Consolidated Notes Enviromental Science1

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ENVIRONMENT SCIENCE

ICSE - 9th

and 10th

Std

CONSOLIDATED NOTES

TSRS Aravali, July 2013

Consolidated Notes covering parts of the syllabus for Environment Science,9th

and 10th

ICSE


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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Class 1X

1) Understanding Our Environment 3-27

2) Living Things in Ecosystem 28-42

3) How Ecosystems Work 43-51

4) Kinds of Ecoystems 52-67

5) Water 68-87

6) Air 88-100

7) Atmosphere and Climate 101-118

8) Soil and Land 119-132

9) People 133-148

10)Urbanization 149-158

11)Agriculture 159-166

Class X

1) Controlling Air Pollution 168-195

2) Addressing Population 196-208

3) Managing The Urban Environment 209-218

4) Managing Soil and Land 219-234

5) Food 235-258

6) Biodiversity 259-277

7) Energy 278-290

8) Waste 291-303

9) Environment and Development 303-316

10) Towards a Sustainable Future 317-344


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CHAPTER 1

UNDERSTANDING OUR ENVIRONMENT

Introduction to Environment: Notes

In general, environment refers to the surroundings of an object.

The natural environment, encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth orsome region thereof. There is interaction of all living species.

Environment may refer to:

The natural environment, all living and non-living things that occur naturally on Earth

Built environment, constructed surroundings that provide the setting for human activity

Environment (biophysical), the physical and biological factors along with their chemical interactions that affect aorganism

Environment literally means surrounding and everything that affect an organism

during its lifetime is collectively known as its environment.

In another words Environment is sum total of water, air and land interrelationships

among themselves and also with the human being, other living organisms and property.

It includes all the physical and biological surrounding and their interactions.


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IMPORTANT TO NOTE

Conservation focuses on theproper use of nature,

Preservation seeks theprotection of nature from use

Conservation seeks to regulate human use while preservation seeks to eliminate human impact altogether

This is a list of environmental issues that are due to human activities.

Climate change Global warming Global dimming Fossil fuels Sea level rise Greenhougas Ocean acidification

Conservation Species extinction Poaching Endangered species

Energy Energy conservation Renewable energy Efficient energy use

Environmental degradation Eutrophication Habitat destruction Invasive species

Environmental health Air quality Asthma Electromagnetic fields Electromagnetic radiation and

health Indoor air quality Lead poisoning Sick Building Syndrome

Genetic engineering Genetically modified food controversies

Intensive farming Overgrazing Irrigation Monoculture Environmental effects of meat production

Slash and burn Pesticide drift

Land degradation Land pollution Desertification

Soil Soil conservation Soil erosion Soil contamination

Land use Urban sprawl Habitat fragmentation Habitat destruction

Nuclear issues Nuclear fallout Nuclear meltdown Nuclear power Nuclear weapons Nuclear and

radiation accidents Nuclear safety High-level radioactive waste management.

Overpopulation Burial Water crisis Overpopulation in companion animals Tragedy of the commo

Ozone depletion CFC


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Pollution Light pollution Noise pollution Visual pollution

Water pollution Acid rain Eutrophication Marine pollution Ocean dumping Oil spills Thermal

pollution Urban runoff Water crisis Marine debris Ship pollution Wastewater Mercury in fish

Air pollution Smog Tropospheric ozone Indoor air quality Volatile organic compound Particula

matter Sulphur oxide

Resource depletion Exploitation of natural resources

Consumerism Consumer capitalism Planned obsolescence Over-consumption

Fishing Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing Overfishing Whaling

Logging Deforestation Illegal logging

Mining

Toxins Chlorofluorocarbons DDT Endocrine disruptors Dioxin Toxic heavy metals Herbicides

Pesticides Toxic waste PCB Bioaccumulation Biomagnification

Waste E-waste Litter Marine debris Medical waste Landfill Recycling Incineration

EFP

Environmental Farm Plans are voluntary, confidential, self- assessment tools used by producers to raise

awareness about environmental risks and opportunities on their operations. As part of their EFP, producers

develop their own action plans to identify management practices that can reduce environmental risk on the

operations

Exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is a seazone over which a state has special rights over the exploration and us

marine resources, including production of energy from water and wind. It stretches from the seaward edge

the state's territorial sea out to 200 nautical miles from its coast


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Glossary

agroforestry Planting trees and crops together.

alley cropping Planting of crops in strips with rows of trees or shrubs on each side.

animal manure Dung and urine of animals used as a form of organic fertilizer. Compare green

manure.

aquaculture Growing and harvesting of fish and shellfish for human use in freshwater

ponds, irrigation ditches, and lakes, or in cages or fenced-in areas of coastal

lagoons and estuaries. See fish farming, fish ranching.

chronic

undernutrition

An ongoing condition suffered by people who cannot grow or buy enough food

to meet their basic energy need. Compare malnutrition, overnutrition.

commercial

inorganic fertilizer

Commercially prepared mixture of plant nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates,

and potassium applied to the soil to restore fertility and increase crop yields.

Compare organic fertilizer.

compost Partially decomposed organic plant and animal matter used as a soil conditioner

or fertilizer.

conservation-

tillage farming

Crop cultivation in which the soil is disturbed little (minimum-tillage farming)

or not at all (no-till farming) to reduce soil erosion, lower labor costs, and save

energy. Compare conventional-tillage farming.

contour farming Plowing and planting across the changing slope of land, rather than in straight

lines, to help retain water and reduce soil erosion.

conventional-

tillage farming

Crop cultivation method in which a planting surface is made by plowing land,

breaking up the exposed soil, and then smoothing the surface. Compare

conservation-tillage farming.


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crop rotation Planting a field, or an area of a field, with different crops from year to year to

reduce soil nutrient depletion. A plant such as corn, tobacco, or cotton, which

removes large amounts of nitrogen from the soil, is planted one year. The next

year a legume such as soybeans, which adds nitrogen to the soil, is planted.

desertification Conversion of rangeland, rain-fed cropland, or irrigated cropland to desertlike

land, with a drop in agricultural productivity of 10% or more. It usually is

caused by a combination of overgrazing, soil erosion, prolonged drought, andclimate change.

famine Widespread malnutrition and starvation in a particular area because of a

shortage of food, usually caused by drought, war, flood, earthquake, or other

catastrophic events that disrupt food production and distribution.

feedlot Confined outdoor or indoor space used to raise hundreds to thousands of

domesticated livestock. Compare rangeland.

fertilizer Substance that adds inorganic or organic plant nutrients to soil and improves itsability to grow crops, trees, or other vegetation. See commercial inorganic

fertilizer, organic fertilizer.

fish farming Form of aquaculture in which fish are cultivated in a controlled pond or other

environment and harvested when they reach the desired size. See also fish

ranching.

fish ranching Form of aquaculture in which members of a fish species such as salmon are

held in captivity for the first few years of their lives, released, and then

harvested as adults when they return from the ocean to their freshwater

birthplace to spawn. See also fish farming.

fishery Concentrations of particular aquatic species suitable for commercial harvesting

in a given ocean area or inland body of water.

food security Every person in a given area has daily access to enough nutritious food to have

an active and healthy life.

fungicide Chemical that kills fungi.

green manure Freshly cut or still-growing green vegetation that is plowed into the soil to

increase the organic matter and humus available to support crop growth.

Compare animal manure.

green revolution Popular term for introduction of scientifically bred or selected varieties of grain


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(rice, wheat, maize) that, with high enough inputs of fertilizer and water, can

greatly increase crop yields.

gully erosion Occurs when rivulets of fast-flowing water join together to cut wider and

deeper ditches or gullies.

herbicide Chemical that kills a plant or inhibits its growth.

high-input

agricultureSee industrialized agriculture.

hunger Suffered when people cannot grow or buy enough food to meet their basic

energy needs.

industrialized

agriculture

Using large inputs of energy from fossil fuels (especially oil and natural gas),

water, fertilizer, and pesticides to produce large quantities of crops and

livestock for domestic and foreign sale. Compare subsistence farming.

