 457, 475, 477, 510

Baldwin, T. 306–7Balkin, D. 375, 377–8, 381Ball, B. 199Ball, K. 184Ballantyne, I. 254Bamber, G. 507, 509Bamberger, P. 5, 50, 51, 53, 57,

60, 61, 62, 75, 94

Bandura, A. 287, 353Barber, A. E. 220, 372, 454Barchiesi, F. 403Barclay, J. 233Barlow, G. 260, 262Barner, R. 305Barnes, C. 113Barney, J. 175Barney, J. B. 50, 58, 59, 125Barocci, T. 84Baron, A. 253, 263, 266Bartholomew, D. J. 177Bartlett, C. A. 503, 504–7,

511–12, 518Baruch, Y. 198Bass, B. M. 161, 331, 341, 432Bassett, P. 407Bate, P. 161Batstone, E. 447, 448Batt, R. 127Battisti, M. 193Bauer, T. N. 228Baxter, G. 271BBC News Magazine 126Beale, D. 457Beard, C. 133Beatty, R. W. 46, 71Beaver, G. 355Beck, U. 108Becker, B. 50, 74Beckett, D. 267, 311, 319Becton, J. 154, 230Beer, M. 6, 18, 19, 20, 50, 55,

70, 93–4, 114, 130, 135, 144, 168, 392, 446, 469

Begley, T. 148, 152, 160Belbin, M. 348Belfield, R. 378, 380Bell, D. 178Bell, E. 292Benaquisto, L. 27, 89Bendal, S. E. 13Benders, J. 128Bennett, C. V. 514Bennion, Y. 189Bennis, W. 331Benschop, Y. 259Benson, J. 431, 446, 522Bentley, K. 468Berge, Z. 311Berger, P. 6–7

606

Bergsteiner, H. 314Bertua, C. 235Betcherman, G. 71, 74, 76, 85, 422,

424Beynon, H. 117, 407Bierma, L. 287Billett, S. 307, 309, 355Birdthistle, N. 311Biron, M. 152, 156, 160, 485Bittman, M. 476Björkman, I. 509, 511, 512Blinder, A. 369Bloom, N. 284, 290Blyton, P. 6, 431Bobko, P. 238Bohle, P. 189Bolden, R. 342, 346Bolton, J. 354Bolton, S. C. 28, 31, 86, 91, 93, 94,

108, 109, 110, 124, 135, 149, 155, 160, 168, 369, 431, 454, 464, 483

Bonache, J. 515, 517Bonk, C. 322Bonney, C. 90Boon, C. 181Borrill, C. 78Boselie, P. 55, 59, 74, 77, 83, 85, 89,

92, 514Bosquet, M. 123Boswell, W. 82Boud, D. 131, 286Boudreau, J. W. 253Bourne, M. 292Bouskila-Yam, O. 263Bowen, D. E. 91, 92, 97, 181Boxall, P. F. xxvii, 6, 13, 16, 19, 20,

22, 53, 55–6, 62, 63, 64, 70–1, 73, 74, 77, 83, 84, 94, 97, 125, 128, 135, 136, 250, 285, 392, 400, 432, 503, 509

Boyatzis, R. 304, 340–1, 342Boyce, M. 161Boydell, T. H. 299Boyne, G. 525Boynton, A. 351Bradbury, H. 537Brady, P. 222Brady, T. 320Bramley, P. 299Branch, S. 484Brannen, P. 433Brannie, M. 216Bratton, J. vi, xxi, 12, 15, 17, 22, 24,

46, 52, 56, 62, 64, 78, 87, 91, 94, 95, 96, 97, 108, 109, 111, 116, 127, 128, 131, 135, 140, 149, 164, 165, 168, 309, 363, 369, 395, 401, 410, 420, 438, 522, 532, 541, 542

Braverman, H. 56, 115, 117Bretz, R. 372Brewis, J. 159Brewster, C. 160, 514, 519, 520, 521,

523, 525, 538

Bright, D. S. 274Brindle, D. 32Brinkerhoff, R. 309Brint, S. 231Broadbridge, A. 216Brockbank, W. 25, 536Bronfenbrenner, K. 412Brook, P. 110Brough, I. 13, 147Brown, A. 337Brown, B. 49Brown, D. 26Brown, J. S. 316–17Brown, M. 262, 389, 431, 446, 447,

449, 518Brown, P. 336Brown, W. 9, 10, 133, 365, 374, 387,

413, 417, 418, 419, 422, 425Brutus, S. 343Bryman, A. 89Bryson, A. 82, 432, 50, 521Buchanan, D. 478–9, 480Buchanan, D. A. 130Buckingham, G. 180Buckley, R. 298Budhwar, P. S. 180, 525Bullock, Lord 443, 542Bunning, R. 348Burawoy, M. 57, 123, 128, 420Burgoyne, J. 329, 331, 339–40Burke, J. 439Burkett, H. 307Buruma, I. 145Bushe, G. 344Business Leaders Initiative on Human

Rights 4*Butler, A. B. 259Butler, P. 408, 443, 446Butwell, J. 304Buyens, D. 74, 80Byers, P. Y. 434

CCabanero-Johnson, P. 311Cabinet Office 252Cable, D. M. 220, 221Caers, R. 223Caine, D. 177Cairns, – 456Caldwell, R. 535Caligiuri, P. M. 516, 518–19Callaghan, G. 57, 124Cameron, D. 365Campbell, D. 144, 470Campbell, D. J. 272Campion, J. E. 231Campion, M. A. 233Canadian Centre for Occupational

Health and Safety 484Candy, P. 94Caple, J. 298Cappelli, P. 58, 182, 222, 226, 239Carcary, M. 194

Carless, S. A. 221Carlsson, M. 86Carrick, P. 255Carroll, W. 44Carter, B. 258Caruth, D. 369Casella, A. 223Cassell, C. 293, 423Casserley, T. 4Castells, M. 319, 502Castelyns, V. 223Caulkin, S. 175Cawley, B. 262Cawsey, T. F. 198Ceci, S. 236Certification Office 414Cervero, R. 352Chakravarty, D. 427Chamberlain, G. 502Chamberlain, L. 159, 478, 479Chamberlain, N. 416Champy, J. 129, 130, 154, 181Chandler, A. 55Chang, T. 268Chapman, D. 232, 234Charmaz, K. 87Chartered Institute of Personnel and

Development (CIPD) 14, 25, 26, 176, 193, 195, 196, 198, 200, 201, 204, 206, 212, 213, 216, 217, 222, 226, 235, 237, 239, 250, 253, 260, 264, 266, 270, 273, 284, 287, 297, 302, 303, 321, 322, 336, 378, 387, 537

Chatzitheochari, S. 144Checchi, D. 401Chen, T. 163, 262Chen, Y. 48Cheney, G. 443, 452, 453Chiaburu, D. 300, 307Child, J. 39–40Chomsky, N. 545Chou, B. K. 519, 520Chuai, X. 175, 195CIPD see Chartered Institute of

Personnel and Development Clark, J. 40, 356Clark, T. 523Clarke, I. 312Clarke, M. 337Clarke, N. 181, 214, 297, 300Claydon, T. 407Clayton, T. 423, 453Cleary, P. 206Clegg, C. 114Clegg, H. 409Clegg, S. R. 93, 131, 521Cloke, K. 63, 125Clutterbuck, D. 304, 351Coates, D. 5Coates, J. 437Coens, T. 256, 376Coffield, F. 312, 345

607name index

Cohen, A. 389Cohen, W. 321Coleman, S. 181, 286Coleshill, P. 251Colling, T. 63, 191, 390, 399, 400Collings, D. 76, 196, 515Collins, C. 222Collins, H. M. 319Collins, J. M. 381Collins, M. 543, 544Colthart, I. 274Confederation of British Industry 204Conger, J. 196Conley, H. 86Connelly, L. 465, 467Connerley, ML. 225Constable, J. 333Contractor, F. 191Conway, H. E. 381, 390Conway, N. 12, 15, 95, 433Cook, J. 263Cook, M. 230Cooke, F. L. 180, 182, 284Cooke, W. N. 502Cooper, C. L. 198, 457Coopey, J. 168Cope, J. 331, 354Corby, S. 363, 371, 372, 374, 375,

377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 389, 392Cordery, J. 114Coriat, B. 123Cornelius, N. 201Cortina, L. M. 454Council for Excellence in Management

and Leadership (CEML) 333, 335, 339, 346, 355

Coutts, J. 476Cowling, A. 178Cox, A. 433, 441, 446Coyle-Shapiro, J. 111Craig, A. 454Craig, M. 476, 479, 480Crane, A. 133, 135Crane, D. 514Cregan, C. 447, 449Critchley, B. 4Cross, B. 181, 194Crossan, M. M. 316Crossman, A. 263Crouch, C. 5, 400Crowdy, P. 155Cullen, L. 473, 492Cully, M. 85, 125, 406, 417, 448, 452Cunningham, S. 322Curnow, B. 379Currie, G. xxvi, 27, 543Curson, J. 182, 184Czerny, A. 237

DDaft, R. 38, 39Dai, G. 221Dalen, L. H. 235

Danford, A. 77, 83, 86, 97, 125, 128, 258, 420, 432

Daniels, C. 124Daniels, K. 213, 482D’Annunzio-Green, N. xxii, 376Datta, D. 13, 193, 194Dau-Schmidt, K. 387Davidson, M. J. 198Davies, A. 320Davies, H. 152Davies, J. 346Davies, P. 416Davison, B. 71Dawber, A. 379, 385Day, D. 347Dayan, K. 240De Cieri, H. 511de Oliveira, E. 229De Vos, A. 74, 80, 199Deal, T. E. 154Dean, D. 86Debono, J. 455–6Deci, E. 369Deery, S. 189Delaney, J. T. 70, 74, 76Delbridge, R. xxvii, 8, 30, 31, 32, 70,

137, 536, 541, 544Delery, J. 74, 75, 76, 83, 95Deloitte Consulting 17DeMeuse, K. 221Den Hartog, D. N. 74, 77, 79, 80,

81–2, 83, 85, 90DeNisi, A. 256–7, 275Densky, K. xxiiiDenvir, A. 333, 335Denzin, N. 87Department for Business, Innovation

and Skills 282, 288, 291*, 296, 354, 356

Department for Education and Employment 290

Department for Education and Skills 291

Department of Employment 176–7Department of Innovation, Universities

and Skills 288Department of Trade and Industry

181, 187, 189, 291Derayeh, M. 343Des, G. G. 180Despres, C. 131Devanna, M. 18, 55Devins, D. 355, 356Dewe, P. 205, 206, 251Dex, S. 30Dickens, Charles 81, 491Dickens, L. 30, 406Dickson, W. 120Diekma, A. B. 259Dietrich, M. 534Disney, R. 412Dixon, N. 316Dobbin, F. 539

Dobbins, A. 131, 137Docherty, P. 109Doellgast, V. 452Doherty, M. 108, 413, 446Doherty, N. 470, 478, 492Donaldson, T. 45Donkin, R. 111Donna, M. 194Donnelly, E. 299Donnelon, A. 131Doorewaard, H. 259Dore, R. 127Doty, H. 74, 75, 76Dowling, P. 509, 511, 514, 515, 520Down, S. 292Doz, Y. L. 504–5Drew, G. 274Drohan, M. 492Drucker, P. F. 71, 130du Gay, P. 160Duguid, P. 316–17Dulewicz, V. 236Dundon, T. 432, 433, 448Dupee, J. 344Durkheim, E. 27–8Duxbury, L. 188Dweck, C. 265Dwelly, T. 189Dyck, D. E. 469, 489Dyson, J. 354

EEady, J. 406Eagleton, T. 157, 533, 534Eagly, A. H. 259Easterby-Smith, M. 314, 321, 346,

353Ebbinghaus, B. 413, 415Eby, L. 349Economic Intelligence Unit 24Edgell, S. 108Edvinsson, L. 205Edwards, J. 135Edwards, P. K. 9, 29, 70, 74, 84, 93,

96, 108, 116, 126, 128, 131, 144, 169, 432, 448, 538

Edwards, R. 57, 82, 123, 420Egan, J. 381Einstein, W. O. 268Eisenhardt, K. M. 94Elger, T. 127Elias, P. 199Elkington, J. 4Elliott, L. 532Ellis, B. 387Ellis, S. 186, 189Engels, Friedrick 489Eraut, M. 319, 348Etzioni, A. 124, 127European Commission 194Eva, D. 467, 468Evans, A. L. 19Evans, J. A. 192

608 name index

Eveline, J. 388Evered, R. D. 303Exworthy, M. 269

FFairholm, G. W. 369Farazmand, A. 501, 509Farndale, E. 266Farquharson, L. xxiii, 54Farrell, A. 49Farrell, D. 190Fayol, H. 9Felstead, A. 127, 290Feltham, R. 225Ferguson, K. 250Fernandez, E. 165, 168Fernández, Z. 515, 517Ferner, A. 525Field, H. 154Findlay, P. 77, 96, 127, 276, 371, 419Finegold, D. 290Fineman, S. 135Fischlmayr, I. 520, 521Fitz-enz, J. 8, 71Fitzgerald, A. 155Flamholz, E. 205Flanagan, J. C. 232Flecker, J. 134Fleming, P. 311Fletcher, C. 255, 344Fletcher, J. 389Fletcher, N. 384, 385Flood, P. 204Florida, R. 133, 135Foley, G. 59, 94Fombrun, C. J. 18, 165, 515Ford, G. 466Ford, J. 204, 306–7Forde, C. 194Foresight2020 24*Forshaw, C. 437Forth, J. 389Fosket, J. 133Foster, A. 78Foster, C. 204Fox, A. 82, 444Fox, S. 346Francis, H. xxiii, 26, 136, 214, 302,

536Franco-Santos, M. 292Fredrickson, B. 263Freedland, M. 416Freeland, C. 109Freeman, C. 213Freeman, R. B. 94, 412Frege, C. M. 74, 451, 452, 501, 521French, R. 501Fried, Y. 114Friedman, A. 57, 82, 123, 420, 542Friedrich, T. 269Friesen, J. 149, 391Fröbel, P. 128Frost, P. 154

