Constitution, Government andPolitics in India

Evolution and Present Structure

Biswaranjan Mohanty

NEW

NC New Century PublicationsCENTURY New Delhi, India

ContentsPreface vii

1. British Rule and Indian National Movement 1-621.1 British Conquest of India and Consolidation of Rule1.2 Consequences of British Raj1.3 British Attitude to Indian Way of Life

1.3.1 Caste System1.3.2 Religious Beliefs1.3.3 Indian Village1.3.4 Oriental Despotism1.3.5 Social Darwinism

1.4 Rise of Indian Nationalism1.5 The Liberation Movement

1.5.1 Rebellious Spirit1.6 Formative Phase of the Nationalist Movement1.7 Organized Phase of the Nationalist Movement

1.7.1 Aims and Objective of Indian National Congress1.7.2 Policy of Gradualism and Constitutionalism

1.8 Rise of Extremism1.8.1 Causes and Circumstances1.8.2 Objectives and Methods of the Extremist Group1.8.3 Extremists' Programme of Action1.8.4 Assessment of Extremism

1.9 Revolutionary Terrorist Movement1.9.1 Outside Congress Terrorism1.9.2 Ghadar Party

1.10 Gandhian Era in Congress1.11 Non-cooperation Movement1.12 Swaraj Party1.13 Second Phase of Revolutionary Terrorism1.14 Simon Commission1.15 Civil Disobedience Movement1.16 Round Table Conferences1.17 Quit India Movement1.18 Indian National Army (INA)1.19 Cabinet Mission

xx Constitution, Government and Politics in India

1.20 Rise of Communalism and Partition of the Country1.21 Final Push towards Freedom1.22 Attainment of Independence1.23 Role of Women in the Freedom Struggle

2. India at the Dawn of Independence 63-982.1 Law and Order Problem2.2 National Integration Task2.3 State of the Economy

2.3.1 Agricultural Sector2.3.2 Industrial Sector

2.4 Indian Social System2.4.1 Stratification of Society2.4.2 Caste System and Untouchability2.4.3 Cultural Unity2.4.4 Status of Women2.4.5 Illiteracy and Ignorance2.4.6 Westernization2.4.7 Rise of Nuclear Family2.4.8 Regional Imbalances

2.5 Social Movements2.5.1 Backward Castes Movement2.5.2 Peasant Movements2.5.3 Trade Union Movement

3. Constitution of India: Historical Background 99-1353.1 Developments under the East India Company

3.1.1 Battle of Buxar and Diwani Rights in Bengal, Bihar and Orissa3.1.2 Regulating Act, 17733.1.3 Pitt's India Act, 17843.1.4 Charter Act, 18133.1.5 Charter Act, 18333.1.6 Charter Act, 18533.1.7 India's First War of Independence

3.2 Developments under the British Crown3.2.1 Act for Better Government of India 18583.2.2 Queen Victoria's Proclamation, 18583.2.3 Indian Council Act, 1861

Contents xxi

3.2.4 Foundation of Indian National Congress3.2.5 Indian Council Act, 18923.2.6 Indian Councils Act, 1909 (Morley-Minto Reforms, 1909)3.2.7 Montague Declaration, 19173.2.8 Government of India Act, 1919 (Montague-Chelmsford Reforms)3.2.9 Government of India Act, 19353.2.10 Cabinet Mission Plan3.2.11 Mountbatten Plan3.2.12 Indian Independence Act, 1947

3.3 Constituent Assembly of India3.3.1 Evolution of the Idea of Constituent Assembly3.3.2 Election to the Constituent Assembly3.3.3 Procedure Adopted by the Constituent Assembly3.3.4 Working of the Constituent Assembly3.3.5 Objective Resolution3.3.6 Criticisms

4. Constitution of India: Philosophy and Provisions 136-1894.1 Philosophy of the Constitution4.2 Sources of the Constitution4.3 Ideological Basis of the Constitution

4.3.1 Socialist Commitment4.4 Fundamental Values of the Constitution4.5 Preamble of the Constitution

4.5.1 Significance of the Preamble4.6 Salient Features of the Constitution

4.6.1 Written Constitution4.6.2 A Unique Combination of Rigidity and Flexibility4.6.3 Parliamentary System of Government4.6.4 Blending of Federal and Unitary Features4.6.5 Makes India a Secular State4.6.6 Fundamental Rights4.6.7 Directive Principles of State Policy4.6.8 Independence of Judiciary4.6.9 Universal Adult Franchise4.6.10 Single Citizenship4.6.11 Special Provision for Backward Classes