Inorganic fertilizer See commercial inorganic fertilizer.

insecticide Chemical that kills insects.

integrated pest

management

(IPM)

Combined use of biological, chemical, and cultivation methods in proper

sequence and timing to keep the size of a pest population below the size that

causes economically unacceptable loss of a crop or livestock animal.

intercropping Growing two or more different crops at the same time on a plot. For example, a

carbohydrate-rich grain that depletes soil nitrogen and a protein-rich legume

that adds nitrogen to the soil may be intercropped. Compare monoculture,

polyculture, polyvarietal cultivation.

interplanting Simultaneously growing a variety of crops on the same plot. See agroforestry,

intercropping, polyculture, polyvarietal cultivation.

land degradation Occurs when natural or human-induced processes decrease the future ability of

land to support crops, livestock, or wild species.

low-input

agricultureSee sustainable agriculture.

malnutrition Faulty nutrition, caused by a diet that does not supply an individual with

enough protein, essential fats, vitamins, minerals, and other nutrients needed for

good health. Compare overnutrition, undernutrition.


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manure See animal manure, green manure.

metabolism Ability of a living cell or organism to capture and transform matter and energy

from its environment to supply its needs for survival, growth, and reproduction.

micronutrients Chemical elements that organisms need in small or even trace amounts to live,

grow, or reproduce. Examples are sodium, zinc, copper, chlorine, and iodine.

Compare macronutrients.

minimum-tillage

farmingSee conservation-tillage farming.

monoculture Cultivation of a single crop, usually on a large area of land. Compare

polyculture, polyvarietal cultivation.

no-till farming See conservation-tillage farming.

organic farming Producing crops and livestock naturally by using organic fertilizer (manure,

legumes, compost) and natural pest control (bugs that eat harmful bugs, plants

that repel bugs, and environmental controls such as crop rotation) instead of

using commercial inorganic fertilizers and synthetic pesticides and herbicides.

See sustainable agriculture.

organic fertilizer Organic material such as animal manure, green manure, and compost, applied

to cropland as a source of plant nutrients. Compare commercial inorganic

fertilizer.

overnutrition Diet so high in calories, saturated (animal) fats, salt, sugar, and processed foods

and so low in vegetables and fruits that the consumer runs high risks of

diabetes, hypertension, heart disease, and other health hazards. Compare

malnutrition, undernutrition.

pest Unwanted organism that directly or indirectly interferes with human activities.

pesticide Any chemical designed to kill or inhibit the growth of an organism that people

consider undesirable. See fungicide, herbicide, insecticide.

plantation

agriculture

Growing specialized crops such as bananas, coffee, and cacao in tropical

developing countries, primarily for sale to developed countries.

polyculture Complex form of intercropping in which a large number of different plants

maturing at different times are planted together. See also intercropping.


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Compare monoculture, polyvarietal cultivation.

polyvarietal

cultivation

Planting a plot of land with several varieties of the same crop. Compare

intercropping, monoculture, polyculture.

salinization Accumulation of salts in soil that can eventually make the soil unable to support

plant growth.

sheet erosion Occurs when surface water or wind peel off fairly thin sheets or layers of soil.

shelterbelt See windbreak.

shifting cultivation Clearing a plot of ground in a forest, especially in tropical areas, and planting

crops on it for a few years (typically 2[[endash]]5 years) until the soil is

depleted of nutrients or the plot has been invaded by a dense growth of

vegetation from the surrounding forest. Then a new plot is cleared and the

process is repeated. The abandoned plot cannot successfully grow crops for

10[[endash]]30 years. See also slash-and-burn cultivation.

slash-and-burn

cultivation

Cutting down trees and other vegetation in a patch of forest, leaving the cut

vegetation on the ground to dry, and then burning it. The ashes that are left add

nutrients to the nutrient-poor soils found in most tropical forest areas. Crops are

planted between tree stumps. Plots must be abandoned after a few years

(typically 2[[endash]]5 years) because of loss of soil fertility or invasion of

vegetation from the surrounding forest. See also shifting cultivation.

soil conservation Methods used to reduce soil erosion, prevent depletion of soil nutrients, and

restore nutrients already lost by erosion, leaching, and excessive crop

harvesting.

soil erosion Movement of soil components, especially topsoil, from one place to another,

usually by wind, flowing water, or both. This natural process can be greatly

accelerated by human activities that remove vegetation from soil.

strip cropping Planting regular crops and close-growing plants, such as hay or nitrogen-fixing

legumes, in alternating rows or bands to help reduce depletion of soil nutrients.

subsistence

farming

Supplementing solar energy with energy from human labor and draft animals to

produce enough food to feed oneself and family members; in good years

enough food may be left over to sell or put aside for hard times. Compare

industrialized agriculture.

sustainable

agricultureMethod of growing crops and raising livestock based on organic fertilizers, soil

conservation, water conservation, biological pest control, and minimal use of


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nonrenewable fossil-fuel energy.

terracing Planting crops on a long, steep slope that has been converted into a series of

broad, nearly level terraces with short vertical drops from one to another that

run along the contour of the land to retain water and reduce soil erosion.

traditional

intensiveagriculture

Producing enough food for a farm family's survival and perhaps a surplus that

can be sold. This type of agriculture uses higher inputs of labor, fertilizer, andwater than traditional subsistence agriculture. See traditional subsistence

agriculture. Compare industrialized agriculture.

traditional

subsistence

agriculture

Production of enough crops or livestock for a farm family's survival and, in

good years, a surplus to sell or put aside for hard times. Compare industrialized

agriculture, traditional intensive agriculture.

waterlogging Saturation of soil with irrigation water or excessive precipitation so that the

water table rises close to the surface.

windbreak Row of trees or hedges planted to partially block wind flow and reduce soil

erosion on cultivated land.

Polyvarietal

cultivation

Planting a plot of land with several varieties of the same crop.

Polyvarietal cultivation (where the soil is planted with several varieties of the same crop). As harvest timvary for the different varieties of the crop, it results in protection from erosion because the entire field is

exposed all at once.


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BIODIVERSITY

Biodiversity can be defined as the total number of species and the genetic variability within each species.

Biodiversity involves species diversity, genetic diversity and ecosystem diversity.

Biodiversity makes the environment sustainable.

Organisms are dependent on the environment they live in. If one or more species in a habitat become extinct, th

stability of the system is disturbed. Many species are rapidly becoming extinct and the main cause is the impact

the growing human population.

A diverse world of flora and fauna is beneficial to all of us. Food, medicines, rubber etc are alls sourced from th

living world.

USES

As food:

30 species of plants from the several thousand species provide about 90% of our food. .Cross breeding and gene

technology are helping to grow new disease resistant plants

Drugs and Medicines

Aspro- from bark of the willow

Morphine-from Poppy

Digitalis for heart trouble- from foxglove plant

Over 70% of the promising anti cancer drugs come from the tropical rainforest

Turmeric

Neem

Tulsi(Basil)

Cloves, Cinnamon

Fennel

Fenugreek

Garlic, Ginger

Honey


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Drug trails are conducted on animals(a huge ongoing ethical debate )

Industrial Products

Oil, lubricants, fragrances, fibresetc are obtained from plants

Wool, silk, leather, fur are obtained from animals

Aesthetic, cultural, religious reasons

Botanical parks

Tourism

Endemic species

Peepal , tulsi, cow are worshipped

Ecological and scientific importance

o Biodiversity helps to maintain balance of nature

o Organisms act as producers, consumers and decomposers , help to capture solar energy and cycle it

through the food chain.

o They recycle nutrients.

o They clean the earth with the help of microorganisms.

o They fix atmospheric gases.

o They help regulate the water cycle and climateo They stabilize soils and minimize erosion

Legumes help in Nitrogen fixing

Plants with complex root systems bind the soil and prevent erosion

Trees improve the forage quality of the grass and lead to better milk production

Mangrove swamps such as the Sunderbans provide habitat for many kinds of species of fish

Different species of flora and fauna serve as gene banks


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HOW MAN DESTROYS BIODIVERSITY

The rising human population is destroying biodiversity at an alarming level

1)Deforestation-Industrialization and the need for housing for a rapidly growing population is destroying green

cover at an alarming rate. The need for various consumer products and paper is leading to relentless deforestati

2) Hunting and Poaching-for sport, for illegal trade of animal parts

3)Marine life-Oil spills, eutrophication, illegal fishing, exploitation of coral reefs

4)The entry of multinational into the agricultural sector has brought in rampant use of chemical fertilizers andrelated dangers. The damage to the soil and the flora and fauna due to this is immense. The run off and the

leaching further damages microorganisms. causes toxicity and endangers aquatic life.