Fulford, R. 156Fuller, A. 296, 302, 317Fuller, L. 123Fuller-Love, N. 355Furnham, A. 237, 249Fyfe, J. 178

GGabriel, Y. 169Gagnon, S. 201Gahan, P. 160Gallagher, V. 193Gamble, J. 515, 516Garavan, T. N. 48, 166, 263, 275, 285,

299, 301, 310, 319, 336Gardner, T. 70, 81, 86, 89Garengo, P. 252, 355Garrett-Petts, W. 168Garrick, J. 94, 131, 286, 289Garvey, B. 206, 286, 320Garvey, R. 255, 304Gascó, J. L. 322Gattiker, U. E. 389Gault, J. 223Geary, J. F. 131, 137Geertz, C. 88Gennard, J. 431, 454Georgiou, S. 466, 469Gerber, L. 145, 146, 148Gerhart, B. 74, 80–1, 85, 86, 91, 374,

538Gewirth, A. 470Ghoshal, S. 503, 504–7, 511–12, 518Giacalone, R. 46Giambatista, R. 196Giannantonio, C. 184Gibb, A. 354, 355, 356Gibb, S. 303, 322Gibbons, A. 239Giddens, A. 24, 109, 145, 146, 453Giles, A. 419, 492Gillani, B. B. 323Gillespie, R. 119Gilliland, S. 228, 256Gillis, W. 311Gilman, M. 451Gilmore, S. 47Gilpin-Jackson, Y. 344Glasbeek, H. 492Global Business Coalition 488Glover, I. 32, 216Godard, J. 31, 70, 83, 86, 128, 400,

404, 539Goffin, R. 234Goffman, E. 94, 160, 168Gold, J. vi, xxi, 161, 207–8, 243, 252,

266, 269, 278, 282, 286, 289, 292, 303, 305, 309, 317, 325, 331, 342, 344, 351, 352, 355, 356, 358, 540

Golden, T. 189Goldsmith, J. 63, 125Goldthorpe, J. 13Goleman, D. 236, 342

Gollan, PJ. 432, 433Gomes, A. 59Gomez-Melia, L. 375, 377–8, 381Gong, Y. 371Goodley, S. 379Goodstein, E. 49Google 214Goregaokar, H. 349Gorz, A. 110Gosling, J. 342Gospel, H. F. 82, 406Gould, A. 124Gould-Williams, J. 521Gourlay, S. 319, 447Governance Network 494Graen, G. 160Grafton Small, R. 150Graham, C. 322Grahl, J. 473 Grant, A. M. 304Grant, R. 43Grant, T. 38, 109 Gratton, L. 175Gray, D. 349Gray, D. E. 303Gray, J. 365Green, A. 203Green, F. 184, 286, 291, 293, 475Green, J. 488

Gregory, A. 109Grice, A. 399Griffin, E. 536Griffiths, A. 133, 163Grimshaw, D. 86, 363, 379, 388, 389Grint, K. 365Gronn, P. 347Groyesberg, B. 195, 196Grund, C. 262Gubbins, C. 301Guest, D. E. 12, 15, 18, 20, 26, 74, 81,

83, 85, 87, 90, 91, 93, 95, 127, 135, 175, 192, 286, 400, 409, 420–1, 423, 433, 441, 446, 470, 476, 493, 539

Guirdham, M. 164, 524–5Gundersen, A. 145Gunderson, M. 399, 400Gunnigle, P. 518Guthrie, J. P. 38, 50, 59, 74, 370, 372,

377, 384, 392

HHackman, J. R. 121, 122Hager, P. 311, 319Haden, S. 533Hadikin, R. 478Hales, C. P. 62Halford, S. 269Hall, D. T. 199, 200Hall, L. 111Hall, M. 406Hall, P. 509, 521Halliday, T. C. 535

609name index

Hallinger, P. 351Halman, F. 255Hamilton, E. 356Hamlin, B. 338Hammer, M. 130, 181Han, J. 222Hanaki, N. 223Hancke, B. 501, 521Handlogten, G. 369Handy, C. 333Handy, L. 274Hansen, M. T. 320Harding, K. 151Hardy, C. 131Harland, C. 191Harley, B. 30, 32, 128Harmel-Law, A. 286Harper, R. 139Harper, S. C. 264Harri-Augstein, S. 313Harrington, B. 130Harris, A. 347Harris, L. 135, 169, 204Harris, M. M. 232, 238Harris, P. 349Hart, M. 49Harter, J. 85Harvey, D. 146Harvey, G. 55, 508Harzing, A. W. 14, 506Hassard, J. 131, 523Hatry, H. 250Hau Sin Chow 165Haunschild, A. 468, 489, 492Hausknecht, J. 226, 228, 241Hayes, J. 312Health and Safety Commission 468,

476Health and Safety Executive 464,

473, 483Healthcare Commission 329Heathfield, S. 260Heck, R. 351Heckman, R. 215Heckscher, C. 131Heery, E. 363, 381, 392, 400, 407,

409, 411, 421, 423, 424, 453, 518Heller, F. 446Hendry, C. 18, 22, 504Henkens, K. 216Herod, A. 110Herriot, P. 226Hertz, N. 502, 514Herzberg, F. 369Heyes, J. 109, 289Heywood, J. 128, 518Hickey, R. 421, 422Higgen, S. 305Higgins, C. 188Higgs, M. 236Hijzen, A. 188Hilbrecht, M. 189Hill, C. W. 38, 502, 503, 505

Hillage, J. 321Hiltrop, J. 131Hirch, A. 484Hirsh, W. 198, 199, 301Hitt, M. 91HM Treasury Committee 54Ho, V. T. 12, 363, 366, 368Hobsbawm, E. 502Hochschild, A. R. 94, 110, 112Hodgkinson, G. 312Hodson, R. 93Hoel, H. 457Hofstede, G. 147, 148, 520*Hogarth, T. 192, 290Holbeche, L. 217, 331, 337Holdsworth, L. 479Holgate, J. 421Hollenbeck, J. 221Hollyforde, K. 217Holman, D. 314, 345Holmes, C. 291Holmes, J. 437Holmes, L. 333, 342Holt, C. 365Holton, E. 306Hom, P. W. 241Home Office 287Honey, P. 345Honeyball, S. 10Hoogvelt, A. 63Hope, L. 468, 469Hope-Hailey, V. 26, 536Hoque, K. 181, 292, 536Horvath, J. A. 266Houlihan, M. 8, 31, 86, 108, 109House of Commons 369House of Commons Transport

Committee 329Huckman, R. 180Huczynski, A. 478–9, 480Huffcutt, A. I. 233Hughes, E. 109Hughes, J. 27Hugo, V. 543Hui, C. 160Hume, D. 89Hunger, J. 43Hunter, I. 192Hurley-Hanson, A. 184Huselid, M. A. 50, 73, 74, 75, 76, 85,

195, 264Hutchinson, S. 61, 74, 95, 96Hutton, W. 24Huws, U. 188Hyman, R. 8, 10, 13, 16, 55, 64, 147,

189, 400, 402, 405, 406, 407, 409, 413, 414, 418, 477, 509, 523

Hynie, M. 223

IIain, H. 492Ichniowski, C. 74, 77, 83, 87, 128Ignatieff, M. 543

Iles, P. 213, 223, 228, 264Ilgen, D. R. 262Immen, W. 96Incomes Data Services 195Industrial Relations Services (IRS)

225, 264, 302Institute of Alcohol Studies 485

JJabbour, C. 48, 59, 133, 163, 165,

166, 167Jack, G. 204Jackson, C. 198, 199, 235Jackson, L. 185, 240Jackson, S. 56, 84Jacoby, S. M. 14, 59, 86, 406, 524,

535, 538, 540Jaffee, D. 132, 135, 137Jagatic, K. 484Jakupec, V. 540Jamali, D. 311James, P. 493James, S. 296Jameson, F. 145Jang, B. 55Jansen, B. 222Jansen, K. 222Janssens, M. 6Jarzabkowski, P. 337, 540Jenkins, M. 256, 376Jewson, N. 127, 201Johanson, U. 205Johnson, M. 221Johnson, S. 354Jones, A. 186Jones, G. R. 38, 44, 502, 503, 505Jones, O. 355Jones, R. 262Jones, V. 133Jowit, J. 465Judge, G. 454Judge, T. 220, 234, 343, 431

KKagaari, J. 250Kahn-Freund, – 10Kalleberg, A. 83, 147, 420Kanuka, H. 322Kaplan, R. 251Kärreman, D. 144Kaufman, D. 431, 432Keashly, L. 484Keegan, A. 26, 302, 536Keenan, G. 91, 127Keenoy, T. xxvii, 7, 8, 22, 30, 31, 32,

70, 536, 541, 544Keep, E. 181, 283, 286, 293Keers, C. 352Keith, M. 454, 455Kekic, L. 24Kelland, J. 322Kelliher, C. 111, 188, 475, 478Kelloway, K. 469, 483, 486

610 name index

Kelly, J. E. 10, 399, 410, 412, 423, 483

Kempster, S. 331, 349, 354Kendall, B. 388Kennedy, A. 154Kennerley, M. 250Kennie, T. 536Kenny, P. 399Kepes, S. 371Kerr, R. 543Kersley, B. 125, 128, 187, 370, 379,

388, 406, 407, 412, 417, 433, 439, 440, 441, 449

Kessels, J. W. M. 320Kessler, I. 364, 369, 370, 371, 372,

378, 379, 380, 392Kettley, P. 185, 273Khapova, S. 198Kim, H. 352, 371Kim, J. 431King, Z. 26Kinnie, N. 78, 84, 91, 92, 93, 95, 97,

98, 189Kinnie, N. J. 184, 537Kirkpatrick, D. L. 307–8, 352Kirton, G. 203Klass, B. 14, 458Klein, N. 109, 161Klimberg, R. 262Kluge, A. 314Kluger, A. 256–7, 263, 264, 275Knight, J. 438, 447Knight, K. 456Knights, A. 304Knights, D. 30Knowles, M. 344–5Knox, S. 213Kochan, T. E. 84, 422, 509Kolb, D. A. 312–13, 316, 345, 350Koleva, P. 45Kolk, N. 240Kollinger, I. 520, 521Konrad, A. 30Konzelmann, S. 74, 77, 539Korczynski, M. 189Kotter, J. 95, 161, 330Koubek, J. 519KPMG 310Kraaijenbrink, J. 59Krahn, H. 418Kristof, A. L. 216Kuhn, J. 366, 416Kur, E. 348Kuttner, R. 5Kydd, B. 51

LLabour Research Department 391Lance, C. E. 240Lash, M. 146Laszlo, E. 109Latham, E. 254Latham, G. P. 232

Latreille, P. 456Lau, C. 59, 71Lave, J. 316, 346, 355Lawler, E. E. 370, 375, 380, 381Lawler, J. 342Lawrence, T. 316Lazear, E. P. 94Leat, M. 431Lee, B. 293, 423Lee, C. 272Lee, M. 283Legge, K. 16, 22, 31, 32, 62, 64, 70,

71, 84, 133, 134, 138, 160, 175–6, 371, 374, 539, 540

Leigh, D. 46Leitch, S. 283, 288, 291, 295Leithwood, K. 351Leonard, N. 369Lepak, D. P. 61Leskew, S. 337Levinson, H. 256, 271Levinthal, D. 321Levy, D. L. 190Levy, F. 134Lewchuk, W. 478Lewin, A. 191Lewin, K. 160, 161, 162Lewis, P. 297Lewis, R. 215Liden, R. 95, 96Lievens, F. 238, 256Liff, S. 86, 181, 184, 185, 203Lincoln, J. 147, 420Lincoln, Y. 87, 308Lindkvist, L. 320Linehan, M. 501, 509, 511–12, 513,

516, 520Linnenluecke, M. 133, 163Linstead, S. 114, 150, 159Lips-Wiersma, M. 200Littler, C. R. 82, 116, 117, 119, 120,

194, 406Liu, S. 165Lloyd, C. 291Locke, E. A. 369Locke, G. 254Lockton, D. 11, 47, 473Long, R. J. 365, 366, 369, 370, 375Lorange, P. 19Lorbiecki, A. 204Losada, M. 263Luthans, F. 343Lyon, P. 32, 216

MMabey, C. 30, 337–8, 339, 431, 446,

456, 515, 518, 520, 539McBride, J. 125McCarthy, A. M. 263, 275McCarthy, J. 234McCarthy, P. 484McCarthy, S. 52McCormack, B. 309

McCormick, R. 333McCracken, M. 285McCrone, D. 148McCulloch, M. 221McCullum, S. 196MacDonald, G. 480Macdonald, L. 213McDonald, P. 186MacDuffie, J. P. 61, 70, 75–6, 77McGoldrick, J. 284, 309McGregor, D. 20, 83, 135, 256McGuire, D. 166Machiavelli, N. 542McHenry, R. 235Machin, S. 291McHugh, D. 9, 28, 31, 57, 61, 62, 63,

64, 87, 114, 124, 127, 157, 366, 420, 449, 453

McIlroy, J. 404MacInnes, J. 448McInnis, K. 192Macionis, J. 145, 146, 148Mackie, K. 446McKie, L. 108McKinlay, A. 138, 318Macky, K. 70–1, 73, 74, 77, 83, 94, 97,

125, 128, 136, 250McLean, G. 285, 288McLean, L. (née Craig) xxiii, 4MacLennan, D. xxiv, 88, 118, 202,

231, 265, 315, 332, 373, 403, 442, 490, 509

MacLeod, D. 181, 214McLoughlin, I. 40McMackin, J. 62McMahan, C. G. 94McMillan-Capehart, A. 204McNabb, R. 83, 381Macpherson, W. 287McShane, S. L. 381, 480McSweeney, B. 148Madsen, S. R. 467, 468Maguire, T. 199Mahajan, A. 517Mahoney, T. 369Main, P. 274Maitra, S. 504Mäkelä, K. 217Makin, K. 415Mallon, M. 199Malone, M. S. 205Mamo, L. 133Management Standards Centre 342*Manji, I. 146Mankin, D. P. 282Mann, D. 28Mann, S. 479Mannion, E. 239Marchington, M. 83, 84, 85, 96, 128,