4.7 Federal Structure

xxii Constitution, Government and Politics in India

4.7.1 Working of Federal System4.7.2 Division of Powers4.7.3 Dual System4.7.4 Supremacy of the Constitution4.7.5 Parliamentary System4.7.6 Two Heads4.7.7 Leadership of the Prime Minister4.7.8 Membership of the Parliament4.7.9 Responsibility: Collective and Individual4.7.10 Individual Responsibility4.7.11 Political Homogeneity4.7.12 Sound Opposition4.7.13 Homogeneity of People4.7.14 Caste Association4.7.15 Panchayat and Tradition

4.8 Amendment Procedures of the Constitution4.9 Amendments of the Constitution4.10 Judicial Review4.11 List of Schedules to the Constitution4.12 Review of the Constitution4.13 National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution

4.13.1 Recommendations of the National Commission

5. Fundamental Rights, Directive Principles of StatePolicy and Fundamental Duties 190-250

5.1 Meaning of Fundamental Rights5.2 Nature of Fundamental Rights5.3 Importance of the Fundamental Rights5.4 Categories of Fundamental Rights

5.4.1 Right to Equality (Articles 14 to 18)5.4.2 Right to Freedom (Articles 19 to 22)5.4.3 Right against Exploitation (Articles 23-24)5.4.4 Right to Freedom of Religion (Articles 25-28)5.4.5 Cultural and Educational Right (Articles 29-30)5.4.6 Right to Constitutional Remedies5.4.7 Rights outside Part III5.4.8 Inferred Rights5.4.9 Human Rights

Contents xxiii

5.4.10 Present Position of Right to Education5.5 Salient Features of Fundamental Rights

5.5.1 Detailed and Comprehensive5.5.2 All Citizens Equally Enjoy Fundamental Rights5.5.3 Fundamental Rights are not Absolute5.5.4 Fundamental Rights Place Certain Limitations on the State5.5.5 Fundamental Rights can be Suspended5.5.6 Fundamental Rights are Justiciable5.5.7 No Natural and Unenumerated Rights in the Indian Constitution5.5.8 Fundamental Rights can be Amended5.5.9 Special Constitutional Provisional for the Enforcement of

Fundamental Rights5.6 Judicial Review of Fundamental Rights5.7 Important Writs for the Enforcement of Fundamental Rights

5.7.1 Habeas Corpus5.7.2 Mandamus5.7.3 Prohibition5.7.4 Certiorari5.7.5 Writ of Quo Warranto

5.8 Critical Assessment of the Fundamental Rights5.9 Fundamental Duties5.10 Relation between Fundamental Right and Fundamental Duties5.11 Directive Principles of State Policy

5.11.1 Objectives of Directive Principles5.11.2 Categories of Directive Principles5.11.3 Nature of the Directive Principles5.11.4 Significance of the Directive Principles5.11.5 Utility of the Directive Principles5.11.6 Criticism of the Directive Principles

5.12 Difference between Directive Principle and Fundamental Rights5.12.1 Primacy of Directive Principles over Fundamental Rights

5.13 Minority Rights in India5.14 Enlargement of Fundamental Rights Proposed by National Commission to

Review the Constitution

6. Structure of Union Executive 251-2906.1 President

6.1.1 Qualifications of the President

xxiv Constitution, Government and Politics in India

6.1.2 Election of the President6.1.3 Term of Office and Vacancy6.1.4 Impeachment of the President (Article 61)6.1.5 Powers of the President6.1.6 Position of the President6.1.7 Discretionary Powers of the President6.1.8 Veto Powers of the President

6.2 Vice-President6.2.1 Election of Vice-President6.2.2 Term of Office6.2.3 Powers and Functions of Vice-President

6.3 Prime Minister6.3.1 Appointment of the Prime Minister6.3.2 Powers and Functions of the Prime Minister6.3.3 Position of the Prime Minister

6.4 Council of Ministers (Article 163)6.4.1 Formation of the Council of Ministers6.4.2 Kinds of Ministers6.4.3 Cabinet6.4.4 Distinction between Council of Ministers and Cabinet6.4.5 Collective Responsibility vs. Individual Responsibility6.4.6 Functions of the Council of Ministers and the Cabinet6.4.7 Coalition Government

6.5 Bureaucracy

7. Structure of Union Legislature 291-3177.1 Parliament: Powers and Functions

7.1.1 Legislative Powers7.1.2 Financial Powers7.1.3 Control over the Executive7.1.4 Judicial Powers7.1.5 Constituent Powers7.1.6 Deliberations over Public Matters7.1.7 Miscellaneous Powers

7.2 Position of the Indian Parliament7.3 Working of the Parliament7.4 Legislative Procedure7.5 Parliamentary Privileges in India (Article 105)