5)Biomagnifiaction(increasing toxicity as one goes up the food chain)

5) Endangered species- Ridley Turtle, the blue whale, the tiger

6) The tendency to experiment with genetic engineering brings with it its own dangers-causing imbalances in the

ecosystem. The long term effects of genetically engineered species is not yet known.

7) The balance of nature and the balance of the ecosystem-the disturbance eof one factor in the ecosystem affe

the whole system, causing disturbances to animal life, climate change

8) The ETHICAL debate-does man have a right to destroy biodiversity to meet his nee

HOW CAN THE DAMAGE BE CHECKED

Careful planning, strict implementation of laws and committed environmental programmes can arrest damage a

try and compensate some of what we have destroyed.

Organizations like WWF, Greenpeace , Tiger Project and Navdanya are working with commitment to save flora afauna and bring in environmental friendly organic farming.

Involving school students and neighborhood associations can help to bring in changes at the grassroots levels.

Ex Situ and In situ conservation projects such as biosphere reserves, sanctuaries(Gir Tiger sanctuary..etc) go a lo

way in preserving biodiversity.

Sustainable development is the keyword


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o Aircel has launched a Save the Tiger campaign.

o NDTVs Greenathon has done much to build awareness and take direct action

o The Slow food movement all over the world is helping us go back to sustainable agriculture and food

procurement.

Important areas of learning

1) Definitions, hwy we study EVS, what does EVS involve

2) What are the main environmental problems

3) Environmental problems in Developed countries Vs developing countries

4) Population crisis

5) Consumer crisis

6) Superconsumerism

7) A sustainable world-Sustainable development, Sustainable societies


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The Chipko movement

1970s, an organized resistance to the destruction of forests spread throughout India

Chipko movement- 'embrace', - villagers hugged the trees, and prevented the contractors' from felling the

The original Chipko movement was started around 260 years back in the early part of the 18th century iRajasthan by BISHNOIcommunity. A large group of them from 84 villages led by a lady called AmritaDevi laid down their lives in an effort to protect the trees from beingfelled on orders of the KING ofJodhpur. After this incident, the maharaja gave a strong royal decree preventing the cutting of trees in alBishnoi villages.

20th century- it began in the hills where the forests are the main source of livelihood, since agriculturalactivities cannot be carried out easily.

The Chipko movement of 1973 - most famous among these. The first Chipko action took placespontaneously in April 1973 in the village of Mandal in the upper Alakananda valley and over the next fiyears spread to many districts of the Himalayas in Uttar Pradesh.

Government's decided to allot a plot of forest area in the Alaknanda valley to a sports goods company. Tangered the villagers because their similar demand to use wood for making agricultural tools had beenearlier denied.

A local NGO DGSS (Dasoli Gram Swarajya Sangh),supported them- women of the area, under theleadership of an activist, Chandi Prasad Bhatt-hugged the trees

The success of the Chipko movement in the hills saved thousands of trees from being felled.

. Mr Sunderlal Bahuguna, a Gandhian activist and philosopher, whose appeal to Mrs Indira Gandhi, thethen Prime Minister of India, resulted in the green-felling ban. Mr Bahuguna coined the Chipko slogan:'ecology is permanent economy'.

Mr Chandi Prasad Bhatt, is another leader of the Chipko movement. He encouraged the development oflocal industries based on the conservation and sustainable use of forest wealth for local benefit.

Mr Ghanasyam Raturi, the Chipko poet, whose songs echo throughout the Himalayas of Uttar Pradesh,wrote a poem describing the method of embracing the trees to save them from felling:

' Embrace the trees and

Save them from being felled;

The property of our hills,Save them from being looted.'

The Chipko protests in Uttar Pradesh achieved a major victory in 1980 with a 15-year ban on green fellinin the Himalayan forests of that state by the order of Mrs Indira Gandhi, the then Prime Minister of IndiaSince then, the movement has spread to many states in the country.


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http://edugreen.teri.res.in/explore/forestry/chipko.htm

Key learning areas

Global perspective of environmental problems

Developed nations caused the environmental damage. Now they are going green

Traditionally developing nations lived sustainable lifestyles. Now as industrialization and urbanization

increase environmental problems are also increasing

Root of environmental problems

Population increases

Super consumers

Sustainable world

What is sustainable development, what is a sustainable society


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CHAPTER 2

LIVING THINGS IN ECOSYSTMES

Ecosystems

1)An ecosystem is a living community of plant and animals sharing an environment with non-living elements suc

climate and soil

http://www.geography.learnontheinternet.co.uk/topics/ecosystem.html

2)An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the nonliv

components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These

components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a geographic area where plants, animals, and other organisms, as well as weather and landscap

work together to form a bubble of life.

Ecosystems contain biotic or living, parts, as well as abiotic factors, or nonliving parts. Biotic factors include plan

animals, and other organisms. Abiotic factors include rocks, temperature, and humidity.

Every factor in an ecosystem depends on every other factor, either directly or indirectly. A change in the

temperature of an ecosystem will often affect what plants will grow there, for instance.

Ecosystems can be very large or very small. Tide pools, the ponds left by the ocean as the tide goes out, are

complete, tiny ecosystems. Tide pools contain seaweed, a kind of algae, which uses photosynthesis to create foo

Herbivores such as abalone eat the seaweed. Carnivores such as sea stars eat other animals in the tide pool, suc

clams or mussels. Tide pools depend on the changing level of ocean water. Some organisms, such as seaweed,

thrive in an aquatic environment, when the tide is in and the pool is full. Other organisms, such as hermit crabs,

cannot live underwater and depend on the shallow pools left by low tides. In this way, the biotic parts of the

ecosystem depend on abiotic factors.


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The whole surface of Earth is a series of connected ecosystems. Ecosystems are often connected in a larger bio

Biomes are large sections of land, sea, or atmosphere. Forests, ponds, reefs, and tundra are all types of biomesexample. They're organized very generally, based on the types of plants and animals that live in them. Within ea

forest, each pond, each reef, or each section of tundra, you'll find many different ecosystems.

The biome of the Sahara Desert, for instance, includes a wide variety of ecosystems. The arid climate and hot

weather characterize the biome. Within the Sahara are oasis ecosystems, which have date palm trees, freshwate

and animals such as crocodiles. The Sahara also has dune ecosystems, with the changing landscape determined b

the wind. Organisms in these ecosystems, such as snakes or scorpions, must be able to survive in sand dunes for

long periods of time. The Sahara even includes amarine environment, where the Atlantic Ocean creates cool fog

on the Northwest African coast. Shrubs and animals that feed on small trees, such as goats, live in this Sahara

ecosystem.

http://education.nationalgeographic.co.in/education/encyclopedia/ecosystem/?ar_a=1

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem

http://www.geography.learnontheinternet.co.uk/topics/ecosystem.html


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Biotic components are the living things that shape an ecosystem. A biotic factor is any livingcomponent that affects another organism, including animals that consume the organism in question, and

living food that the organism consumes. Each biotic factor needs energy to do work and food for proper

growth. Biotic factors include human influence.

o Producers-Autographs

o Consumers-Heterotrophs

o Decomposers-Fungi and bacteria

o

Abiotic components (also called abiotic factors) are non-living chemical and physical factors inthe environment, which affect ecosystems.