432, 433, 443, 445, 446, 448, 454Marginson, P. 378, 380, 443, 451,

504Marmot, M. 479

611name index

Marsden, D. 378, 380Marsick, V. 283, 289, 310, 348Martin, D. 423Martin, G. 136, 322Martin, J. N. 154, 155, 157, 159, 435,

439Martin, P. 233Martín-Tapia, I. 38, 59, 74Martocchio, J. 363Maslow, A. 147, 369Mason, D. 201Mason, R. 274Mathew, J. 154Matlay, H. 355Matthews, J. M. 94Mayer, B. 167, 168, 492, 532Mayerhofer, H. 520Mayfield, M. 184Mayhew, C. 493Mayhew, K. 291Mayo, A. 205, 206, 285Mayrhofer, W. 432, 433, 449, 452,

520Meager, N. 186Meardi, G. 504Mearns, K. 468, 469Meek, L. 168Megginson, D. 303, 304, 349Meil, P. 134Melchers, K. 240Mellahi, K. 13, 196Meshoulam, I. 5, 50, 51, 57, 60, 61,

62, 75, 94Metcalfe, B. 287Meyer, H. H. 260–1Mezirow, J. 313, 349Michaels, E. 175, 182, 194Michie, J. 193Micic, P. 184Middlehurst, R. 536Miles, R. 43Milkovitch, G. 371, 381Miller, L. 236Miller, P. 55Mills, A. 159Mills, C. Wright xxvi, 7, 544Millward, N. 14, 125, 389, 408,

411–12, 413, 417, 440, 443, 448Milmo, D. 399, 405, 410Milne, R. 532Milner, S. 109Miner-Rubino, K. 454Mintzberg, H. xxvi, 9, 41, 43, 62, 250,

284, 285, 330, 336–7, 347, 375, 435, 503

Mitev, N. 181Mohamed, R. 521Mol, S. 238Mone, E. 253Monks, J. 421Monks, K. 62Montgomery, J. 469, 483, 486Moody, J. 83

Mooney, T. 309Morgan, G. 161Morgan, P. I. 155Morgeson, F. 237Morley, M. 400Morrell, K. M. 179–80Morris, J. 501, 503, 506, 515Morrison, E. W. 433Morton, G. 404, 407Motraghi, N. 406Moynagh, M. 329Muchinsky, P. M. 381Mudambi, S. 191Mueller, F. 77Mullen, A. 231Mumford, A. 345, 349Munro, A. xxiv, 423, 425Munro-Fraser, J. 224–5Murphy, C. 421, 432Murray, G. 502Mwita, J. I. 251

NNadler, L. 282, 283Nadler, Z. 282, 283Nakayama, T. K. 435, 439Nankervis, A. 253Nanus, B. 331Napier, N. 516Nash, D. 417National Employees Skills Survey 284National Skills Task Force 290Neely, A. 250Newell, S. 213, 266, 286News International 4Newton, T. 276, 371Nichols, T. 87, 407, 465, 467, 471, 539Nijholt, J. 128Nikolaou, I. 234Nir, D. 257, 264Nixon, D. 110Noble, C. 288Nolan, P. 109, 424, 506Nolan, S. 525Nonaka, I. 266, 316*, 319Noon, M. 536Norton, D. 251

OOade, A. 484, 485Oats, A. 168O’Brien-Smith, F. 478O’Connor, J. 133O’Donnell, D. 196O’Donoghue, J. 199O’Dowd, J. 423O’Driscoll, M. 478OECD (Organization for Economic Co-

operation and Development) 317Office For National Statistics 108,

385, 389Ogbonna, E. 154, 155, 169O’Grady, F. 167, 422

Olazaran, M. 129Oldham, G. R. 121, 122Oliver, N. 127Olivier, R. 350Olthuis, D. 421Oppenheim, L. 51Ordanini, A. 217O’Reilly, C. 320, 337Ortenblad, A. 310Ostroff, C. 91, 92, 97, 181Oswald, R. 467, 468Ouchi, W. 50, 154, 266, 267, 268, 269Owen, H. 352Owen, J. 470Oxenbridge, S. 425

PPaauwe, J. 55, 59, 71, 74, 77, 86, 441,

514Packham, C. 483Pai Hsiao-Hung 474Paik, Y. 523Park, J. 194Parker, B. 177Parker, G. 532Parker, J. 144, 145Parker, M. 131, 150Parker, P. 303Parker, S. 114, 116Parry, E. 222, 226Parsons, C. K. 221Parsons, D. 184Parsons, T. 28Parzefall, M.-R. 483, 484Patel, R. 52, 110, 133, 532Paton, R. 322Patterson, M. 75, 91, 270Payne, J. 291, 295, 425Payne, S. 263Pedler, M. 303, 310, 349, 350, 351Peiperl, M. A. 274, 344Pelletier, J. 95, 412Pena, I. 76Pendleton, A. 370, 379Penrose, E. T. 58Perkins, S. 378Perren, L. 339–40Personnel Management Plus 480Peters, T. 50, 154Peterson, S. 343Pettigrew, A. 18, 22Pettijohn, L. S. 268, 270Pfeffer, J. 14, 71, 74, 81–2, 369, 375,

377, 392, 435Phillips, B. 51, 53Phillips, E. 30Phillips, J. J. 307Phillips, J. M. 241Phillips, P. 30Phillips, R. 303Pichler, P. 437Pickard, J. 194, 198Pickett, K. 86

612 name index

Pidd, H. 405Pil, F. 75–6Pilch, T. 203, 205Piore, M. 125, 127, 138Piotrowski, C. 213Pitcher, G. 26Plachy, R. J. 224Platt, L. 30Polanyi, M. 319Pollan, M. 490Pollard, E. 321Pollert, A. 187Pollitt, C. 269Pollitt, D. 222, 238, 239Ponak, A. 407, 408Poon, J. 262Pope, J. 233Poppleton, A. 304Porter, M. 42, 56, 63, 366, 375, 502Posthuma, R. 234Potosky, D. 238Povah, N. 254Prahalad, C. K. 504–5Preece, D. 264Premack, S. L. 241Preskill, H. 309, 352Preston, L. 45Price, R. 411, 412Prieto, I. 321Procter, S. 77, 125, 131Proença, M. 229Prokopenko, J. 519Prowse, J. 250Prowse, P. 250Pugh, D. 523Pulakos, E. D. 232Pulignano, V. 138Pun, K. F. 250, 251Punnett, B. 516Pupo, N. 108, 113Purcell, J. 25, 40, 51, 53, 55, 56, 62,

63, 64, 71, 74, 78, 82, 83, 84, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 135, 161, 163, 165, 199, 285, 409, 423, 432, 536, 537

Pye, M. 469Pyman, A. 446

QQuaddus, M. 165Quah, D. 131Quinlan, M. 493Quintanilla, J. 525

RRace for Opportunity 259Raeburn, A. 479Raelin, J. 348Rainbird, H. 423Ramirez, M. 339Ramsay, H. 77, 84, 128Ramstad, P. 253Randell, G. 260–1

Randers, J. 49Rao, A. 253Rarick, C. A. 271Ray, C. A. 157Ready, D. 196Reason, P. 537Rebelo, T. 59Reddington, M. xxiv, 136, 214Redman, T. 269, 475Reed, J. 352Rees, S. 133Rees, T. 437Rees, W. E. 52Reeves, R. 384Reilly, B. 274, 473, 493Reilly, P. 26, 185, 270Reio, T. G. 250Remler, D. 89Renwick, D. 165, 167Renzetti, E. 365Revans, R. 350–1*Revis, S. 198Reynolds, J. 321Reynolds, M. 314, 333, 345, 350Rhinesmith, – 515Riach, P. 86Rich, J. 86Richard, P. 73Richardson, J. 241Richbell, S. 187Rifkin, J. 108Rigby, E. 532Rigby, M. 478Rigg, C. 283Riggio, R. 161, 432Rilkoff, L. xxiv, 100, 140, 171, 427, 460Risher, H. 381Ritzer, G. 123, 124Robbins, S. P. 122Robens, Lord 467Roberts, G. 213, 225Roberts, J. 317, 534Roberts, Z. 78Robertson, I. T. 236Robinson, S. 331, 543Robinson, S. L. 433Roche, W. 423Rodger, A. 224Rodgers, C. 354Rodgers, H. 347–8Rodrick, D. 501, 506Roethlisberger, F. 120Rogaly, B. 510Rohrbach, D. 267Rooth, D. 86Rose, M. 6, 117, 120, 254Ross, I. 480Ross, L. 347Rossett, A. 322Rothwell, W. 196Rounce, K. 349Rousseau, D. M. 12, 13, 60, 83, 198,

363, 366, 368

Rowley, C. 521, 523–4, 525Royle, T. 502Rozelle, E. 83Rubery, J. 32, 86, 138, 363, 379, 388,

389Rubin, J. 135Rushe, D. 389Russ-Eft, D. 352Russell, B. 190Ryan, A. 238Ryan, J. C. 272

SSabel, C. 125, 127, 138Sadler-Smith, E. 312, 349Sako, K. 192Sako, M. 539Saks, A. M. 72, 85, 87Salaman, G. 117, 119, 120, 213, 223,

228, 342Salgado, J. F. 236Salin, D. 483, 484Sambrook, S. 282Sambunjak, D. 349Samuel, P. 422, 423, 425Sánchez, M. 206Sandberg, J. 543Sangha, J. 504Sarkis, J. 166Sass, 492Saul, J. R. 45, 148, 149, 501, 504Saunders, D. 47Saunders, J. 192Sayer, A. 63, 92, 93, 97, 109, 146Sayim, K. 514, 517Scarbrough, H. 137, 319Schafer, D. 467Schatzki, T. R. 540Schein, E. 150, 168Schilling, J. 314Schmidt, F. L. 235Schmitt, N. 232Schnabel, C. 401Schneider, B. 87, 144, 150, 220Schneider, R. 201Schön, D. A. 314, 319Schuler, R. S. 41, 51, 53, 56, 84, 507,

511–12, 515Schultz, H. 332Schultz, T. W. 8Schutz, A. 7Schwartz, J. 17Scott, B. 198Scott, M. 251Scott, S. G. 268Scott-Dixon, K. 189Scullion, H. 501, 509, 511–12, 513,

515, 520Séguin, R. 147Self, D. 194Sellen, A. 139Selman, J. C. 303Selwyn, N. M. 404, 419, 456, 458

613name index

Selznick, P. 58Senge, P. 15, 310Senges, M. 221Sengupta, S. 70, 84, 93, 116, 432,

538Sennett, R. 108, 194, 198Severinsson, E. 237Sewell, G. 61, 124, 135Shane, J. 268Shaw, J. D. 95, 180Sheehan-Quinn, M. 193Sheffield, J. 251Shenkar, O. 509Shibata, H. 519Shields, J. 369Shrivastava, P. 48Siddique, M. 165Siebert, W. 180Siehl, C. 155Sillup, G. 262Silvestri, G. 217Simmel, G. 95Simms, M. 407, 409, 421Simon, S. 349Simosi, M. 154Simpson, J. 533Singh, H. 58Singh, P. 337Singh, R. 390Singh, V. 198, 201, 203, 334Sisson, K. 127, 379, 409, 540Skattebo, A. L. 259Skivenes, M. 47Sklair, L. 86Sliwka, D. 262Sloman, M. 301, 321Smethurst, S. 222Smircich, L. 150Smith, Adam 107, 108, 115–16, 388Smith, A. R. 177Smith, C. 29, 57, 124, 127Smith, L. 487Smith, P. 404, 407Smith, S. 292Smith, V. 123, 286, 289, 292Smither, J. 234, 275, 344, 349Smither, J. W. 263Sneade, A. 411Snell, S. A. 51, 61, 84, 94Snow, C. 43Snyder, W. M. 317Soens, N. 199Solomon, N. 454Soltani, E. 262Soskice, D. 290, 509, 521Sparrow, P. 13, 136, 213, 253, 501,

518, 523, 525, 538Spee, A. 540Spender, J.-C. 319Spillane, J. 352, 540Spitzmüller, C. 241Spychalski, A. C. 239Squires, G. 14, 15, 16

Stahl, G. 509, 511, 512Stanton, P. 253Stanworth, C. 138Starkey, – 513Starkman, A. 419Štebe, J. 14Steen, S. 480Steiner, A. 533Sternberg, R. J. 266Stevens, M. 440, 448Stewart, H. 41Stewart, J. 282, 283, 284, 322Stewart, P. 128, 138Stewart, R. 330Steyaert, C. 6Stiglitz, J. E. 543Stober, D. 304Stohl, C. 443, 452, 453Stoner, J. S. 193Storey, D. 354Storey, J. 5, 6, 18, 22–3, 25, 30, 63,

82, 127, 144, 167, 168, 181, 182, 379, 408, 420, 423, 491, 492, 532, 540, 542

Strauss, G. 441, 452Stavrou, E. 74Strebler, M. 249Stredwick, J. 186, 189Streeck, W. 64, 415Stuart, R. 346Sturges, J. 199Su, S. 154Sullivan, R. 418Sullivan, S. 198, 200Sumner, J. 48, 49, 163Sun, P. 321Sung, J. 74, 291Suutari, V. 347, 517, 520Sveiby, K. E. 130Swan, J. 319Swanson, R. A. 309Swinburne, P. 263Sydow, J. 320Sylva, H. 238Szamosi, L. 501

TTahvanainen, M. 517Tal, B. 86Tallman, S. 191Tamkin, P. 176, 287, 291, 292, 301,

333, 335Tams, S. 353Tan, J.-S. 437Tansley, C. 195, 196, 336Taras, D. 431, 432, 446, 449Taskin, L. 126Tatli, A. 201Taylor, H. 300Taylor, P. 124, 138, 158, 465, 467,

