Consumer Behavior: A FrameworkJohn C. Mowen

Michael S. Minor

Chapter 4:

Memory and Cognitive Learning

Memory . . .

. . . affects the exposure, attention, and comprehension stages

. . . allows consumers to anticipate the stimuli they might encounter

Multiple-Store Model of Memory

Three different types of memory storage:

Sensory Memory

Short-Term Memory

Long-Term Memory

Sensory memory happens in the preattention stage where a stimulus is briefly analyzed to determine if it will receive additional processing.

Short-term memory is where information is temporarily stored while people are actively processing it. Is like RAM in a computer.

Long-term memory is connected to short-term memory through encoding and retrieval processes. Is like the disk drive in a computer.

Memory works like parallel processors.

Encoding is the transfer of information from short-term memory to long-term memory for permanent storage.

Retrieval is the process of accessing information stored in long-term memory so that it can be utilized in short-term memory.

Retrieval is a constructive process. Information in ads received after product experience can change the perception of the experience.

Sensory Memory . . .

. . . consists of firing of nerve cells, short-term in duration, usually less than a second.

Short-Term Memory. . .

. . . is the site where information is temporarily stored while being processed. Is also called working memory.

Rehearsal is silently repeating information to encode it into long-term memory.

If information in short-term memory is not rehearsed it is lost within 30 seconds.

The Limited Capacity of Short-Term Memory

Miller’s Law is the recognition that people can handle 7 (+/- 2) bits of information at a time. In consumer contexts, however, STM is closer to 5

+/- 2 bits of information. Information Overload describes the situation

in which more information is received than can be processed in short-term memory.

Well illustrated in XEROX 8200 case. Is a major issue with engineers who know system thoroughly and know little about customers.

Involvement & Short-Term Capacity

High involvement makes the consumer more aroused and attentive, expanding the short-term memory capacity to full 7 +/-2 bits. (Caffeine has the same effect.)

Low involvement tends to keep a consumer’s arousal levels low so the consumer focuses relatively little memory capacity on the stimulus. Under low involvement, which is common in CB contexts, capacity is at 5 +/1 bits.

Time Required to Transfer Information Is Influenced by . . .

. . . the consumer's goal to either recognize or recall a task. It requires more time to encode information sufficiently for a recall task.

Recognition and Recall

Recognition tasks are when information is placed before the consumer. The goal is to determine if the information has been seen before.

Recall tasks are when the consumer must retrieve the information from long-term memory without any prompting. Requires greater depth of encoding. Recall impacts the size of the consideration set, which is the set of product choices retrieved from memory that are deemed satisfactory options.

Clutter is when there are too many stimuli making recall more difficult.

Long-Term Memory

. . . has essentially unlimited capacity to store information permanently.

Stored information is either semantic or visual. Semantic memory deals with the encoding and storage of words and meanings. Visual deals with the storage of images.

Long term memory is essentially permanent.

Relative Superiority of Picture Versus Word Memory

Visual images or pictures tend to be more memorable than their verbal counterparts, especially when there is low-involvement on the part of the consumer.

Words that have high-imagery content are easier to encode and retrieve than words low in imagery and concreteness.

Words and pictures should be used to complement each other in ads.

Verbal material is better recalled in high involvement conditions.

Memory-Control Processes . . .

. . . are the methods of handling information which may operate consciously or unconsciously to influence the encoding, placement, and retrieval of information.

Retrieval and Response Generation

Response generation is when a person develops a response by actively reconstructing the stimulus. Information received after exposure to a stimulus (e.g., ads) can impact response generation of the original stimulus.

Retrieval cues create a response by providing a means of assisting the active reconstruction of the stimulus.

Consumer Knowledge . . .

. . . is the amount of experience with and information a person has about particular products or services.

As knowledge increases, a consumer can think about a product across a greater number of dimensions and make finer distinctions between brands.

Three Types of Knowledge:

Objective knowledge is the correct information about a product class that a consumer has stored in long-term memory

Subjective knowledge is the consumer’s perception of what or how much he or she knows about a product class.

Knowledge of others is what information a consumer knows about another.

How Do Consumers Gain Knowledge?

Cognitive Learning: process of forming associations, solving problems, and gaining insights.

Learning Through Education. Obtaining info from firms who are trying to teach the consumer.