In biology, abiotic factors can be include light, radiation, temperature, water, atmospheric gases, and soil

In biology, an organism is any contiguous living system (such as animal, fungus, micro-organism,

or plant). In at least some form, all types of organisms are capable of responding to stimuli, reproduction

growth and development, and maintenance of homeostasis as a stable whole.

An organism may be either unicellular (a single cell) or, as in the case of humans, comprise many trillion

of cells grouped into specialized tissues andorgans. The term multicellular(many cells) describes any

organism made up of more than one cell.

In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A speciis often defined as a group of organismscapable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.

In ecology, a community is an assemblage or associations of populations of two or more different

species occupying the same geographical area.

A population is a summation of all the organisms of the same group or species, who live in the

same geographical area, and have the capability of interbreeding. In ecology the population of a certain

species in a certain area is estimated using the Lincoln Index.


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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species

worldwildlife.org/species


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HABITAT

The area or natural environment in which an organism or population normally lives.

A habitat is made up of physical factors such as soil, moisture, range of temperature, and availability of light as weas biotic factors such as the availability of food and the presence of predators.

Habitat is not necessarily a geographic areafor a parasitic organism it is the body of its host or even a cell within

the host's body

ECOLOGICAL NICHE

In ecology, a niche is a term describing the way of life of a species. Each species is thought to have a separate,

unique niche. The ecological niche describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of

resources and competitors (e.g., by growing when resources are abundant, and when predators, parasites and

pathogens are scarce) and how it in turn alters those same factors (e.g., limiting access to resources by other

organisms, acting as a food source for predators and a consumer of prey)

The Law of Limiting factors states that too much or too little of any abiotic factor can limit or

prevent growth of a population of a species in an ecosystem

Justus von Liebig in 1840.-

It says that the success of organism determined by crucial ingredient that is in short suppy.

Examples of limiting factors of a population growth

A. Terrestrial Ecosystem

1. Temperature

2. Water

3. Moisture

4. Soil nutrients

B. Marine Ecosystem

1. Salinity

2. Temperature

3. Sunlight

4. Dissolved Oxygen


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o

SPECIES INTERACTIONS

Wildlife species interact with each other in numerous, complex ways. In many cases, two species willinteract differently under different conditions

A resource, in ecological terms, is something (such as food, water, habitat, sunlight, prey) that is required

by an organism to perform a vital function such as grow or reproduce.

A consumer is an organism that consumes a resource (such as predators, herbivores, or detritivores). Thumost interactions between animals involves one or more competitor species vying for a resource.

Species interactions can be categorized into one of four basic groups based on how the participating specare affected by the interaction. These include:

competitive interactions consumer-resource interactions

detritivore-detritis interactions mutulalistic interactions

Competitive interactions are interactions involving two or more species that are competing for the sameresources and all species involved in the competitive interaction are negatively impacted. Competitiveinteractions are in many cases indirect, two species consume the same resource but they do not directlyinteract with each other, instead they impact each other by the effect they have on the resource.

Consumer-resource interactions are interactions in which individuals of one species consumes individualof another species. Examples of consumer-resource interactions include predator-prey interactions and

herbivore-plant interactions. These consumer-resource interactions affect the species involved in differenways, the resource species is negatively impacted while the consumer species is positively impacted.

Detritivore-detritis interactions involves a species that consumes the detritis (dead or decomposing organmatter) of another species. The detritivore-detritis interaction is a positive interaction for the consumer anhas no impact on the resource.

Finally, mutualistic interactions are interactions in which both species, resource and consumer, benefit frthe interaction.

http://animals.about.com/od/ecology/f/speciesinteract.htm


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In ecology, predation describes a biological interaction where a predator (an animal that is hunting)

feeds on its prey (the animal that is attacked)

Competition is an interaction between organisms or species, in which the fitness of one is lowered by

the presence of another. Limited supply of at least one resource (such as food, water, and territory) used

both is required. Eg- Cheetahs and lions; since both species feed on similar prey,

Parasitism is a non-mutual relationship between organisms of different species where one organism,

the parasite, benefits at the expense of the other, the host. Parasites are generally smaller than the host

Mutualism is the way two organisms of different species exist in a relationship in which each individu

benefits

A well-known example of mutualism is the relationship between cows and the bacteria within

their intestines. The ungulates benefit from the cellulase produced by the bacteria, which

facilitates digestion; the bacteria benefit from having a stable supply of nutrients in the hostenvironment

Commensalism is a class of relationship between two organisms where one organism benefits without

affecting the other. It compares with mutualism, in which both organisms benefit, amensalism, where on

harmed while the other is unaffected, and parasitism, where one benefits while the other is harmed

Birds following army ant raids on a forest floor. As the army ant colony travels on the forest floor, they

stir up various flying insect species. As the insects flee from the army ants, the birds following the ants

catch the fleeing insects. In this way, the army ants and the birds are in a commensalistic relationship

because the birds benefit while the army ants are unaffected.

Neutralism

Neutralism describes the relationship between two species which interact but do not affect each other

Amensalism

Amensalism is a relationship in which a product of one organism has a negative effect on another organi


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Synergy is the interaction of multiple elements in a system to produce an effect different from or greathan the sum of their individual effects

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition_(biology)


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Chapter 3

HOW ECOSYTEMS WORK

ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS

In the flow of energy and inorganic nutrients through the ecosystem, a few generalizations can be made:

1. The ultimate source of energy (for most ecosystems) is the sun2. The ultimate fate of energy in ecosystems is for it to be lost as heat.3. Energy and nutrients are passed from organism to organism through the food chain as one organi

eats another.4. Decomposers remove the last energy from the remains of organisms.5. Inorganic nutrients are cycled, energy is not

http://www.marietta.edu/~biol/102/ecosystem.html


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Food chain

A food chain shows how each living thing gets its food. Some animals eat plants and some animals eat other

animals.

For example, a simple food chain links the trees & shrubs, the giraffes (that eat trees & shrubs), and the lions (tha

eat the giraffes). Each link in this chain is food for the next link. A food chain always starts with plant life and ends

with an animal.

1. Plants are called producers because they are able to use light energy from the Sun to produce fo(sugar) from carbon dioxide and water.

2. Animals cannot make their own food so they must eat plants and/or other animals. They are calleconsumers . There are three groups of consumers.

a. Animals that eat ONLY PLANTS are called herbivores (or primary consumers).

b. Animals that eat OTHER ANIMALS are called carnivores .

carnivores that eat herbivores are called secondary consumers

carnivores that eat other carnivores are called tertiary consumerse.g., killer whales in an ocean food web ... phytoplankton small fishes sealskiller whales

3. Animals and people who eat BOTH animals and plants are called omnivores.

Then there are decomposers (bacteria and fungi) which feed on decaying matter.

These decomposers speed up the decaying process that releases mineral salts back into the food chain for

absorption by plants as nutrients.

.


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Bi o m ag n i f i ca t io n

"Biomagnification is the sequence of processes in an ecosystem by which higherconcentrations of a particular chemical, such as the pesticide DDT, are reached in organism

higher up the food chain, generally through a series of prey-predator relationships."

Bi o m ag n i f ica t io n Fac t o r ( BM F)- "The term biomagnification factor (BMF) is used to ref

to the ratio of contaminant concentration in biota to that in the surrounding water when th

biota was exposed via contaminated food

The following is an example showing how biomagnification takes place in nature:

An anchovy eats zooplankton that have tiny amounts of mercury that the zooplankton has picked up from the

water throughout the anchovy's lifespan.