492–3Taylor, R. 198

Taylor, S. 260, 274, 342, 509, 511–12, 513, 516

Teague, P. 473Teal, G. 155Teece, D. 321Tekleab, A. 300, 307Templer, A. J. 198Templer, K. 241Temporal, P. 302Terpstra, D. 83Terry, M. 390, 399, 400, 422, 425Tett, G. 544Thomas, M. 108, 113Thompson, E. 109Thompson, M. 407, 408Thompson, P. 9, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32,

57, 61, 62, 63, 64, 87, 93, 114, 120, 123, 124, 127, 131, 132–3, 157, 169, 276, 366, 367, 420, 449, 453, 454

Thomson, A. 335, 337Thornhill, A. 194Thornton, G. 239Thorpe, R. 252, 331, 352, 353, 355,

356Thursfield, D. 285Tichy, N. 18Tierney, A. 192Tietze, S. 126Tilly, C. 403Tipu, S. A. 272Todd, P. 388Tomlinson, K. 351Ton, Z. 180Toplis, J. 238Torbiörn, I. 516Torres, R. 308Torrington, D. 433Tosey, P. 313Toulson, P. K. 205, 206, 251Townley, B. 6, 10, 31, 162, 262, 276,

371, 438, 447, 492, 514Trades Union Congress (TUC) 167,

422, 457, 467Trapp, R. 240Travaglione, A. 181, 194Travis, A. 144Trehan, K. 351Tremblay, D.-G. 189Trethewey, A. 432Trevor, C. 381Trevor, J. 375, 380Trumbo, D. 230Truss, C. 85, 96Trygstad, S. 47Tseng, C.-C. 285Tsoukas, H. 319, 543TUC (Trades Union Congress) 167,

422, 457, 467Tucker, R. 156Tulip, S. 217Tung, R. 509, 516Turban, D. 221

614 name index

Turnbull, P. 55, 137, 431, 508Turner, G. 205Tushman, M. 320Tyson, S. 217, 222, 470, 478, 492Tziner, A. 271

UUK Commission for Employment and

Skills 184, 283, 286, 290, 291, 356

Ulrich, D. 14, 25–6, 51, 71, 301, 302, 536, 540

Ulrich, L. 230Unwin, L. 296, 302

VVallas, S. 108van den Broek, D. 123Van Dierendonck, D. 274, 343Van Ryzin, G. 89van Vijfeijken, H. 268–9Vanderklippe, N. 167VandeWalle, D. 343Varma, A. 515Venn, D. 188Verburg, R. M. 74, 77, 79, 80, 81–2,

83, 85, 90Verity, J. 350Verma, A. 206, 410, 422, 445, 446,

449Victor, B. 351Vidal, J. 47Vignoles, A. 291Viitala, R. 347Vilela, B. 268Villasalero, M. 76Vince, R. 333, 350Vinnicombe, S. 334Visser, J. 401, 413, 415Von Krogh, G. 320Vosko, L. 478Vroom, V. H. 369Vygotsky, L. S. 314, 355

WWaddington, J. 401, 412, 413, 414,

415Wagner, R. F. 230Wajcman, J. 108, 159, 400Wall, T. D. 114, 116, 175, 181Wallace, M. 285Walters, D. 473, 493Walters, M. 178Walton, J. 323

Walton, R. 264Walton, S. 199Wanous, J. P. 241Warhurst, C. 30, 108, 124, 131Warner, M. 523Warr, P. 13, 152Waterman, R. 50, 154Watkins, K. E. 283, 289, 310, 348Watson, S. 286Watson, T. xxvii, 7, 9, 30, 31, 63, 99,

108, 349, 365, 423, 544Watts, J. 227Weale, S. 47Webb, I. M. 313Webb, S. and B. 401Weber, B. 465Weber, M. 22, 28–9, 108, 153Wedderburn, Lord 388, 389, 456Wehmeyer, W. 165Wei, L. 59, 71Wei, S.-J. 190Weichman, D. 238Weick, K. 163, 314Welbourne, T. 381Weldy, T. 310, 311Wells, D. 128, 314, 400, 420Wenger, E. 316, 317, 346, 355Wente, M. 134West, M. 78Western, S. 204, 264, 303, 331Westley, F. 41, 314Wheelen, T. 43Wheeler, A. 220Whelan, E. 194Whiddett, S. 217White, A. S. 250, 251White, G. 378Whiteley, A. 96Whitfield, K. 83, 381Whitley, R. 504, 521Whitmore, J. 304–5Whitston, C. 401, 414Whittaker, D. H. 522Whittaker, P. 239Whittaker, S. 85, 96Whittington, R. 62Wickens, P. 407Widget Finn 164Wiggins, J. S. 236Wilding, P. 445Wilk, S. 226, 239Wilkinson, A. 13, 433Wilkinson, B. 127Wilkinson, R. 86

Willcocks, L. 130Williams, R. 9, 113, 144, 255Williams, S. 295Williams, W. 236Williamson, B. 206, 286, 320Willmott, H. 9, 30, 31, 129, 130, 162,

168Wilson, H. 222, 226Wilson, J. P. 264Wilson, K. 262Wilson, R. 290Winfield, N. 501Winstanley, D. 31, 45, 434, 453Wintour, P. 384Witherspoon, P. D. 432Witz, A. 30Wolf, A. 295Womack, J. 127Wood, I. 204, 287Wood, S. 190, 400, 413, 421, 422,

446Wood, S. J. 175, 181, 404Woodall, J. 31, 45, 192, 282, 434, 453Woodruffe, C. 239, 255World Commission on Environment

and Development 48World Health Organization 464Worsley, R. 329Wright, C. 425Wright, M. 413Wright, P. M. 38, 70, 74, 76, 81, 82,

84, 86, 89, 93, 94 XXenikou, A. 154

YYakabuski, F. 45Yammarino, F. J. 273Yang, B. 311Yanow, D. 285, 316Yap, M. 30York, G. 491Youndt, M. A. 74, 76Yu, G. 194Yu, K.-H. 134Yuki, G. 15

ZZhang, J. 356, 515, 516Zhang, Y. 148, 152, 160Zimmerman, A. 388Zubanov, N. 180Zweig, D. 232, 234

615name index

subject index

Page numbers marked with an asterisk (*) denote website addresses on those pagesHRM stands for human resource management

3 (mobile phone company) 22216PF questionnaire 237*180-degree feedback 263, 273, 343270-degree feedback 263360-degree feedback 249, 263,

273–4, 275, 276*, 343–4540-degree feedback 263, 273, 343720-degree feedback 258*, 273*3M 166

Aability tests 234–5absenteeism 72–3, 79, 117, 178*, 367,

446health, safety and wellness 468,

475ACAS 404, 405, 406*, 407Accenture 192accidents at work 113, 464, 465,

466–7, 473careless worker model 466–7costs 466, 468–9

accounting 204–6*acquired immune deficiency syndrome

(AIDS) 474, 487–8*acquisition and development 60action learning 349, 350–1*, 356*Acts of Parliament see legislationadded value 7, 63, 71, 80, 205, 536

LMD 339, 352–353administrative experts 25–6, 536Advanced Institute of Management

335*advertising in recruitment 221–2Advisory, Conciliation and Arbitration

Service (ACAS) 404, 405, 406*, 407

Africa 109, 487, 521see also South Africa

age 3, 32, 78, 113, 216, 262discrimination 203low wages 390–1Regulations 11

agency in EIP 452, 453AIDS 474, 487–8*

airlines 55, 508alcohol 474, 485–6, 489alignment in reward systems 375,

377, 380Altman, Ruth 393Alvesson, Yrjö 525AMICUS 414, 415AMO (ability, motivation, opportunity)

theory 94, 97analysers 43andragogy 345annualized hours 187antenatal care 11appraisal xxviii, 249–80, 371

360-degree 249, 263, 273–4, 275, 276*, 343–4

assessment online 237–8*case study 277–8control 250, 251, 256, 260–2, 264,

276criticism 261, 263culture 162, 165–6definition 256fairness 262further reading 279–80health, safety and wellness 466international 519–21interviewing 259–63*, 265, 273*LMD 343negative outcomes 262–3online 263*peer 274, 343–4performance 249–52, 274, 343–4purposes 252–5, 259–60self 249, 272–3, 343summary 278–9supervisory 272–3teams or groups 268–9*, 274top down 343trade unions 402transformation process model

266–8upward 249, 274, 343–4

apprenticeships 282, 296*–7*Australia 294

approaches to learning 344–6aptitude tests 235Arab states xxv, 109, 532artefacts 150–1, 152, 156, 160asbestos and asbestosis 465, 470,

473

Asia 523, 525culture 147see also individual countries

assembly lines 117, 125assertiveness 524–5assessment centres 239–40, 254–5associative learning 311–12, 315attitudes to work 192–3attraction

recruitment 215–26reward management 366, 372framework 220

Australia 292, 506apprenticeships 294gender pay gap 388Investors in People 292leadership development 274reward management 369

Austria 190, 378authenticity 200autonomy 79, 108, 445

job design 114–15, 122, 123responsible 57, 123

awareness programmes 287

BBa 316*BA see British AirwaysBabbage, Charles 115, 116Bahrain 532balanced scorecard 251Bangladesh 502Bank of England 41Bank of Scotland 46banks and banking 109–10, 531–2,

543, 544Barclays Bank 201, 203Baringa Partners 144, 164basic assumptions 150–1, 152BBC 271, 304, 446Bec Development 306*Belbin Team Role 237*Belgium 80, 223, 418beliefs 145, 146, 148, 150, 152, 154–6Benefits Agency 423Bentham, Jeremy 47, 158best fit 72, 75, 83, 84, 93, 165

employee relations 434IHRM 514, 518reward management 363

616

best practice 3, 72, 81, 83, 84, 93, 337employee relations 434IHRM 514, 521, 523, 524reward management 363

Best Value 251–2*Best Workplace Award 144Bhopal chemical plant disaster 45,

465, 504Big Outdoors 170–1Big Society 288, 365binge-drinking culture 485–6*, 488binge-working culture 144biodata 229–30black box 89, 92, 97, 98, 329, 371,

402, 433, 538BlackBerry 110, 476blogging 136, 436bonus culture 31, 149, 363, 369, 378,

379, 533–4boredom 119, 120, 123boundaryless career 198, 501Bowen, Nanette 457BP 215*, 465, 501branding 109, 213, 214, 215*, 219Brazil 374Bre-X 46bribery 46bricolage 305British Airways 161, 191, 223*, 399,

405–6, 410, 508British Airways v. Unite Union (2010)

406British Columbia 357–8British Psychological Society 238Brotherton, George 495Brown, Lori 495Brundtland Report 48BT 192, 195, 203, 204, 222Bulgaria 459bullying vi, xxviii, 454, 457, 474, 478,

483–5*call centres 190*definition 484

Bupa xxviii, 153bureaucracy 118, 123–4bureaucratic control 267–9Bush, President George 492Business Link 295, 296*business partners model 301, 302,

536business process re-engineering

(BPR) 129–30*, 181business strategy 84, 406, 514–15business-level strategy xxviii, 42–3business-to-employee (B2E) portals

185

CCadbury 273call centres 57, 61, 123, 124, 452,

492, 543bullying 190*

India 124, 134, 180, 504phone rage 483staff turnover 221surveillance 158workforce planning 188, 189, 190*

Cameron, David vi, 365Canada 241, 526–7

AIDS 487, 488*Athabasca watershed 465Charter of Rights 415collective bargaining 415, 416culture 147, 149EIP 449gender bias 30health, safety and wellness 468,

469, 491, 494–5legislation 388*LMD 334, 357–8oil sands 44pay levels 384reward management 369, 372,

374, 384, 394smoking in the workplace 486stress in the workplace 480sustainability 52, 167trade unions 401, 408

Canadian Manufacturers and Exporters Association 52

Canterbury Hospital 33–4Capita UK 483capitalism 4, 7, 24, 28, 32, 108,

109–10, 523, 541–2disillusionment xxvemployment relationship 9–10global 109, 133, 501–2, 506, 507,

509HRM crisis 539–40industrial relations 406recession 532varieties 407, 509, 521, 524

capitalist modernity 146Cappella University 323*care principle of ethics 46career management 182, 198–9*,

200–1talent 195

‘careless worker’ model 466–7carers’ rights 187casino economy xxvicausation and causality 81, 83, 87,

89–92, 93, 97, 99HRD 307–8

CCTV 158Cega Group 304ceremonies 151–2, 160challenge 200–1Chang, Jennifer 357change agents 25–6, 536Charter of Rights (Canada) 415Chartered Institute of Personnel and

Development (CIPD) 282, 534, 537code of professional conduct 537

Chernobyl 491, 532Chief Human Resources Officers

(CHROs) 17child labour 470, 501–2Chilean miners 464*China 374, 502, 523

appraisal 262, 519–20child labour 501–2manufacturing 24MNCs 109, 513*

CHROs 17CIPD see Chartered Institute of

Personnel and Developmentclassical work systems 115–19, 132climate change 3, 52, 474climate compared with culture 150Clinton, President Bill 455, 492closed shop 413coaching 255, 303, 304*, 305*, 306*,

349*, 356cognitive learning 311–12, 345Cognitive Styles Index 312Cole, Nathan 357collaborative strategy 60–1, 537collective agreements 401–2, 419*,

484rules 416, 419trade unions 401–2

collective bargaining 387–91, 399, 402*, 407, 415–19, 450contraction 400definition 416EIP 452, 453employment relationship 9joint consultation 447–8multiemployer 416single employer 416–17structure 416–18trade unions 374, 380, 387–8,

399–400, 402*, 404, 407, 415–19, 450, 452

UK 374, 378, 380, 387, 388, 415–18collective rights 469collectivism 3, 5, 147, 408, 413, 420Combination Acts (1799 and 1800)

404commitment 3, 6, 12–13, 399, 420–1

appraisal 262, 264attitudes 193control 8–9, 74–5, 138dual 421EIP 444–5Guest model of HRM 20, 21–2HR strategy type 60–1, 63organizational culture 144, 147,

154, 160performance 73, 74, 77, 79, 94,

445productivity 135re-engineering 129reward management 363 366staff turnover 180trade unions 420–1