Contents xxv

7.6 Types of Majority in Parliament7.6.1 Simple Majority7.6.2 Absolute Majority7.6.3 Effective Majority7.6.4 Special Majority

7.7 Joint Sitting of the Parliament (Article 108)7.7.1 Constitutional Provisions for Joint Session

7.8 Sessions of Parliament7.9 Rajya Sabha (Council of States)

7.9.1 Qualifications7.9.2 Term of the House7.9.3 Presiding Officer7.9.4 Quorum7.9.5 Powers of Rajya Sabha

7.10 Lok Sabha (House of the People)7.10.1 Qualifications7.10.2 Term of the House7.10.3 Composition (Article 81)7.10.4 Disqualification from Membership7.10.5 Defections7.10.6 Motions Moved in Parliament7.10.7 Speaker (Presiding Officer) of the Lok Sabha7.10.8 Secretary-General of Lok Sabha7.10.9 Committees of Lok Sabha

7.11 Rajya Sabha versus Lok Sabha7.11.1 Lok Sabha overpowers Rajya Sabha in Certain Matters7.11.2 Rajya Sabha overpowers Lok Sabha in Certain Matters

8. State Executive and Legislature 318-3438.1 State Executive

8.1.1 Governor (Article 153)8.1.2 Chief Minister

8.2 State Legislature8.2.1 Bicameral and Unicameral States8.2.2 Composition of the Houses:8.2.3 Duration of the Houses8.2.4 Qualifications and Disqualifications for Membership8.2.5 Vidhan Sabha (Legislative Assembly)

xxvi Constitution, Government and Politics in India

8.2.6 Vidhan Parishad (Legislative Council)8.2.7 Passing of Bill in a State

9. Local Governments in India 344-3739.1 History of Decentralized Administration in India9.2 Panchayati Raj in Post-Independence India

9.2.1 Significance of Panchayati Raj9.2.2 Shortcomings of Panchayati Raj

9.3 Balwant Rai Mehta Committee9.3.1 Three-tier System

9.4 Ashok Mehta Committee9.5 Sixty-fourth Amendment Bill9.6 Seventy-third Constitutional Amendment

9.6.1 Panchayati Raj Structure and Functions9.6.2 Effectiveness of Seventy-third Amendment

9.7 Urban Local Governments9.7.1 Municipal Corporations9.7.2 Municipal Councils9.7.3 Notified Area Committees9.7.4 Town Area Committees9.7.5 Metropolitan Organizations

9.8 Seventy-fourth Constitutional Amendment9.9 Local Services

9.9.1 Urban Services9.9.2 Rural Services

9.10 Panchayati Raj Institutions: Task Ahead

10. Indian Judicial System 374-42610.1 Introduction

10.1.1 Role of the Judiciary10.1.2 Three-tier Judicial System10.1.3 Sources of Law10.1.4 Enactment of Laws10.1.5 Applicability of Laws10.1.6 Doctrine of Eclipse10.1.7 Doctrine of Colourable Legislation10.1.8 Doctrine of Pith and Substance

10.2 Supreme Court of India

Contents xxvii

10.2.1 Composition10.2.2 Constitution of Supreme Court10.2.3 Jurisdiction and Powers of the Supreme Court10.2.4 Role of the Supreme Court10.2.5 Supreme Court as the Guardian of the Constitution10.2.6 Supreme Court as a Court of Record10.2.7 Supreme Court and Public Interest Litigation10.2.8 Independence of the Supreme Court

10.3 High Courts10.3.1 Advocate General10.3.2 Lok Adalats

10.4 Administrative Tribunals10.4.1 Reasons for Growth of Administrative Tribunals10.4.2 Tribunals and Commissions in India10.4.3 Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT)

10.5 Public Interest Litigation (PIL) and Judicial Activism in India10.5.1 Public Interest Litigation10.5.2 Judicial Activism10.5.3 Important Cases and Judicial Activism10.5.4 Judicial Activism under Attack10.5.6 Judicial Activism and PIL

10.6 Judicial Reforms in India10.6.1 Aspects of Judicial Reforms10.6.2 Judges Inquiry Amendment Act, 196810.6.3 E-justice System

10.7 Law Commission's 170th Report10.8 Draft National Policy on Criminal Justice

10.8.1 Objects and Terms of Reference10.9 Judges Inquiry Bill 2006

11. Statutory Institutions of National Importance 427-45011.1 Union Public Service Commission

11.1.1 Composition11.1.2 Term of Members11.1.3 Powers and Functions11.1.4 Annual Report of the Commission

11.2 State Public Service Commissions11.3 Election Commission

xxviii Constitution, Government and Politics in India

11.3.1 Powers and Functions of the Election Commission11.4 Finance Commission

11.4.1 Constitution and Functions of the Finance Commission11.5 Comptroller and Auditor General of India

11.5.1 Appointment11.5.2 Term of Office11.5.3 Salary and Allowances11.5.4 Power and Functions11.5.5 Accounting Functions11.5.6 Auditing Functions