A tuna eats many of these anchovies over its life, accumulating the mercury in each of those anchovies into its

body.

If the mercury stunts the growth of the anchovies, that tuna is required to eat more little fish to stay alive. Becau

there are more little fish being eaten, the mercury content is magnified

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomagnification


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http://toxics.usgs.gov/definitions/biomagnification.html


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HOW ECOSYSTEMS CHANGE

Ecological succession is the observed process of change in the species structure of an ecolog

community over time.

Colonization of an area that has not been previously occupied by an ecological community, such as new

exposed rock or sand surfaces, lava flows, newly exposed glacial tills, etc., are referred to as prim

succession. The stages of primary succession include pioneer plants (lichens and mosses), grassy sta

smaller shrubs, and trees. Animals begin to return when there is food there for them to eat. When it i

fully functioning ecosystem, it has reached the climax community stage.

Successional dynamics following severe disturbance or removal of a pre-existing community are cal

secondary succession. Dynamics in secondary succession are strongly influenced by pre-disturban

conditions, including soil development, seed banks, remaining organic matter, and residual liv

organisms. Because of residual fertility and pre-existing organisms, community change in early stages

secondary succession can be relatively rapid

.

Particularly common types of secondary succession include responses to natural disturbances such as f

flood, and severe winds, and to human-caused disturbances such as logging and agriculture


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The species living in a particular place gradually change over time as does the physical and chemicalenvironment within that area.

Succession takes place because through the processes of living, growing and reproducing, organisms interwith and affect the environment within an area, gradually changing it.

Each species is adapted to thrive and compete best against other species under a very specific set ofenvironmental conditions. If these conditions change, then the existing species will be replaced by a differset of species which are better adapted to the new conditions.

The most often quoted examples of succession deal with plant succession. It is worth remembering that as

plant communities change, so will the associated micro-organism, fungus and animal species. Successioninvolves the whole community, not just the plants.

. This is because each plant species will have associated animal species which feed on it. The presence ofthese herbivore species will then dictate which particular carnivores are present.

Succession is directional. Different stages in a particular habitat succession can usually be accuratelypredicted.

Many thousands of different species might be involved in the community changes taking place over thecourse of a succession. For example, in the succession from freshwater to climax woodland.

The actual species involved in a succession in a particular area are controlled by such factors as the geoloand history of the area, the climate, microclimate, weather, soil type and other environmental factors.

For example, the species involved in a succession from open freshwater to climax woodland in CentralAfrica, would be quite different to those occurring in Britain. However, the processes involved would be tsame.

Succession occurs on many different timescales, ranging from a few days to hundreds of years. It may take hundre

years for a climax woodland to develop, while the succession of invertebrates and fungi within a single cow pat (c

dung), may be over within as little as 3 months.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecological_succession http://www.countrysideinfo.co.uk/successn/summary.htm


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CHAPTER4

KINDS OF ECOSYSTEMS

Forest ecosystem

A forest ecosystem is a natural woodland unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms (Biotic

components) in that area functioning together with all of the non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the

environment.

Forest ecology is the scientific study of the interrelated patterns, processes, flora, fauna and ecosystems in fores

The management of forests is known as forestry, silviculture, and forest management.

Importance Forests are important for their economic, environmental and enjoyment values

1. They provide wood and other products that are useful to people.2. They remove carbon dioxide from air.3. They protect our water sources.-are watersheds4. They prevent erosion and floods-the root systems bind the soil5. They protect wildlife.6. They provide recreation.-eco friendly tourism should be practised

Threats to the forest ecosystem

1) Slash and burn farming

2) Illegal logging3) Poaching4) Deforestation5) Forests have long been threatened by a variety of destructive agents. Today, the frequency, intensity and

timing of fire events, hurricanes, droughts, ice storms and insect outbreaks are shifting as a result of humaactivities and global climate change, making forest ecosystems even more prone to damage.

6) Natural threats such as fire, insects and diseases are integral to forest dynamics. However, they can disrupthe flow of goods and services from forests by affecting tree growth and survival, water quality and yield,and biodiversity.

7) Alien invasive species pests, microorganisms or trees that are non-native to a particular ecosystem andwhose introduction causes, or is likely to cause, economic or environmental harm.

8) Many introduced tree species have high socio-economic and environmental value, but they can give cause

for concern when insufficient consideration is given to the context of their use and management..9) Wildfire is among the most dramatic threats to forests.10) A new modern world threat-violent conflict. With their often rich natural resources and remoteness from

centres of government, forests have frequently been the hub of disputes. When violence occurs in forestareas, the forest often, but not always, suffers negative consequence

Examples Amazon Nilgiris Costa Rica rainforests

http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5507e/y5507e01


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http://expertscolumn.com/content/importance-forest-ecosystem

Marine ecosystems

They include oceans, salt marshes, estuaries and lagoons, mangroves and coral reefs, the deep sea and thsea floor. They can be contrasted with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marinewaters cover two-thirds of the surface of the Earth.

Such places are considered ecosystems because the plant life supports the animal life and vice-versa.

Marine ecosystems are very important for the overall health of both marine and terrestrial environments.According to the World Resource Center, coastal habitats alone account for approximately 1/3 of all marbiological productivity, and estuarine ecosystems (i.e., salt marshes, seagrasses, mangrove forests) areamong the most productive regions on the planet. In addition, other marine ecosystems such as coral reefprovide food and shelter to the highest levels of marine diversity in the world.

Marine ecosystems have distinct organisms and characteristics that result from the unique combination

physical factors that create them. Marine ecosystems include: areas like deep sea coral, brine pools, po

regions such as the Antarctic and Arctic, coral reefs, the deep sea , kelp forests, mangroves, the open

ocean, rocky shores, salt marshes and mudflats, and sandy shores.

THREATS TO MARINE ECOSYSTEMS

The worlds coastal ocean waters continue to be degraded by unsustainable fishingpractices, habitat degradation, eutrophication, toxic pollution, aerosol contamination, andemerging diseases. Against this background is a growing recognition among world leaderthat positive actions are required on the part of governments and civil society to redressglobal environmental and resource degradation with actions to recover depleted fish

populations, restore degraded habitats and reduce coastal pollution

o Overfishing

o Lack of public awareness

o Coral disease

o Over exploitation - recreational and commercial

o Pollution

o Habitat destruction and fragmentation

o Non-native species invasions

o Global climate change

o Entanglement and drowning in fishing gearo Habitat degradation

o Algal blooms

o Sound pollution

o Pollution, including oil spills

o Competition for food sources, including changes in the balance of available prey due to commercial fishi

or habitat disturbance

o Vessel traffic and impact

o Disturbance and harassment


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Threats to marine biodiversity have widespread social, economic, and biological

consequences, the combination of which could threaten our own existence, including

o Economic losses through unemployment and reduced productivity

o Dramatic reductions in the numbers of many popular edible fish and shellfish

o Extinction of species that might be useful in developing new medicines

o Reduced ability of ecosystems to respond to disaster, both natural (floods) and man-made (pollution)

o Accelerated global climate change

o Social and political instability

o

Examples of Marine Ecosystems

1) Hawaiin Coral reefs

2) Indian Ocean

3) Bay OF Bengal

4) South China Sea

5) California Current

6) Gulf Of Alaska

http://hawaii.gov/dbedt/czm/initiative/wec/html/sea/marine/threats.htm

http://www.marbef.org/wiki/Threats_to_Marine_Biodiversity

http://www.lme.noaa.gov/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=47&Itemid=41

http://education.nationalgeographic.com/education/media/marine-ecosystem-illustratio


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Freshwater ecosystems

Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth's aquatic ecosystems. They include lakes and ponds, rivers, stream

and springs, and wetlands. They can be contrasted with marine ecosystems, which have a larger salt content

Freshwater ecosystems are essential for human survival, providing the majority of people's drinking water. The

ecosystems are home to more than 40 percent of the world's fish species.