617subject index

communication 432–3, 434–9*, 440–1case study 459–60cultural differences 524–5definition 434direct 439–40electronic 440*gendered 437, 439information disclosure 440–1key issues 436managers 435–6, 440methods 439–40*model 436–7, 439non-verbal 436–7, 439symbolic 434–5verbal 436–7written 436–7

communities of practice (CoPs) 314, 316–17*

community development 351Community Environment Fund (CEF)

33–4community health 489, 491, 492comparative human resource

management 501, 521competences 295competencies 217, 218, 225, 232–3,

269definition 217examples 218HRD 285LMD 338, 339, 340–1, 342, 343,

348MNCs 502training 285

competency frameworks 213, 217, 218*, 233, 249appraisal 269, 271, 276HRD 302

competitive advantage 309, 505–6knowledge 317, 321learning 291, 309, 310, 317

competitive strategies 38, 42, 43, 51, 56, 58, 61, 63external fit 55, 64

complementary HR practices 75–6compliance 20, 366Comprehensive Spending Review

193compressed hours 187computer software 178*, 184–5*Comte, Auguste 27, 153Confederation of British Industry (CBI)

126, 203, 367Conference Board of Canada 52conflict 8, 155, 157

causing stress 479employment relationships 365,

447paradigm 27, 28, 29–30

constructivist model of research design 87

consultation 77, 441, 447–8, 450see also joint consultation

context of HRM 316, 335, 341, 402performance 76, 84, 92–9

contingencies affecting management 15–16

Contract of Employment Acts (1963/1972) 11

contract workers 192–3contracts of employment 10–11, 12,

389control 3, 56–8, 63, 420

appraisal 250, 251, 256, 260–2, 264, 276

commitment 8–9, 74–5, 138culture 155, 156, 157, 160direct 57–8EIP 444–5individual 57locus 60outcomes-based (indirect) 57–8process-based (direct) 57–8technical 56, 57

control-based model of HR strategy 56–8

convergence/divergence 521–5cooperation 3, 8, 365Cordaval University 394–5core workforce 181, 186–7corporate-level strategy 41, 43corporate manslaughter 45, 46, 47,

469Corporate Manslaughter and

Corporate Homicide Act (2007) 11, 45, 47, 473

corporate social responsibility (CSR) vi, xl, 44, 45*–7, 194

corporate sustainability 48–50corporate strategic IHRM 511–12corporate universities 58*, 322–3correlation 89–90cost leadership 42, 366, 375, 377Costco Wholesale Corporation 377, 508costs

accidents at work 465, 466*, 468–9diversity 287health, safety and wellness 465,

466*, 468–9, 476, 493recruitment 216, 222selection 226smoking 486–7*training 226, 282, 286, 289

counterculture 155credentials 231critical HRM (CHRM) xxvii, 7–8, 32,

34, 136pedagogy 543–5

critical perspectives 155–7, 159, 543critical realism 92critical reflexivity xxvi, 545criticism in appraisal 261, 263critique 30–2culture xxviii, xxix, xli, 14, 147*, 148,

150–2*, 153*, 420, 538appraisal 519–20*

case study 170–1change 161–3changing values 146–7communication 437, 439control 155, 156, 157, 160definition 144–5diversity 201, 204, 287dynamics 145*EIP 442, 447ethics 44, 47further reading 172HRD 3, 284, 286IHRM 501, 523–5management 159–62measuring change 164MNCs 503, 514*, 515–16, 517modernity 144–8multiculturalism 149OL 314, 315, 316paradox 167–9performance 77, 79perspectives 153–9summary 171sustainability 48, 49, 50, 162–3,

165–7three levels 150–1

Currency, Inc. 139–40curriculum vitae (CV) 226, 229–30customer democracy 129CWU 414*

DDaimlerChrysler 241debt crisis 91, 109–10decentralization 14decision-making 38, 40, 41, 53, 55,

62employees 432, 433, 435, 441,

443, 446, 449ethics 44, 46, 47hierarchy 41, 42, 43upstream/downstream 43, 53

defenders 43deindustrialization 413delayering 135, 194, 199Denmark 190, 418Denning, Lord 405–6dependency relationships 127design school model 284–5despotic regimes 123development 249, 254–5, 402

see also human resource development

development centres 239, 254–5*developmental approach to appraisal

256developmental humanistic approach

289–90Diallo, Nafissatou 455differentiation 135, 137, 159, 366, 375,

377MNCs 503, 504, 507

differentiation strategy 42–3, 113, 203

618 subject index

dignity vi, 8, 135, 369, 399employment relations 431, 453–4health, safety and wellness 464,

488Dimensions of Learning Organization

Questionnaire (DLOQ) 310, 311Disability Discrimination Act (2005)

11, 454discipline 433–4, 456*–8*

concepts 458*discovery learning 315discrimination 86, 201, 203, 287

ethnic minorities 391*gender 147, 157, 159, 202, 388,

389job descriptions 225Social Charter 546

Disney 501Disneyland 151distinctive competencies 58distributive justice 46diversity vi, xxviii, xl, 201–4*, 421

HRD 287management 201–5

division of labour 107–8, 109, 115–16, 123–4, 137

Dogfish Head Brewery 442Donovan Commission 5double-loop learning 314downsizing vi, xxvi, 3, 63, 135, 176,

193–4, 539BPR 181psychological contract 13

downtime 192drug abuse 489dual-role syndrome 480Duncan, Matthew 459–60Durkheim, Emile 27–8, 153, 154duvet days 367Dylan, Bob 531

Ee-assessment 237–8*Eastern Europe 502, 519Ebbers, B. xxv, 44ecocide 465ecological economics 48–9economic approach to globalization

507economic crisis (2008) vi, xxv–xxvi, 7,

41, 54, 74, 91, 100, 157, 161, 175, 182banking 109–10, 531–2, 543, 544

economic growth and sustainability 49–50

economic relationship 10economics neoclassical theory 48economies of location 502, 505economies of scale 502, 503, 505ecosystem 48–9, 50, 51, 52, 133,

139–40, 532–3culture 165–7, 168see also green concerns

eco-track 52education 109Egypt 109, 532e-HR 185, 222e-learning xxviii, 185, 282, 299,

321–2*, 323*definition 31moderation 322*

Elenkov, D. 521emails 158, 222, 225, 440emotion at work 112emotion management 91, 94–5emotional intelligence 236–7*, 342*,

540–1emotional labour 110, 112, 160employee assistance programme

(EAP) 486, 489, 495employee champions 25–7, 536employee grievances 5, 433–4, 454employee involvement and

participation (EIP) 431–2, 434, 441–4*, 445–7*, 448–52agency 452, 453Canada 449collective bargaining 452, 453culture 166, 442, 447decision-making 432, 433, 435,

441, 443, 446, 449definition 441direct 443discipline 456financial initiatives 443indirect 443, 444, 447paradox 452–3theory 444–7trade unions 77, 79, 80, 441,

446–9, 453employee performance measures

71–3employee relations xxviii, 5, 6, 8–9,

137, 430–41BPR 129–30case study 459–60communication 434–41culture 166further reading 461–2global capitalism 507, 509 involvement 431–2, 441–53nature 430–4sexual harassment 454–6summary 460–1

employee rights 11, 433–4, 453–4, 469

employee value proposition (EVP) 214

employee voice xxx, 431–2, 438, 439–40, 443, 445–9

Employment Act (1980) 11, 405Employment Act (1982) 11, 405Employment Act (1988) 11, 405Employment Act (1989) 11Employment Act (1990) 11, 405Employment Act (2002) 11, 187, 193

employment contracts see contracts of employment

employment deal 214Employment Equality (Age)

Regulations 11Employment Equality (Belief)

Regulations (2003) 11Employment Equality (Sexual

Orientation) Regulations (2003) 11Employment Protection Act (1975) 11Employment Protection

(Consolidation) Act (1978) 11Employment and Training Act (1973)

11Employment Tribunals Act (1996) 11employment relations see employee

relations Employment Relations Act (1999)

404, 405, 413, 422, 425Employment Relations Act (2004) 11,

405employment relationship 9–13, 364–5

control and commitment 8–9ethics 45global capitalism 501–2reward as key facet 363social 11–12

employment rights 11, 433–4, 453–4, 469

Employment Rights Act (1996) 11Employment Rights (Disputes

Resolution) Act (1998) 11employment tribunals 3end of work thesis 108Engels, Friedrich 156Engeström, Vesa 526–7England 148, 286, 291*, 294–5Enron xxv, 46enterprise resource planning (ESR)

185*environment 48, 51, 53

Canterbury Hospital 33–4ethics 44LMD 341recruitment 216–17sustainability 48–50, 52, 162–3,

165–7*work systems 119–20

environmental analysis 39, 40equal opportunities xxviii, xl, 157, 201,

203, 287, 388Equal Opportunities Commission 390equal pay 86*, 369, 371, 379, 388–9*,

390internal 364, 370, 371, 378, 379,

380–4, 385legislation 11, 379, 389, 390*

Equal Pay Act (1970) 11, 379, 389, 390Equal Pay (Amendment) Regulations

(1983) 390Equality Act (2006) 11, 454Equality and Human Rights

Commission 203–4, 227

619subject index

equity theory 369, 401e-recruitment 185, 222e-rewards 185Erin Brockovich (film) 465Ernst & Young 240ethical dilemmas 44ethical stance 44Ethical Trade Initiative 100ethics vi, xl, 4*, 44–7, 434, 453, 533

culture 152health, safety and wellness 470,

491ethnic minorities 201, 203, 479

career management 198low pay 390*–1

ethnocentricity 516Europe and the European Union (EU)

501–2, 521, 523, 525, 544AIDS 487clothing industry 100collective bargaining 402*, 418convergence/divergence 521credit crisis 91culture 147, 148debt crisis 91, 109EIP 449employee relations 432, 433equal pay 389, 390*flexible working 127globalization 502Green movement 133harassment 455health, safety and wellness 465,

469, 472–4, 493HR–performance link 77IHRM 519industrial relations 400, 404, 409Japanization 127job design 115legislation 11, 390, 451–2, 454, 493MNCs 503–4, 515pay levels 387–8, 389recession 531redundancy 193, 194reward management 370, 390sexual harassment 455smoking 459, 486 Social Charter 473, 493, 546sustainability 167trade unions 167, 400, 401, 402*,

419*working time 187, 477

European CommissionCSR 45women in leadership 54

European Convention on Human Rights 405–6

European Court of Justice 404European Directives

Information and Consultation (2001) 451–2

Working Time 477Works Council (1994) 433, 451

European Foundation for Quality Management 251

European Passengers Services Ltd 239–40

European Works Councils (EWCs) 443–4, 451–2

evaluation 70–1, 299HRM–performance link 70–1, 88LMD 352–3*training 299, 306–9*see also job evaluation

e-working 185excellence elements 251executive burnout 476, 479executive coaching 349exercise 489exit interviews 180expansive–restrictive continuum 302expatriates 501, 509, 514, 515–16,

520–1, 525performance appraisal 519–20rewards 517training 518women 516, 520–1

expectancy theory 369experiential activities 350*experiential learning 312–13, 345,

350*Express Newspapers v. McShane

(1979) 405Exxon Valdez 45

Fface validity 234Facebook 223, 436factor comparison 382–3Factory/Factories Acts 11, 470–1fairness 228, 454

appraisal 262family and work 13fast-food industry 120, 121, 122, 123,

124, 502Fayol, Henri 329feedback 249, 256–9, 263, 266,

273*–5*180-degree 263, 273, 343270-degree 263360-degree 249, 263, 273–4, 275,

276*, 343–4540-degree 263, 273, 343720-degree 258*, 273*effect on performance 256–9employees’ response 256–7LMD 343–4multisource 249, 263, 273*–5*

feedforward 257*, 263, 264femininity 147, 157, 523feminism 27, 30, 155, 157, 159feminization of employment 130Ferguson, Dr Sara 394financial sector 54, 272

see also banks and bankingFinland 374, 418, 526–7

fixed-term contracts 187, 192Fletcher, Ray 415*flexible specialization 125flexibility and flexible working 108,

113, 127, 186–7*, 188–9*, 190–4, 421, 477abuse 77e-learning 321, 322Guest model 21–2job descriptions 225reward management 380, 392stress 478trade unions 422types 127, 186women 202, 203work anywhere culture 110–11

flexi-place 110–11flexi-time 110–11, 188Flowpak Engineering 62focus strategy 42–3Fombrun, Tichy and Devanna model

18food at work 490Ford, Henry and Fordism 117, 119,

125, 131, 381, 474HRD 289post-Fordism 132, 133, 377

Ford Motor Company 125, 203Fort Chipewyan 465Foucauldian analysis 31, 438, 447,

492Foucault, Michel 158four-task model 53Fourth Medium-Term Community

Action Programme on Equal Opportunities 390

France 374, 506, 538collective bargaining 418culture 149genetically modified crops 47health, safety and wellness 473incentive pay 378Investors in People 292non-regular employment 109, 538trade unions 401training levies 288

freelancing 188Friedan, Betty 30frustration causing stress 478–9functional-level strategy 43

GGangmasters Licensing Authority 510Gantt, Henry L 116Gate Gourmet 191gender xl, 30, 113, 201, 203

coaching 349communication 437, 439culture 147, 157, 159discrimination 147, 157, 159, 202,

388, 389industrial relations 400job evaluation 381, 389

620 subject index

leadership 54MNCs 516pay 86, 379, 385, 388–9, 390*, 533reward management 363

Gender Recognition Act (2004) 11General Electric Company 260–1General Teaching Council for Scotland

183Generation X 200Generation Y 201, 216*genetically modified crops 47Germany 190

apprenticeships 296culture 149EIP 77, 79European Works Councils 451,

452health, safety and wellness 473Investors in People 292LMD 333trade unions 401

Gilbreth, Frank B 116glass border 516glass ceiling 198, 227, 257global business strategy 503–7global capitalism 109, 133, 501–2,

506, 507, 509global glue 518global strategy 504–7global warming 474globalization xxvi, xxviii, xxix, xxx, xl,