11.6 National Commission for Women11.6.1 Functions of the Commission11.6.2 Procedure of Working11.6.3 Evaluation11.6.4 Rashtriya Mahila Kosh (RMK)

11.7 National Human Rights Commission11.8 Minority Commission

11.8.1 Sachar Committee Report11.8.2 Prime Minister's 15-Point Programme for Welfare of Minorities

12. National Development Council and Planning Commission 451-47312.1 Pre-Independence Thinking on Economic Planning12.2 National Development Council (NDC)

12.2.1 Objectives and Functions12.2.2 Composition of NDC12.2.3 Evaluation

12.3 Planning Commission12.3.1 Functions of the Commission12.3.2 Working of the Commission12.3.3 Planning Commission: An Evaluation

12.4 Planning Machinery at the State Level12.5 Planning Machinery at the District Level

12.5.1 District Planning Boards/Committees12.5.2 Evaluation of District Planning

12.6 Planning in the Era of Liberalisation12.6.1 Goals of Liberalisation

12.7 Privatisation Moves12.8 Towards Globalisation

Contents xxix

12.9 Political Dimensions of Economic Reforms

13. Political Parties and Their Politics 474-48713.1 Main Features of Indian Political System

13.1.1 Multi-Party System13.1.2 Dominance of the Congress Party13.1.3 Frequent Alliance Mergers and Disintegrations13.1.4 Defections13.1.5 Personality Cult13.1.6 Lack of Ideology13.1.7 Absence of Effective Opposition13.1.8 Communalism and Regionalism

13.2 Ideology and Social Base of Parties13.2.1 Congress Party13.2.2 Bhartiya Janata party (BJP)13.2.3 Communist Parties13.2.4 Janata Party13.2.5 Lok Dal

13.3 Changing Political Dynamics in India13.4 Centre-State Ties13.5 Political Elite13.6 Pressure Groups

14. Federalism in India: A Review 488-51114.1 Essential Features of Federalism

14.1.1 Existence of Dual Government14.1.2 Division of Powers between the Centre and the States14.1.3 Division of Powers through a Written Constitution14.1.4 Federal System Envisages an Independent Judiciary

14.2 Origin of Federalism in India14.3 Features of India's Federal Polity14.4 Supremacy of the Union Parliament14.5 Reasons for a Strong Centre

14.5.1 Partition of the Country14.5.2 Concern for Unity of the Nation14.5.3 Need for Economic Development14.5.4 Experience of Other Federations14.5.5 Lessons from Indian History

xxx Constitution, Government and Politics in India

14.5.6 Dominance of Congress Party14.6 Relation between the Union and States

14.6.1 Legislative Relations14.6.2 Administrative Relations14.6.3 Financial Relations

14.7 Criticism of Indian Federal System14.8 Need for Cooperative Federalism

14.8.1 Consultative Machinery14.8.2 Adjudicative Mechanism14.8.3 Full Faith and Credit Clause14.8.4 Delegation of Executive Functions14.8.5 Immunity from Mutual Taxation

14.9 Tension Areas in Indian Federation14.9.1 Role of Governor14.9.2 Article 35614.9.3 Maintenance of Law and Order in States14.9.4 Centre's Encroachment on State List14.9.5 Financial Weakness of States

14.10 Issue of State Autonomy

15. Emerging Trends in Indian Polity 512-53415.1 Resilience and Endurance of Indian Democracy15.2 Regionalism and Fragmentation

15.2.1 Geographical Component15.2.2 Historical-Cultural Components15.2.3 Economic Component15.2.4 Politico-Administrative Component15.2.5 Psychic Component15.2.6 Types of Regionalism

15.3 Pluralism and National Unity15.3.1 Geographical Unity15.3.2 Cultural Unity15.3.3 Religious Unity15.3.4 Emotional Unity15.3.5 Political Unity15.3.6 Racial Unity

15.4 Caste and Politics15.5 Trends in Electoral Behaviour

Contents xxxi

15.5.1 Factors Affecting the Voting Behaviour15.6 Hung Parliament and Government15.7 Secularism in India15.7.1 No State Religion15.7.2 All Religions are Equal15.7.3 Freedom to Manage Religious Affairs15.7.4 No Religious Instruction15.7.5 No Financial Aid to Religion15.7.6 Absence of Discrimination on Grounds of Religion

Bibliography 535-566

Name Index 567-572

Subject Index 573-580