Despite their value and importance, many lakes, rivers, and wetlands around the world are being severely

damaged by human activities and are declining at a much faster rate than terrestrial ecosystems.

More than 20 percent of the 10,000 known freshwater fish species have become extinct or imperiled in recent

decades. Watersheds, which catch precipitation and channel it to streams and lakes, are highly vulnerable to

pollution.

Programs to protect freshwater habitats include planning, stewardship, education, and regulation.

Threats

The creation of dams and water-diversion systems blocks migration routes for fish and disrupts habitats

Water withdrawal for human use shrinks and degrades habitats.

Runoff from agricultural and urban areas hurts water quality.

Draining of wetlands for development depletes habitats.

Overexploitation and pollution threaten groundwater supplies.

Invasion of exotic species can harm native animals and plants.

Global warming may lead to devastating floods and droughts.

Solutions

Restrict the construction of dams.

Provide incentives for farming business to reduce the use of pesticides.

Establish protected wetlands areas.

Regulate water withdrawal for human use.

Examples

o Lake Baikal-One of the largest- Known as Blue eye of Siberia

o Lake Erie-North America

http://environment.nationalgeographic.com/environment/habitats/freshwater-threats/


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Temperate Grasslands Ecosystem

Temperate grasslands are also known as prairie, puszta, pampas, plains or steppes with warm, moist

summers (average 18C) and cool, dry winters (average 10C).

It can snow during the winter.

The most prominent temperate grasslands are found in the Great Plains of Canada and the United States,

Argentina, South Africa, Central Eurasia and Australia.

There are two distinctive types of temperate grasslands tall-grass (more than 2 meters) and short-grass

less than 60 cm).

Trees are generally not found in these regions due to the lack of moisture and their need for a relatively

longer life cycle.

Threats to temperate grasslands include

1) clearing,

2) inappropriate grazing,

3) altered burning practices,

4) neglect,5) fragmentation,

6) the invasion of exotic weed species like Serrated Tussock, African Lovegrass, St John's Wort and

Phalaris

http://www.environment.gov.au/biodiversity/threatened/publications/temp-grass.html


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The Tundra Ecosystem

Tundra is the coldest of all the biomes.

Characteristics of tundra include:

1. Extremely cold climate2. Low biotic diversity3. Simple vegetation structure4. Limitation of drainage5. Short season of growth and reproduction

Threats facing the Arctic Tundra comes fromhumans...

More people are moving to the Arctic Tundra to:

Work in the mines and oil rigs

Live (creating towns and roads)

This is affecting the biome:

I t affects the Tundra's organisms feeding patterns:

Some animal's movements to traditional feeding and denning grounds have been disrupted

by man-made obstacles such as towns and roads. Humans shoot these animals for food or entertainment when the animals pass through the

towns.

Roads also block the routes which these animals take to get to their feeding grounds. For

example, the Alaskan oil pipeline was built across a caribou migration route.

Pesticides have been used to control the hordes of insects. Many birds migrate to the tund

to feed on these insects, and they are losing food.

It pollutes the Tundra:

Human activities such as mining and drilling for oil has polluted the air, lakes and rivers.

This pollution kills plants in the surrounding area. This pollution causes erosion: Footprints and tire tracks remain long periods of time after

they are made. These ruts cause the permafrost to melt more easily and erosion takes plac

forming gullies

https://sites.google.com/a/ncps-k12.org/artic-tundra/warnings/threats

http://www.mbgnet.net/sets/tundra/


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Biogeographic Region(Zones)

Biogeographic region, area of animal and plant distribution having similar or shared characteristicsthroughout.

A biogeographic region is a large area where animals and plants have evolved together over thousands oyears separated from other regions by oceans, mountains or deserts.

This situation effectively separates the biosphere into biomesecological communities that have the sam

climatic conditions and geologic features and that support species with similar life strategies and

adaptations

Biogeography- the study of animal and plant distributions that is as zoogeography and phytogeography

respectively

1) Arctic

2) Indomalay

3) Antarctic

4) Australasia

5) Afrotropic

6) Neotropic

7) Neararctic

8) Oceania

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/65890/biogeographic-regions


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CHAPTER 5

WATER

Point source pollution is pollution that comes from a single source, such as a factory or wastewatertreatment plant.

Non-point source pollution does not have one specific source, such as a factory.

o Non-point source pollution comes from the cumulative effect of a region's residents going about

their everyday activities, such as fertilizing a lawn or driving a car.

o One type of non-point source pollution is fertilizer. Fertilizer contains nitrogen compounds called

nitrates. When fertilizer is applied excessively or just prior to a rainstorm, it washes off the lawn

and into the gutter, where it makes its way through the storm sewer system and into a river or lak

Once in the water, these nitrates have the same effect on algae as they do on lawns - they make it

grow! Overgrown algae can have devastating effects on a lake or stream, consuming all the oxyg

and suffocating fish and other aquatic wildlife. This is called eutrophication

o Other types of non-point source pollutants include pesticides, pet waste, motor oil, and householdhazardous wastes. Again, any of these pollutants which get either washed or dumped into the storsewer flow directly to a stream or lake without treatment


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Eu t r o p h ic a t i o n

It is the process by which a body of water acquires a high concentration of nutrients, especially phosphates and

nitrates. These typically promote excessive growth of algae. As the algae die and decompose, high levels of orga

matter and the decomposing organisms deplete the water of available oxygen, causing the death of other

organisms, such as fish. Eutrophication is a natural, slow-aging process for a water body, but human activity grea

speeds up the process.

Eutrophicationthe over-enrichment of water by nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorusis a leading threa

water quality around the world. Also known as nutrient pollution, eutrophication upsets the natural balance o

aquatic ecosystems, which can lead to algal blooms, red tides, hypoxic or dead zones, fish kills, and, eventually

ecosystem collapse

The rise in eutrophic and hypoxic( reduced dissolved oxygen content of a body of water detrimental to

aerobic organisms.) events has been attributed to the rapid increase in intensive agricultural practices, industr

activities, and population growth which together have increased nitrogen and phosphorus flows in the environm

http://www.wri.org/project/eutrophication

http://www.wri.org/project/eutrophication/about


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http://toxics.usgs.gov/definitions/eutrophication.html

Thermal Pollution

INTRODUCTION

Thermal Pollution- harmful increase in water temperature in streams, rivers, lakes, or occasionally, coast

ocean waters.

Thermal pollution is caused by either dumping hot water from factories and power plants or removing tre

and vegetation that shade streams, permitting sunlight to raise the temperature of these waters.

Like other forms of water pollution, thermal pollution is widespread, affecting many lakes and vast

numbers of streams and rivers.

A temperature increase as small as 1 or 2 Celsius degrees (about 2 to 4 Fahrenheit degrees) can kill nativ

fish, shellfish, and plants, or drive them out in favor of other species, often with undesirable effects.

MAJOR SOURCES

1) The major sources of thermal pollution are electric power plants and industrial factories.

a) In most electric power plants, heat is produced when coal, oil, or natural gas is burned or nuclear

fuels undergo fission to release huge amounts of energy. The water used for cooling warms 5 to 1

Celsius degrees (9 to 18 Fahrenheit degrees), after which it may be dumped back into the lake,river, or ocean from which it came.

b) Similarly, factories contribute to thermal pollution when they dump water used to cool their

machinery

2) The second type of thermal pollution is much more widespread.

a) Streams and small lakes are naturally kept cool by trees and other tall plants that block sunlight.