506–7, 508, 538–9capitalism 109, 133, 501–2, 506,

507, 509case study 526–7collective bargaining 418convergence/divergence 521–5culture 146economic approach 507HRM models 24IHRM 501industrial relations 406, 409institutionalist approach 507, 509integrated approach 509reverse 134–5rewards 365, 373, 374SHRM 63summary 527sustainability 533work systems 113, 134

GMB union 414*goals of strategic management 39, 40goal-setting 250, 254, 263, 266, 369Goodwin, F xxvGoogle 221government and pay 387–91graduates 282

recruitment 212, 216, 240Great Depression 4, 531, 543Greece 459, 538green concerns vi, xxvii, xxix, 38, 47,

49–50, 52, 491, 492, 532–3community health 491, 492

culture 48, 49, 50, 162–3, 165–7*health, safety and wellness 465,

491, 492, 493trade unions 422*, 424work redesign 133see also ecosystem

Green Growth conference 399greenhouse gases 49, 52grievance process 5, 433–4, 454groups 351, 352, 370GROW model 304–5Guardian Media Group 204Guest model of HRM 20–2

components 21Gulf of Mexico oil spill 44, 215, 465

HHackingate 44Hammond, Philip 125Hanlon-Smith, Keith 435*harassment 454, 479, 484

racial 479sexual 159, 454–6, 478, 479, 525

Harvard 544Harvard model 18–20Hass, Robert 488Hawthorne Pharmaceuticals 459–60,

475Hay job evaluation plan 383Hayward v. Cammell Laird

Shipbuilders Ltd (1987) 390hazards at work 113, 466headcount 183health insurance 332, 364Health and Morals of Apprentices Act

(1802) 470Health and Safety Commission (HSC)

468, 476Health and Safety Executive (HSE)

466, 467, 482, 483, 486health, safety and wellness vi, xxx, xl,

464–97AIDS 487–8*alcohol 485–6*bullying 483–5*case study 494–5changing approach 466–8collective rights 469community 489, 491, 492costs 465, 466*, 468–9, 476, 493definition 464economic considerations 468–9employers’ duties 469, 470, 471,

472ethics 470food at work 490further reading 496–7European Union 469, 472–4, 493importance 468–70individual rights 469legal considerations 470–4legislation 11, 465, 469*, 470–4,

493

paradox 491–3psychological considerations

469–70smoking 485–6*summary 495–6sustainability 464–8, 532trade unions 401–2, 464, 467–8,

469, 470, 471, 488, 492work—life balance 477workplace issues 474–89work-related stress 482

Health and Safety at Work etc. Act (1974) 11, 466, 469, 472

Heineken University 322hierarchy of strategy 41–4, 53high-commitment/high-performance

practices 77work systems 377

high-commitment management (HCM) 77, 128

high-involvement work systems (HIWSs) 77, 107, 125, 128, 131, 132, 420employee relations 432, 433, 435pay 370, 381

high-performance practices 75, 77, 79, 86, 133, 284, 291, 420diversity 204

high-performance work practice (HPWP) 77

high-performance work systems (HPWSs) 3, 62, 70, 77, 79, 83, 97, 125, 128, 160appraisal 250call centres 190EIP 443, 445, 453HRD 284, 286, 297trade unions 422

high-performance workplace (HPW) 70, 77

high-road strategy 180–2, 284, 286history of HRM 3–5, 531, 542HIV (human immunodeficiency virus)

487–8*HM Revenue and Customs 258Hoffman, Gary 182holiday allowance 372, 374homeworking 126, 188, 189*, 190Honda 127Hong Kong 374, 523host country nationals 514, 516, 517,

525HP 287HRM crisis 535–40HRM cycle 18HRM definition 6, 7HRM dimensions 15–16HRM–performance link xxviii, xxix,

69–103case study 100–1causality 89–92context 92–9demonstrating 74–80

621subject index

embedding 77–80evaluation 70–1, 88further reading 103modelling 71–4questioning research 80–92summary 101–2

HRM scope and functions 13–16HRM theory 16, 18–23, 25–7Huawei Technologies 513*human capital 8, 76, 205–6, 319human capital monitor 206human capital theory 289–90, 319human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)

487–8*human relations theory 330human resource meaning 8human resource accounting (HRA)

204–6*human resource development (HRD)

3, 5–6, 281–327case study 324–5changing roles 17, 301–2coaching 303–5definition 282–3diversity 287e-learning 321–3further reading 327implementation 297–309integrated and systemic approach

301–3interventionist approach 288line managers 282, 284, 285,

297–8, 299, 302, 303national 288*–97return on investment 307–8*strategy 283–7summary 325–6systematic (four-stage) model

298–301human resource information systems

(HRIS) 184–5human resource measurement 71–4human resource planning (HRP) 176,

180–1*, 182human resource practices 70–1, 74–7,

78, 180research 80–92

human resource specialists 15*, 16*, 71, 534–5, 536, 537

human resources strategy models 56–62control-based 56–8integrative 56, 60–2make or buy 60resource-based 50, 56, 58–60

human rights 4*, 405–6Human Rights Act (1998) 405Hummel, Tania 215*

IIBM 147ICAN 526–7identity in EIP 109, 452, 453

IHRM see international human resource management

IKEA 503–524implementation of HRM incentive pay 368, 378indeterminacy 7India 502, 523

Bhopal chemical plant disaster 45, 465, 504

call centres 124, 134, 180, 504manufacturing 24outsourcing 24, 109, 134, 190trade unions 426–7

India Trades Union Act (1926) 426individualism 5–6, 147, 228individual performance-related pay

(IPRP) 370individual rights 46, 469industrial democracy 443–4industrial relations xxx, 5, 10, 23, 82,

398–429case study 426–7definition 399–400, 402further reading 428–9legal context 404–6management strategies 406–9nature 399–402partnership arrangements 425South African unions 403summary 427–8trade unions and HRM 419–21union strategies and paradox

421–4Industrial Relations Act (1971) 11Industrial Revolution 3, 470, 491Industrial Training Act (1965) 11informal learning 283, 284, 298, 314,

317, 355information and communication

technology (ICT) 184–5*, 319knowledge 319teleworking 188

Information and Consultation Directive (2001) 451–2

information-processing 312*information-sharing 440–1, 449Innospec 46Institute of Personnel Management

(IPM) 407, 534Institute of Training and Development

534institutionalist approach to

globalization 507, 509integrated approach to globalization

509integration 135, 137, 503, 504–7

culture 154, 159integration–responsiveness grid

504–7integrative model of human resource

strategy 56, 60–2intellectual capital 205–6intelligence tests 236

intelligibility 540intergroup learning 351internalization of HRM 524international human resource

management (IHRM) xxviii, xl, 13–14, 15, 501, 507–14, 515*case study 526–7communication 439convergence/divergence 521–5definition 509further reading 528–9global business strategy 503–7global capitalism 501–2internationalization of HRM 514–21summary 527

International Labour Organization (ILO) 389, 412*, 546

International Monetary Fund (IMF) 146, 455, 519

international strategy 504–6International Women’s Day 516, 525Internet xxv, 185, 238, 319, 492

culture 169e-learning 321recruitment 216, 222, 223*, 225teleworking 188

internships 223*interventionist approach to HRD 288interviews

appraisal 259–63*, 265, 273*exit 180research 86–7, 89selection 226, 229, 230, 232–4*

intranet 440inventories (questionnaires) 234, 235Investors in People 292–3*, 355involvement–commitment cycle 94,

445Iraq xxv, 46, 531Ireland 204, 415, 452Italy 401, 418, 540ITT 505, 506*

JJapan 522

appraisal 519BPR 129, 131culture 145, 147employment relations 443Fukushima nuclear plant vi, xxv, 7,

399, 491, 493, 532 management 127–8*, 131MNCs 443, 515, 516, 523, 524trade unions 407work systems 132

Japanization 127Jennings, Paul 46job analysis 213, 217, 224–5*, 371

techniques 217, 218*job assessment software 218*job-based pay 370, 371, 380–1, 384job boards 222job characteristic model 121–3

622 subject index

job content 348, 363job description 233–6job design 114–15

causing stress 479, 481scientific management 116–17

job enlargement 120–1, 127job enrichment 121, 123job evaluation 371, 380–4, 385

assigning pay 382, 384*, 390*compensable factors 382definition 381factor comparison method 382,

383gender 381, 389goal 381job-grading method 382–3point method 382, 383–4ranking method 382

job grading 382–3job rotation 120job-sharing 188job titles 381, 382, 384, 536joint consultation 447

collective bargaining 447–8, 450extent 448–9marginality model 448revitalization model 447–8

joint consultative committees (JCCs) 431, 433, 448, 449–51*health, safety and wellness 474operation and structure 449–51*

just-in-time learning 321just-in-time production 127, 137

Kkaizen 127, 251Kaminski, Ron 167Kamloops 494–5Kerrison, Dennis 46Keynesianism 3, 5–6Keystone XL 167knowledge 267, 317–20*, 321

codified 319local 285source of competitive advantage

317, 321tacit 266, 319, 320

knowledge creation 317, 319–21knowledge economy 318knowledge management 317–21knowledge networks 317knowledge productivity 320knowledge-sharing 320knowledge societies 317knowledge work and workers 61,

130–1, 180, 317–19, 435knowledge-based organizations 286knowledge-based work systems

130–1, 433, 538knowledge-intensive organizations

317Korea 373

South 184, 291, 506, 516, 523

Krugman, Paul 507Kun-Hee, Lee 373Kyoto protocol (1997) 474, 491

Llabour–management committees

(LMCs) 450–1labour markets 329, 372, 413labour process 107labour process theory 135labour productivity 73, 108, 116Lamont, Norman 391language 145, 148, 150–1, 156, 160

communication 437, 439health, safety and wellness 474

large-group intervention 352Latin America 202Lawrence Inquiry, Stephen 287Lay, Kenneth xxvleadership–management exchange

(LMX) 95–6, 98, 432leadership 63–4

actuality at work 330–1, 333definition 329–31distributed 351*low-cost 42–3, 502, 505, 506–7models 339–42*theory and performance 95–6, 98

leadership and management development (LMD) xxviii, xxix, xxx, xli, 328–60adding value 339, 352–3approaches to learning 344–6assessing need 343–4case study 357–8definition 331, 333further reading 359–60implementation 339–42*, 443–53models 339–42*planned processes and recognized

opportunities 331, 333, 339providing activities 346–52, 347*SMEs 329, 354–6strategic 333, 336–9summary 358

lean management techniques 258lean production 125, 128, 132–3, 258learning 301*, 303–5

action 349, 350–1*, 356*associative 311–12, 315canonical/non-canonical 317cognitive 311–12, 345competitive advantage 291, 309,

310, 317constructivism 312cycle 312–13, 316, 345–6, 350discovery 315double loop 314experiential 312–13, 345, 350*global context 315informal 283, 284, 298, 314, 317,

355life-long 199, 267, 290, 303, 422–3

LMD 344–6mobile 322neurolinguistic programming (NLP)

313*organizational 289, 310, 314–17,

319, 321, 325practice-based 346, 348–9real 337single loop 314situated 316–17, 346*trade unions 401–2traditions 311transfer 306–9*, 344understanding 311–14workplace 166, 266, 282–3,

309–17, 420, 540Learning and Skills Councils (LSCs)

295learning cycle 312–13, 316, 345–6,

350learning organizations 62, 310–11,

314, 453learning style questionnaire 312*, 345Learning Transfer System Inventory

306–7leaver profiling 180Lebanon 311LeBel, Mr Justice Louis 415–16legal relationship 10legislation 11, 388*, 405

diversity 201, 287employee discipline 456*employment relationship 9–11European 11, 390, 469, 493health and safety 11, 465, 469,

470–4, 493industrial relations 404*–6pay 388*, 389–91reward management 389selection 256sexual harassment 455–6

Lehman Brothers 54Levi Strauss, Claude 305Levi Strauss Company 488Lewinsky, Monica 455Libya 501, 532life-long learning 199, 267, 290, 303,

422–3lifestyle 465, 476, 481, 488–9, 492line managers 14, 70, 96, 538

appraisals 264HRD 282, 284, 285, 297–8, 299,

302, 303LMD 338Storey model 23, 25

LinkedIn 223, 436Lithuania 374Lloyds TSB 238, 239Loblaw 100local government 251–2*local knowledge 285local responsiveness 503–4locus of control 60

623subject index

London Metropolitan Police 304low pay 390*–1low-skill equilibrium 290low-cost leadership 42–3, 502, 505,

506–7low-road strategy 180, 181loyalty 73, 129

Mmachine bureaucracy 250machine metaphor 289macho 202, 234Macmillan Publishers 215*macrostructures 93Madoff, B 44mainstream perspectives 543make or buy 60Malaysia 521management by objectives 271management standards model 341*–2management theory 543managerialist perspective 153–5,

228, 269managers and management

xxvi–xxvii, 6–9, 257, 259actuality at work 330–1, 333appraisals 256, 260, 262, 264,

266, 274, 275collective bargaining 415–19communication 435–6, 440–1*definition 329–30disclosure of information 440–1education 543–5expatriate 514, 515–16, 520–1EIP 446employment relationship 9EWCs 451heart, safety and wellness 464,

466, 469, 470, 484HRD evaluation 306–9IHRM 525models 339–42performance 96, 98practice perspective 542strategic 38–43, 286strategies 39, 40, 406–9surveillance 158sustainability 533women 54, 257, 259, 516see also learning and

management development (LMD); line managers

manpower planning 176–80computer software 178*definition 176diagnostic approach 178–9stages 176–7supply and demand 176–8

manslaughter, corporate 45, 46, 47, 469

Mansour, Mohamed 164manufacturing xxvi, 24, 413Maree, Kagisco 139–40

marginality model 448market disciplines 5market strategy 43Marks & Spencer 409, 510Marx, Karl 28–9, 30, 56–7, 108, 111,

116, 156marzipan layer 227Masaku, Kamali 65–6masculinity 147, 148, 157, 159Master’s in Business Administration

(MBA) 330, 334, 337, 347, 544master status 109Matalan 100matching model 55–6maternity rights 11, 187Maynard, Kelly 170Mayo, Elton 119–20McCombe, Mr Justice 405, 406McCormick, Janna 357McDonaldization 123McDonald’s 52, 123–4, 222, 502

apprenticeships 296trade unions 408

McJobs 124McLachlin, Chief Justice Beverley

415–16measurement of performance 249–52Médicins Sans Frontières 365Melbourne Principles 49mental health 464, 470, 478, 479,