Learning Through Experience. Actual contact/use of products.

Gestalt Theory of Cognitive Knowledge

Gestalt psychologists believe that biological and psychological events do not influence behavior

in isolation of each other.

People perceive the inputs from the environment as part of the total context.

Focused on the active, creative nature of learning and action.

Key idea: whole is greater than sum of parts.

1 1 3

Associationist Approaches to Cognitive Knowledge

Serial learning concerns how people put into memory and recall information that is received in a sequential manner.

Serial-position effect occurs when the order of presentation of information in a list influences recall of the information in the list.

The S-P effect is the basis for the higher price paid for book-end ads—I.e., ads at the beginning and end of a commercial TV break.

Serial Position Effect

Position in series

early Late

TrialstoLearn

Few

Many

Law of Contiguity

Stimuli that are experienced together become associated in memory—e.g., Nike-Tiger Woods. Called paired associate learning.

Some findings: Make pairs (I.e. stimulus-response words) easily

pronounceable, familiar, meaningful. Use visual images to link stimulus-response words

together. Remember: negative associations can occur

between product and another stimulus—attack style political ads seek to create such associations for opposing candidates.

Semantic Memory Networks . . .

. . . refer to how people store the meanings of verbal material in long-term memory.

Semantic memory is organized into networks each of which is a series of memory nodes that represent the stored semantic concepts.

Information is recalled via spreading activation.

5 Types of Information Stored in Nodes

Types of information Brand names Brand’s characteristics/attributes Ads about brand Product category Evaluative (affective) reactions to the brand

and the ad. This information represents a consumer’s

brand knowledge—I.e., a brand node and the associations in memory connected to it.

Measuring Semantic Memory Networks Guided Associations

Think of OSU (or your university/college)

What are the first three words or images that come to mind. (e.g., cowboys, MBA program, sports)

Select one of words (e.g., MBA), now think of three words or images that you associate with MBA program, etc.

Semantic Memory Network:important for semiosis analysis.

OSU

Cowboys MBA Program Sports

Walt Garrison Football Jobs Academics B’ball Golf

Dallas Berry Sanders New job Best value Sutton Holder

Drugs Crime class money my daughter winning

Schemas . . .

. . . are organized sets of expectations and associations about an objects. When new information is inconsistent

with a schema, consumers engage in more diligent processing and, consequently, have improved memory about the stimulus.

Can derive from network analysis. Try to influence with communications.

Forgetting

People forget because even though information has been placed in long-term memory, it may be extremely difficult to retrieve. This is called a “retrieval failure.”

Interference Processes

Retroactive interference occurs when later learned material interferes with the recall of information learned earlier.

Proactive interference occurs when earlier learned material interferes with learning and recall of information learned later.

The von Restorff Effect . . . . . . occurs when a highly unique item

in a series is recalled more easily. Illustrated by absurdism in

advertisements, e.g., the Bud frogs. Also illustrates information salience,

which is the idea that unique, novel, moving, contrasting, colorful, etc. stimuli are more easily encoded and retrieved.

The Zeigarnik Effect . . .

. . . occurs if a task is interrupted, material relevant to the task tends to be remembered. E.g.,stories that are cut in the middle--taster’s choice. Bud--frogsand Tasters’ Choice.

Here, build a story About a person doingSomething difficult, andThen stop just before Climax. Will increase Interest in and recallOf story.

Time and Forgetting

The recall of verbal information decreases over time.

Rapid forgetting that occurs immediately after learning has been shown to occur in advertising as well.

Affect and Memory

People are better able to recall information that has the same affective quality as their mood state. Affect refers to the feelings, emotions,

and moods that consumers may experience.

Mood is a transient feeling state that occurs in a specified situation or time.

Memory and PERMS

Positioning. The semantic network & schema associated with a brand provides its position.

Environ. Analysis. Usually not relevant, but can apply in the sense of examining what competitors are doing and the clutter of the environment.

Research. Measure semantic network, schema and expectations, aided/unaided recall.

Marketing mix. Use promotion to influence semantic network and

schema, consider recall & recognition issues in advertising. Consider paired associate learning in developing communications, etc. Consider von Restorff and Zeigarnik effects in advertising.

Develop product name with consideration of paired-associate learning. Consider information overload issues in product development.

Segmentation. Segment marketplace based upon knowledge of product category.