People often remove this shading vegetation in order to harvest the wood in the trees, to make roo

for crops, or to construct buildings, roads, and other structures. Left unshaded, the water warms b

as much as 10 Celsius degrees (18 Fahrenheit degrees).

b) In a similar manner, grazing sheep and cattle can strip streamsides of low vegetation, including

young trees.

c) Even the removal of vegetation far away from a stream or lake can contribute to thermal pollution

by speeding up the erosion of soil into the water, making it muddy. Muddy water absorbs more

energy from the sun than clear water does, resulting in further heating.

d) Finally, water running off of artificial surfaces, such as streets, parking lots, and roofs, is warmer

than water running off vegetated land and, thus, contributes to thermal pollution


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IMPACT

1) All plant and animal species that live in water are adapted to temperatures within a certain range.

When water in an area warms more than they can tolerate, species that cannot move, such as root

plants and shellfish, will die.

2) Species that can move, such as fish, will leave the area in search of cooler conditions, and they w

die if they can not find them.

3) Typically, other species, often less desirable, will move into the area to fill the vacancy.

4) In general, cold waters are better habitat for plants and animals than warm ones because cold wat

contain more dissolved oxygen.

5) Many freshwater fish species that are valued for sport and food, especially trout and salmon, do

poorly in warm water. Some organisms do thrive in warm water, often with undesirable effects.6) Algae and other plants grow more rapidly in warm water than in cold, but they also die more

rapidly; the bacteria that decompose their dead tissue use up oxygen, further reducing the amount

available for animals.

7) The dead and decaying algae make the water look, taste, and smell unpleasant

CONTROL

1) Thermal pollution from power plants and factories is relatively easy to control. Instead of

discharging heated water into lakes and streams, power plants and factories can pass the heated

water through cooling towers or cooling ponds, where evaporation cools the water before it isdischarged.

2) Alternatively, power plants can be designed or refitted to be more efficient and to produce less

waste heat in the first place.

3) In a process called cogeneration, the excess heat energy from generating electricity can be used i

another manufacturing process that needs such energy. Where homes or other buildings are locate

near industrial plants, waste hot water can be used for heatingan arrangement often found in

Scandinavian towns and cities, and proposed for use in China.

4) To prevent thermal pollution due to devegetation, the prescription is simple: do not devegetate.

Landowners can leave strips of trees and vegetation along streams and shorelines. Grazing livesto

can be kept away from streamsides by fencing.5) All efforts to control erosion also have the effect of keeping water clearer and, thus, cooler.


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http://www.ukm.my/ahmadukm/images/stories/data/kuliah/manusia/artikel/thermal.htm


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CHAPTER 5

WATER

OUR WATER RESOURCES

FROZEN POLAR ICE CAPS

RIVERS

India's plan to link more than 30 rivers and divert waters to parched areas to tackle flood and drought cycis worrying neighboring countries, officials say.

The multibillion-dollar project, announced by the Indian government in 2002, has remained just a proposon paper, but a supreme court ruling said the delay has resulted in cost increases and has appointed acommittee to plan and implement the project in a "time-bound manner,"

The proposed project's main goal is to take water from areas where authorities believe it is abundant anddivert it to areas where there is less water available for irrigation, power and human consumption.

Neighboring countries have condemned the plan, with Bangladesh saying it would be hardest-hit becauseis a downstream country to two major rivers that flow from India.

The Ganges and the Bramhaputra, which flow down through Bangladesh, are among the rivers India hassaid it would divert to its western and southern regions.

South Asia is considered a likely flashpoint over water resources in the future

DAMS

a) Tehri Dam

b) Mullaperiyar Dam - Kerala Government has long been demanding construction of a new

dam in Mullaperiyar on the Kerala-Tamil Nadu border. Many believe that the existing 116

year-old dam could pose safety hazard

c) Bhakra Dam

d) Hirakud

e) Sardar Sarovar Dam _The Sardar Sarovar Dam is a gravity dam on the Narmada River near

Navagam, Gujarat, India. It is the largest dam and part of the Narmada Valley Project on the

Narmada River. The project took form in 1979 as part of a development scheme to increase

irrigation and produce hydroelectricity. The dam is one of India's most controversial dam projects

and its environmental impact and net costs and benefits are widely debated. The World Bank was


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initially a funder, but withdrew in 1994. The Narmada Dam has been the centre of controversy an

protest since the late 1980

AQUIFERS

An aquifer is an underground layer of rock or soil that contains water. The water is held in the spacesbetween the rock or soil particles

We use aquifers as a source of drinking water and of water to irrigate crops or to use in industry, pumpinwater from the aquifer using a well. Pumping from the aquifer empties it--or at least decreases the amounof water it holds. Aquifers are refilled, or recharged, in areas where they are exposed on the surface of thearth. Water can re-enter the aquifer in these recharge areas.

Many of those aquifers are now being sucked dry by irrigation and other uses faster than they can bereplenished by rainwater . Once theyre gone, it would take thousands of years to refill them.

http://coastgis.marsci.uga.edu/summit/aquifers.htm

http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2012/08/10/where-the-worlds-running-out-of-water-in-one-map/

http://www.upi.com/Science_News/2012/03/30/Rivers-plan-stirs-controversy-in-India/UPI-54461333150630/#ixzz2ZMqkOo


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Water Harvesting

It means capturing rain where it falls or capturing the run off. And taking measures to keep that water clby not allowing polluting activities to take place in the catchment.

Therefore, water harvesting can be undertaken through a variety of ways

Capturing runoff from rooftops Capturing runoff from local catchments Capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams Conserving water through watershed management

These techniques can serve the following the following purposes:

Provide drinking water

Provide irrigation water Increase groundwater recharge Reduce stormwater discharges, urban floods and overloading of sewage treatment plants Reduce seawater ingress in coastal areas.

In general, water harvesting is the activity of direct collection of rainwater. The rainwater collected canstored for direct use or can be recharged into the groundwater.

Rain is a primary source of water for us. Rivers, lakes and groundwater are all secondary sources of waIn present times, we depend entirely on such secondary sources of water.Water harvesting meansunderstand the value of rain, and to make optimum use of the rainwater at the place where it falls.

How much water can be harvested?

Urban scenario

The total amount of water that is received in the form of rainfall over an area is called the rainwaendowmentof the area. Out of this, the amount that can be effectively harvested is called the waharvesting potential.

The collection efficiency accounts for the fact that all the rainwater falling over an area cannot effectively harvested, because of evaporation, spillage

Rural scenario Community based rainwater harvesting continues in rural areas of India

From rooftops, they collected water and stored it in tanks built in their courtyards.

From open community lands, they collected the rain and stored it in artificial wells. They harvested monsoon runoff by capturing water from swollen streams and rivers during the mons

season and stored it various forms of water bodies.


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GROUNDWATER POLLUTIONSaltwater encroachment associated with over drafting of aquifers or natural leaching from natural occurring

deposits are natural sources of groundwater pollution.

. Human groundwater contamination can be related to waste disposal (private sewage disposal systems, land

disposal of solid waste, municipal wastewater, wastewater ,spreading of sludge, brine disposal from the

petroleum industry, mine wastes, , animal feedlot wastes, radioactive wastes) or not directly related to waste

disposal (accidents, certain agricultural activities, mining, highway deicing, acid rain, improper well constructio

and maintenance, road salt).

Natural: groundwater contains some impurities, even if it is unaffected by human activities. The types and

concentrations of natural impurities depend on the nature of the geological material through which thegroundwater moves and the quality of the recharge water. Groundwater moving through sedimentary rocks an

soils may pick up a wide range of compounds such as magnesium, calcium, and chlorides. Some aquifers have

high natural concentration of dissolved constituents such as arsenic, boron, and selenium.