483, 492mentoring 195, 303, 349, 356Merkel, Chancellor Angela 149Merrill Lynch 223*Mexico 506micro HRM (MHRM) 13–14, 15, 135microstructures 93Middle East 520Midvale Steel Company 116migrants 510

health, safety and wellness 473–4mindset and appraisal 265minimum wage 372, 390*, 418mission statements 219*mission of strategic management 39,

40mobile learning 322mobility and mobile working 113, 188models of HRM 5–6, 18–27

advancing economies 24careless worker 466–7Fombrun, Tichy and Devanna 18four-task 53generic and organization-specific

339–42Guest 20–2hard version 5Harvard 18–20joint consultation 447–8leaders and managers 339–42management standards model

341*–2matching 55–6

performance 71–4reward management 366–74SHRM 56–62, 63, 84soft version 5Storey 22–3, 25trade unions 419–21Ulrich 25–6, 27*Warwick 22

Modern Apprenticeships 296modernity 144–8Monster 222Morecombe Bay disaster (2004) 510Morrisons 219*motivation 12–13, 75

appraisal 256, 261pay 368–74, 392performance 93–4

Mountain Equipment Co-operative 43multiculturalism 149multidomestic strategy 504–5multiemployer bargaining 416Multifactor Leadership Questionnaires

331*, 341multinational companies (MNCs) 109,

113, 502, 503–6*culture 146, 160EIP 443, 448EWCs 452IHRM 507, 509, 511–13, 514increased numbers 502performance appraisal 518–21pressures and goals 511–12recruitment and selection 213,

515–16reward 517SHRM 511–12training and development 518–19

multisite working 188multisource feedback (MSF) 249,

263, 273–5multiunionism 413Myers, Jason 52Myers, Sarah 197*Myers–Briggs Type Indicator 237*

NNando’s 196NASDAQ 44National Association of Schoolmasters

and Union of Women Teachers (NASUWT ) 414*

National College for School Leadership 269

National Health Service (NHS) 96, 183, 184, 269–70culture 151, 152, 154, 155equality and diversity 204*HRM and patient mortality 78

national human resources development 288*–97

National Minimum Wage Act (1998) 11National Minimum Wage

(Enforcement) Act (2003) 11

624 subject index

National Occupational Standards 295national qualifications framework

(NQF) 294National Skills Task Force 290National Student Survey 249National Vocational Qualifications

(NVQs) 295, 296negotiated strategies 504neoclassical economics 48neo-human relations school 119–24neo-liberalism xxvi, 5–6, 501, 502,

507, 509, 533, 544neo-Taylorism 117Netherlands, The 79, 190, 523

collective bargaining 418culture 149Investors in People 292trade unions 80

networking 195–6neurolinguistic programming 313*new economy 113New Labour 11, 390, 404, 413, 422,

473new managerialism 251new pay agenda 375, 377, 379, 380,

392, 533New Zealand 199, 456, 469

Canterbury Hospital 33–4News International 44Nicol, Heather 34Nicol, Hugo 202Nonaka, Tomoyo 522non-cash rewards 369non-permanent employment 478Norland Managed Services 435*normative model 5Northern Ireland 148, 252*, 294–5,

336*apprenticeships 296*

Northern Rock 182Norway 47, 54, 378nuclear accidents

Japan vi, xxv, 7, 399, 491, 493, 532

Ukraine 491, 532USA 491, 532

Nudie Jeans 43NUT 414*

OO

2 343, 352Obama, President Barack 108, 507Occupational Personality

Questionnaire 237*Occupational Safety and Health

Administration 492Occupy xxv

Edinburgh Group 538Octel 46offshoring 190–2oil pipeline 167oil spill disaster 44, 215, 465Oliver, Jamie 490

onboarding 221online appraisal 263*online testing 237–8O’Reilly, Malcolm 394orientation to work 13organic solidarity 28organizational citizenship 366, 371,

433, 445organizational learning (OL) 289, 310,

314–17case study 325four Is model 316knowledge 317, 319, 321

organizational pay 370, 372, 374organizational performance 74–6,

335, 338, 432measures 71–2, 73questioning research 80–92

organizational structures 452outsourcing 3, 14, 134, 190–2

China 24India 24, 109, 134, 190recruitment 217

Oxfam 146, 365

PPacific Gas and Electric Company 465panopticon 47, 158paradigms 27–30, 374–80, 541–2paradox 29, 30–2

culture 167–9EIP 452–3health, safety and wellness 491–3job design 135, 137–9reward management 391–3trade unions 421–4

Parmalat Finanziaria SpA 44, 46Parsons, Talcott 28, 153participative enquiry 351–2partnership agreements 404, 409*,

422–4, 425partnership strategy 421–4, 425partnership training 301part-time workers 180, 187paternalism 117paternity rights 187pay 110–11, 363–4, 533–4

dispersion 384gap 388, 533–4gender 86, 379, 385, 388–9, 390*,

533government 387–91incentive 368, 378increases 378, 388, 391inequality 86*job-based 370, 371, 380–1, 384knowledge 392levels 384–8, 389, 390* low 390*–1model 366–74motivation 368–74, 392new agenda 375, 377, 379, 380,

392, 533

organizational 370, 372, 374performance-related 79, 370–1,

376, 378, 379, 380, 392, 420person-based 370, 381piecework 371profit-related 378, 379strategic 366, 374–80structure 384–7systems 364, 370–1, 378–80, 392team-based 370*, 371, 392variable 378–80women 113, 202, 379, 389see also equal pay

pay–effort bargain 10pay for knowledge system 392PCS union 414*, 423peer appraisal 274, 343–4pension 364, 399people 3, 7, 175–6, 206

capability 335PepsiCo 54performance 263–76

approaches to rating 270–2employee turnover 180four Cs 94, 129, 135link to rewards 369reward management 363transformation process 266–8,

271see also HRM–performance link

performance appraisal 371culture 162, 165–6international 519–21see also appraisal

performance-based pay 370performance contracts 225performance control approach 256,

260–2, 264performance development 263–76performance and development plans

(PDPs) 249, 254–5performance management 249–77

case study 277–8contingencies 268–9cycle 254, 255further reading 279–80judgement and feedback 256–9LMD 343measurement 71–4*, 85–6,

249–52*purpose and processes 252–5,

256self-appraisal 272summary 278–9systems 249, 256–7, 259, 263–4,

266, 270–1, 276performance model of HRM 71–4performance rating 270–2performance-related pay (PRP) 79,

370–1, 376, 378, 379, 380, 392, 420

performance targets 258peripheral workforce 186–7

625subject index

person-based pay 370, 381personal development plans 344*personality 466, 479, 480

leaders and managers 339tests 213, 234, 235–7*, 536

personnel management 3, 5, 20–1, 23

PESTLE analysis 337Peters, Dr Michael 395phone rage 483piecework pay 371placements 223 planning 175, 180–6

manpower 176–80people 175–6

planning, organizing, directing, controlling (PODC) tradition 9

pluralism 5, 21, 420podcasts 436Poikela, Christian 527point method of job evaluation 382,

383–4Poland 401pollution 533

CSR 45culture 166–7ethics 44, 46health, safety and wellness 464,

491, 492trade unions 402

portfolio career 198 post-bureaucracy 118

work systems 125–31, 132, 138positive discrimination 201positivism 27, 71, 538

research 90–1, 92postmodernism 132power 12, 15, 29, 97–8, 118

culture 169EIP 437, 453industrial relations 400, 404pay schemes 392selection 228trade unions 401, 404

practice-based learning 346, 348–9practice perspective 540–3precarious employment 137, 478, 538Precision Engineering 375, 377pre-employment activities 240–1pregnancy 11presenteeism 367primacy of work thesis 107–10Primark Stores 100privatization 418problem management cycle 345–6process theories 369Procter & Gamble 505–6*product market pay levels 372productivity 70, 73, 119, 135, 363, 446

Fordism 117Taylorism 116

professionals and professionalism 15*, 16*, 71, 534–5, 536, 537

profit-related pay 378, 379profit-sharing 79, 370–1, 446project-based organizations 320prospectors 43protean career 199psychological contract 12–13, 15,

135, 192–3communication 433culture 160definition 12health, safety and wellness

469–70, 476, 493reward management 363, 366,

368violation 520

psychometric tests 212, 228, 234–41Public and Commercial Services

(PCS) union 414*, 423Public Interest Disclosure Act (1999)

47public sector xli, 82, 123, 130, 391

appraisal 251–2, 269culture 168–9diversity 287EIP 448, 450, 455, 457health, safety and wellness 466,

494–5homeworking 126industrial relations 399, 403, 409,

411, 412, 413, 417job evaluation 381LMD 331, 335*, 357–8performance-related pay 376, 378presenteeism 367workforce planning 175, 183, 184,

193see also National Health Service

(NHS)Pyrch, Jonathan 527

Qqualifications 294*, 295

NVQs 295, 296quality in Guest model 21–2quality scouts 222

Rrace and racism 113, 201, 203

harassment 479Race Relations Act (176) 11, 454radical critique 300Rama Garment Factory 426–7ranking method of job evaluation 382reactors 43real learning 337realistic job previews (RJPs) 241recession xxv–xxvi, xl, 3, 26, 530,

531–4, 543, 544controlling costs 264downsizing 63, 176, 539eco-track 52globalization 506health, safety and wellness 474

HR and performance 74, 91industrial relations 404, 409laying off staff 168,1 69, 193, 404LMD 337, 352recruitment and selection 212,

215, 216, 222, 226, 240reward management 379, 384sustainability 531–4talent management 195, 197Third Sector 324unemployment 91workforce planning 175, 176, 193,

195, 198workplace learning 284, 288, 293,

322reciprocal exchange 96recruitment xxviii–xxix, 15, 212–26

advertising 221–2case study 242–3channels 221–3diversity 241further reading 244graduates 212, 216, 240health, safety and wellness 466internal 217international 515–16older employees 216person–environment fit 216–17person–job fit 221person–organization fit 216–17,

219–21person–team fit 221planning 175policies 212–15psychometric testing 212, 228,

234–41reward management 372selection 226–34stages 213strategic view 217summary 243–4trade unions 401–2, 412, 413,

421–2traditional approaches 212

recruitment agencies 216, 221recruitment ratio 226redundancy 193*–4*re-engineering 129–30, 181re-entry shock 520Reeve, Christopher and Dana 485reflection 349reflexivity 545Regional Development Agencies

(RDAs) 295, 296*regulations, national 504rehabilitative critique 300reliability 229*, 230, 234Renault 258Rent-A-Wreck Cars 43repatriation 520–1research 81–92, 536–8

constructivist model 87data sources 82, 86–7, 89

626 subject index

HR–performance link 80–92LMD 351–2qualitative 87, 88, 89quantitative 87, 88, 89

resource-based model 50, 56, 58–60resources 58–60responsible autonomy 57, 123résumés 229–30return on investment (ROI) 251, 289,

307–8*reverse globalization 134–5revitalization model 447–8reward systems 364–5, 366, 368

culture 165–6international 517

rewards and reward management 362–97case study 394–5collective bargaining 387–9competitiveness 366, 368, 372–4definition 364duvet days 367extrinsic/intrinsic 111, 363, 364,

365further reading 397government influence 387–91health, safety and wellness 466holiday allowance 372, 374income 4, 108job evaluation 380–4link with performance 369model 366–74nature 363–6objectives 364, 366, 368options 366, 368, 369–70paradox 391–3pay levels 384–7presenteeism 367strategic pay paradigm 374–80strategy 364–5, 366, 368summary 396techniques 366, 368tensions 365, 391–3trade unions 401

Rickman, Dr John 395rights 4, 10, 11, 46, 187, 433–4, 453–4,

469rituals 151, 152, 160Robens report 467, 471–2Robertson, Bill 277Robertson Engineering 277–8role ambiguity 478role play 287Royal Bank of Scotland xxvRoyal Dutch Shell 501Russia 374, 459, 491

Ssafety see health, safety and

wellnesssafety committees 473, 474Sainsbury’s 510Sam’s Club 377

Samsung 373Sanyo Electricals 522Sarkozy, President N 532Save the Children 365schoolteachers 269Schultz, Howard 332scientific management 115–17, 120

see also TaylorismScotland 148, 183, 252*, 294–5

alcohol 486apprenticeships 296*

Scottish Vocational Qualifications (SVQs) 295

Seafresh Foods 375, 377Sector Skills Councils 295*selection xxviii, 226–34

assessment centres 239–40case study 242–3culture 162, 165further reading 244health, safety and wellness 466international 515–16online testing 237–8policies 212–15power dimensions 228psychometric tests 212, 228,

234–41realistic job previews (RJPs) 241stages 212–13summary 243–4techniques 228, 229, 239traditional approaches 212validity 229*, 230, 232, 234, 236,

237selection interviews 226, 229, 230,

232–4*behavioural 232–3comprehensive structured 232information elicited 230, 232order and involvement 230situational 232–3videos 230

self-appraisal 249, 272–3, 343self-concept theory 369self-development 349self-managed teams (SMTs) 15, 125,

127–8, 370self-management 125–31self-reporting 237SEMTA 295*senior managers 337, 343, 349

EIP 445HRD 285–6, 287, 291, 293, 299,

305Serbia 459Sex Discrimination Act (1975) 11, 157,

454Sex Discrimination Act (1986) 11, 454sexual harassment 159, 454–6, 478,

479, 525sexual orientation 201, 203share ownership schemes 378, 379shared responsibility model 467

shareholders and shareholder value 4, 86, 423, 540

shift parenting 108shift working 188SHRM see strategic human

resources managementsick building syndrome 474, 475*sickness absence 367Sieff, Lord 409Siemens 241Simpson, Derek 405Singapore 184, 291, 374, 523single employer bargaining 416–17single loop learning 314Single European Act (1987) 493, 504situated learning 316–17, 346*skills xxvii, xxviii, 75, 286*, 290, 291*

career management 198–9HRD 286*, 287, 288, 290, 291*,

292*, 293–6*workforce planning 182, 184

Skills Funding Agency 295skills gap 290Sky xxviii, 197*small and medium-sized enterprises

(SMEs) xli, 14, 250, 252, 303, 329, 331, 354*–6*, 541

Smith, Douglas 407smoking 459–60, 470, 474, 486–7*,

488–9social capital 180

development 196Social Charter (EU) 473, 493, 546social contract 4, 6social equity 49–50social inclusion 288social networks 136, 161social partnership 399, 421, 422–4social relations 92–9, 111, 539social research 89social role theory 259social systems theory 28socialization 146, 162sociological imagination 7, 544sociotechnical work systems 119–24,

131Solidarity 401Solzhenitsyn, Alexander 88South Africa xxviii, 65–6, 139–40

trade unions 403South Korea 184, 291, 506, 516, 523Soviet Union 519Spain 76, 322, 378staff turnover 178*, 179–80

call centres 221cost 226Fordism 117reward management 375, 377

staggered hours 188stakeholder interests in Harvard model

19stakeholder principle of ethics 46stakeholder theory 45

627subject index

Starbucks 146, 332Statutory Sick Pay Act (1994) 367StepStone 222Stopforth, Keith 153*Storey model of HRM 22–3, 25strategic business partners 25–6strategic choice 39–40, 53, 55strategic formulation 39, 40strategic human resource

development (SHRD) 285–6, 297strategic human resource management

(SHRM) 13–14, 38–43, 50–6, 536, 537–8case study 65–6critique 62–4ethics 44–7five Ps 42, 51further reading 68matching model 55–6models 55–62, 53, 84outcome 51performance 70–1, 85, 90, 91, 93,

99proactive–reactive continuum 51process 51summary 66–7

strategic international human resource management (SIHRM) 507, 509, 511–13

strategic learning and management development 333, 336–9

strategic management 38–43, 286definition 38–9model 39–41steps 39–41

strategic partner model 25–6, 27*, 536strategic pay 366, 374–80strategic tensions 63strategy 38–9, 53, 59

business level xxviii, 42–3corporate level 41, 43definition 38–9functional level 43hierarchy 41–4, 53HRD 283–7LMD 333, 336–9low cost leadership 42–3reward management 366

strategy evaluation 39, 40, 41strategy implementation 39, 40–1Strauss-Kahn, Dominique 455stress in the workplace 470, 474,

475–81, 482action to reduce 481causes 478, 481cost 476EIP 437, 446executive burnout 476, 479individual-related factors 480, 481symptoms 476*teleworking 189, 479work-related factors 478–9, 481,

482

strikes 191, 399, 404–6, 446Greece 538Taylorism 119

Stroh, Vesa 526–7structural-functionalism 27–8, 153–4,

155Sturdy Products 501subcultures 154, 155subjective career 198subprime mortgage crisis 531succession planning 182, 196–7Sugar, Lord Alan 212suggestion schemes 439–40suicide 258Summers, Larry 507super-unions 413supply and demand 176–8, 355, 389surveillance 158survey research 86–7, 89survivor syndrome 194sustainability vi, xxvi, xxvii–xxviii,

xxix, 7, 14, 48–50, 52, 531–4, 537Canterbury Hospital 33–4culture 48–50, 162–3, 165–7health, safety and wellness 464–8,

470HRD 284work redesign 131–4*, 135work systems 109

Sweden 190, 503, 523collective bargaining 418HR accounting 205

SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analysis 39, 59, 337

symbolic-interactionist approach 155symbols 145–6, 434–5Syria 532systematic training model 298–301

Ttacit knowledge 266, 310, 320Taiwan 184, 291, 523talent management (TM) xxix, 175,

176, 182, 194–201, 263coaching 303LMD 336

Target Corporation 100Taylor, Frederick 116, 119, 258,

329–30Taylorism (scientific management)

116–17, 119, 120–1, 124, 125, 131HRD 289neo-Taylorism 117principles 116

teams and team working 125, 127–8, 351appraisal 268–9*, 274Japanese 127–8*pay 370*, 371, 392

technology 136Telefónica 322telephone hacking 4, 44

teleworking 126, 188–9*, 190*stress 189, 479types 188

Tempest, Jonathan 170tensions 135, 137–8

differentiation/integration 135, 137reward management 391–3strategic 63

term-time working 188Tesco 510Texas Instruments 505, 506*TGWU 414*, 415Thanet Earth 510Thatcher, Margaret and Thatcherism

5, 378, 411, 412, 418theoretical perspective 16, 18–23,

25–7Theory Y 20, 135third country nationals 517third-party intervention 404Third Way 422Thomson Reuters 134Tiffany, Helen 306*time discipline 109time-keeping 73TNNB 207–8Tonna, F. 44top-down appraisal 343total quality management (TQM) 251,

262continuous improvement 251

tournament theory of pay 369, 384toxic substances 402Toyota 127Trade Union Act (1984) 11, 405Trade Union and Labour Relations

Acts (1974/1976) 11Trade Union and Labour Relations

(Consolidation) Act (1992) 11, 405, 406

Trade Union Reform and Employment Rights Act (1993) 11, 405

trade unions xxviii, 5, 399–400, 401–2*, 409–15, 419–21, 414*, 422*affiliated to TUC 414*avoidance 438bargaining power 387bullying 484collective agreements 401–2, 419collective bargaining 374, 380,

387–8, 399–400, 402*, 404, 407, 415–19, 450, 452

collectivism 408commitment 420–1culture 167, 168decline 400, 411, 412–13, 414*,

418*, 423, 431, 443, 452, 453density 401, 411–12*, 414, 421derecognition 407–8EIP 77, 79, 80, 441, 446–9, 453employee relations 431–2, 433employment relationship 9, 11

628 subject index

Europe 167, 400, 401EWCs 451Green Growth conference 399health, safety and wellness 401–2,

464, 467–8, 469, 470, 471, 488, 492

HRD 293*HRM model 419–21IHRM 518India 426–7Japan 407joint consultation 450learning representatives 293, 423legal context 404–6legislation 10, 11, 404*management strategies 406–9marginalization 400nature 399–402neo-liberalism 5–6organizing strategy 421–2paradox 421–4partnership agreements 422–4,

425partnership strategy 421–4, 425pay 391productivity 70public sector 399, 403, 409, 411,

412, 413, 417reasons for joining 401*recognition agreements 413recruitment 401–2, 412, 413,

421–2South Africa 403strategies 421–4, 406–9strikes 191, 405–6structure 413–15sustainability 167union-free workplaces 438women 411, 426–7

Trades Union Congress (TUC) 167, 204, 399, 414*, 422affiliated unions 414*health, safety and wellness 467

traditional HR strategy 60–1training 301*

cost 226, 282, 286, 289evaluation 299, 306–9*events and courses 347four-stage model 298, 299health, safety and wellness 466–7,

471HR planning 180–1integrated approach 301–3international 518–19levies 288, 289performance research 83return on investment 307–8staff turnover 180sustainability 166systematic model 298–301systemic 301–3transfer 306–9

transfer of learning 306–9*, 344

transformative HRM pedagogy 540transnational corporations 501–2transnational strategy 504–7, 518transparency 47Treaty of Rome (1957) 389, 390, 469,

473trust 160, 320, 420, 441, 446, 449,

534–5HMR crisis 535, 536, 539–40

tsunami 127, 532Tunisia 532Twitter 223, 436typologies of LMD 348

UUCATT 414*UCU 414*Ukraine 491, 532Ulrich’s model 25–6, 27*unemployment 109, 182Unilever 505, 506*union-acceptance strategy 407union-avoidance strategy 407, 408–9Union Carbide 45, 46, 465, 504Union Learning Fund 293*union learning representatives (ULRs)

293, 423union renaissance 411, 413*union-replacement strategy 407–8union-resistance strategy 407UNISON 414*unitarism 5, 13, 20, 408UNITE 405, 406, 414*, 415, 510United Kingdom xxvi, xxviii, 543

alcohol 485appraisal 269–70apprenticeships 296–7call centres 189, 190career management 199–200clothing industry 100coaching 349*collective agreement 419collective bargaining 374, 378,

380, 387, 388, 415–18communication 440–1culture 148, 149diversity 203–4, 206EIP 77, 79, 431, 433, 443, 448,

456e-learning 321–2EWCs 451–2flexibility 127, 187Fordism 117health, safety and wellness 466*,

467, 469*, 470, 471, 472–4, 483, 485, 492

HRD 282, 283, 286*, 288, 290–1*, 292–7

HRM crisis 439income 108industrial relations 400, 401, 404,

405–7, 408*, 409internal equity 119

Investors in People 292–3legislation 11, 45, 388, 389, 404–6,

454, 470–1, 472–4LMD 329*, 331, 333, 341, 345,

349, 350, 354migrant workers 510minimum wage 390MNCs 443, 448neo-Taylorism 117partnership agreements 422–3pay 384–7, 388*–90*, 391recession 531–2redundancy 193, 194reward management 363, 374,

378–80, 381, 384–7, 391selection 226, 235sexual harassment 455–6smoking 459, 486Social Charter 546stress 476sustainability 533–4Taylorism 117, 119trade unions 399, 401, 404–15,

419–21, 422–3, 431, 443, 452trust 534violence in the workplace 483vocational education 293–7women managers 257, 259workplace learning 310

United Nations 146, 465, 474United States of America xxviii, 543–4

AIDS 487–8appraisal 519call centres 190, 452clothing industry 100collective agreements 419collective bargaining 416community health 491corporate universities 58*credentials 231culture 146, 147, 166debt crisis 109EIP 432, 443, 445employee discipline 458Fordism 117, 119gender pay gap 388global business strategies 503–4globalization 502government intervention on pay

388health, safety and wellness 465,

466, 469, 474, 475, 492HRM crisis 536, 539, 540industrial relations 402*IHRM 524Japanization 127job design 115lean work system 125, 128, 132LMD 330, 332, 333, 334, 340–1MNCs 443, 503, 515performance 77, 80, 100recession 531–2return on investment 308*

629subject index

reward management 370, 372, 374, 378, 388

self-management 127, 131sexual harassment 456smoking 486steel mills 74stress 476subprime mortgages 74, 91surveillance 58sustainability 166, 167, 533Taylorism 116–17, 119trade unions 401, 403, 408, 409,

413, 415, 419, 431, 446whistleblowing 47

units of analysis 82Universal Declaration of Human

Rights 4universalism 521, 523–4upward appraisal 249, 274, 343–4US Equal Employment Opportunity

Commission 388USDAW 414*utilitarianism 46, 204, 228, 445–6

Vvalidity coefficient 229validity in selection 229*, 230, 232,

234, 236, 237value chains 134values 146–8, 150–1, 152, 154, 156,

160variable payment schemes (VPSs)

xxviii, 378–80, 392violence in the workplace vi, xxviii,

455, 474, 483*, 525vision statements 219*vocational education system 293–6,

297vocational education and training

(VET) 294vocational qualifications 217*, 270,

282, 294–5, 341Vogue Apparel 100–1voluntarist approach 288, 293Volunteer Together 324volunteers xli, 252, 324–5, 365

WWages Act (1986) 11Wales 148, 252*, 294–5

apprenticeships 296*Walker v. Northumberland [1994] 492Wal-Mart 43, 151, 377, 508

pay 388–9Warren, Bill 394–5Warwick model 22

Washington Consensus 519waste paper 139–40Watson-Glaser test 235*Watson and Hamilton lawyers 242–3Weber, Max 28–9, 31, 56, 99, 108,

118, 123, 138, 153, 375wellness see health, safety and

wellnessWestern Electric Company 119whistleblowing 47White, Lesley 513*white-collar crime 44Whitehall phenomenon 479Whitbread 222WikiLeaks 47Windows Meeting Space 189wine industry 65–6Wollstonecraft, Mary 30women 111, 113, 525

alcohol 485appraisals 265career management 198communication 437, 439diversity 202dual-role syndrome 480expatriates 516, 520–1feminism 27, 30, 155, 157, 159glass border 516glass ceiling 198, 227, 257leadership 54, 257, 259, 516LMD 334maternity rights 11pay 113, 202, 379, 389pay gap 533–4sexual harassment 454–6, 479stress 476, 478, 479trade unions 411, 426–7violence at work 483

Woodley, Tony 405Woodstock, Dr Chris 395work anywhere culture 110–11Work and Families Act (2006) 11, 187Work Foundation 318work and work systems xxviii, 107–42

behaviour performance 73case study 139–40classical 115–19definition 110–11, 113further reading 141–2home 126, 188, 189*, 190Japanese 127–8motivation 368–74nature 110–13post-bureaucratic 125–31primacy thesis 107–10redesign 131, 132–5

sociotechnical 119–24summary 140tension and paradox 135–8

worker directors 443workforce numbers 175, 176, 181,

182, 183workforce planning xxviii, 175, 176,

182–6case study 207–8flexibility 186–94further reading 209–10human resource 180–2manpower 176–80people 175–6summary 208–9

working time 187, 392, 477Working Time Directive 477work–life balance xli, 108–9, 128, 413

career management 200–1culture 144flexibility 186, 187, 188, 189health, safety and wellness 470stress 476, 477

work–life boundary 108Workplace Employment Relations

Surveys (WERSs) 125, 128, 187, 378, 379, 388, 419*, 433, 443EIP 448

workplace learning xxviii, 266, 282–3, 309–17, 420, 540case study 324–5e-learning 321–3further reading 327HRD 281–327knowledge creation 317–21managing knowledge 318summary 325–6sustainability 166

Works Constitution Act (Germany) 451

Works Council Directive (1994) 433, 451

works councils 432, 443European 443–4

World Trade Center attack xxv, 74, 521, 531

WorldCom xxv, 44

YYemen 532YouTube 436

ZZetkin, Clara 516Zuvan Winery 65–6

630 subject index

Documents

contents · I the arena of contemporary human resource management 1 1 the nature of contemporary HRM John Bratton 2 Outline 2 Objectives 2 Introduction 3 The development of HRM 3