Human Activities

Agricultural: Pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides and animal waste

Industrial: Toxic wastes. Storage tanks storing acids..etc develop leaks

Residential: Residential wastewater systems can be a source of many categories of contaminants, including

bacteria, viruses, nitrates from human waste, and organic compounds. Injection wells used for domestic

wastewater disposal (septic systems, cesspools, drainage wells for storm water runoff, groundwater recharge

wells) are of particular concern to groundwater quality if located close to drinking water wells. Improperly stor

or disposing of household chemicals such as paints, synthetic detergents, solvents, oils, medicines, disinfectan

pool chemicals, pesticides, batteries, gasoline and diesel fuel can lead to groundwater contamination.

http://www.lenntech.com/groundwater/pollution-sources.htm


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Who Owns The Oceans

The control and ownership of the oceans has long been a controversial topic. Since ancient empires bega

to sail and trade over the seas, command of coastal areas has been important to governments. However, i

wasn't until the twentieth century that countries began to come together to discuss a standardization of

maritime boundaries. Surprisingly, the situation still has yet to be resolved.

The first United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS I) met in 1958 to begin discussion

on these and other oceanic issues. In 1960 UNCLOS II was held and in 1973 UNCLOS III took place.

Following UNCLOS III, a treaty was developed that attempted to tackle the boundary issue. It specifiedthat all coastal countries would have a 12 nm territorial sea and a 200 nm Exclusive Economic Zone (EE

Each country would control the economic exploitation and environmental quality of their EEZ.

UN Convention of the Law of the Sea was signed in December 1982.

Now there are concerns about illegal fishing, whaling, piracy, oil spills, loss of marine biodiversity.

http://www.progress.org/ocean01.htm

http://geography.about.com/od/politicalgeography/a/politicaloceans.htm


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CHAPTER 6

AIR

Temperature (THERMAL) Inversions

Inversion layers, are areas where the normal decrease in air temperature with increasing altitude is reversed an

above the ground is warmer than the air below it. Inversion layers can occur anywhere from close to ground lev

up to thousands of feet into the atmosphere.

This can then result in various types of weather patterns. Areas with heavy pollution are prone to unhealthy air a

an increase in smog when an inversion is present because they trap pollutants at ground level instead of circulat

them away.

Causes of Temperature Inversions

Temperature inversions are a result of other weather conditions in an area. They occur most often when a warm

less dense air mass moves over a dense, cold air mass. This can happen for example, when the air near the grou

rapidly loses its heat on a clear night. In this situation, the ground becomes cooled quickly while the air above it

retains the heat the ground was holding during the day. Additionally, temperature inversions occur in some coas

areas because upwelling of cold water can decrease surface air temperature and the cold air mass stays under

warmer ones.

Topography can also play a role in creating a temperature inversion since it can sometimes cause cold air to flow

from mountain peaks down into valleys. This cold air then pushes under the warmer air rising from the valley,

creating the inversion.

In addition, inversions can also form in areas with significant snow cover because the snow at ground level is co

and its white color reflects almost all heat coming in. Thus, the air above the snow is often warmer because it ho

the reflected energy.

Consequences of Temperature Inversions

Some of the most significant consequences of temperature inversions are the extreme weather conditions they

sometimes create.

One example of these is freezing rain. This phenomenon develops with a temperature inversion in a cold area

because snow melts as it moves through the warm inversion layer. The precipitation then continues to fall and

passes through the cold layer of air near the ground. When it moves through this final cold air mass it becomes

"super-cooled" (cooled below freezing without becoming solid). The super-cooled drops then become ice when

they land on items like cars and trees and the result is freezing rain or an ice storm.


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Intense thunderstorms and tornadoes are also associated with inversions because of the intense energy that is

released after an inversion blocks an areas normal convection patterns.

Smog

Although freezing rain, thunderstorms, and tornadoes are significant weather events, one of the most importan

things impacted by an inversion layer is smog. This is the brownish gray haze that covers many of the worlds

largest cities and is a result of dust, auto exhaust, and industrial manufacturing.

This happens because the warmer air layer sits over a city and prevents the normal mixing of cooler, denser air.

air instead becomes still and over time the lack of mixing causes pollutants to become trapped under the inversi

developing significant amounts of smog.

During severe inversions that last over long periods smog can cover entire metropolitan areas and cause respira

problems for the inhabitants of those areas. In December 1952, for example, such an inversion occurred in Lond

Because of the cold December weather at the time, Londoners began to burn more coal, which increased air

pollution in the city. Since the inversion was present over the city at the same time, these pollutants became

trapped and increased Londons air pollution. The result was the Great Smog of 1952 that was blamed for

thousands of deaths.

Photochemical smog

However, the burning of fossil fuels like gasoline can create another atmospheric pollution problem known

as photochemical smog.

Photochemical smog is a condition that develops when primary pollutants(oxides of nitrogen and volatile organ

compounds created from fossil fuel combustion) interact under the influence ofsunlight to produce a mixture o

hundreds of different and hazardous chemicals known as secondary pollutants

Weather, topography, the times of the day and the presence of industries and vehicles all affect the formation

photochemical smog.

COMPOSITION

1) Nitrogen OXIdes(NO and NO2)

2) VOC Volatile Organic Compounds

3) Ozone (O3)

4) PAN Peroxyacetyl Nitrates


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http://dwb4.unl.edu/Chem/CHEM869J/CHEM869JLinks/royal.okanagan.bc.ca/mpidwirn/atmosphereandclimate/smog.html

http://geography.about.com/od/climate/a/inversionlayer.htm

Acid rain is rain that has been made acidic by certain pollutants in the air

Sources of Acid Rain

Acid rain is caused by a chemical reaction that begins when compounds like sulfur

dioxide and nitrogen oxides are released into the air. These substances can rise very high

into the atmosphere, where they mix and react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to

form more acidic pollutants, known as acid rain.

Human activities are the main cause of acid rain .

Power plants release the majority of sulfur dioxide and much of the nitrogen oxides when they

burn fossil fuels, such as coal, to produce electricity. In addition, theexhaust from cars, trucks,

and buses releases nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide into the air. These pollutants cause acid

rain.

Acid Rain Can Cause Health Problems i n Peop le

Air pollution like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides can cause respiratory diseases, or can make these

diseases worse.

Respiratory diseases like asthma or chronic bronchitis make it hard for people to breathe.

Acid Rain Harms Forests

Acid rain can be extremely harmful to forests.

Acid rain that seeps into the ground can dissolve nutrients, such as magnesium and calcium, that trees

need to be healthy.

Acid rain also causes aluminum to be released into the soil, which makes it difficult for trees to take up

water.

Acid Rain Damages Lakes and Streams

Without pollution or acid rain, most lakes and streams would have a pH level near 6.5. Acid rain,

however, has caused many lakes and streams in the northeast United States and certain other places to


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have much lower pH levels.

Acid Rain Damages Buildings and Objects

Acid rain can also have a damaging effect on many objects, including buildings, statues, monuments, and

cars. The chemicals found in acid rain can cause paint to peel

REDUCING ACID RAINPower plants generate the electricity we use every day. There are laws to reduce the amount of sulfur dioxide that power plantcan release into the air and also the amount of nitrogen oxides that power plants can release.

1) Reducing PollutionScientists have found different ways to reduce the amount of sulfur dioxide released from coal-burning power plants. option is to use coal that contains less sulfur. Another option is to wash the coal to remove some of the sulfur. Thepower plant can also install equipment called scrubbers, which remove the sulfur dioxide from gases leaving thesmokestack.

2) Because nitrogen oxides are created in the process of burning coal and other fossil fuels, some power plants arechanging the way they burn coal.

Other Sources of EnergyA great way to reduce acid rain is to produce energy without using fossil fuels.

Instead, people can use renewable energy sources, such as solar and wind power. Renewable energy sources help reduce acrain because they produce much less pollution. These energy sources can be used to power machinery and produce electricity

Cleaner CarsCars and trucks are major sources of the pollutants that cause acid rain. While one car alone does not produce much pollutionthe cars on the road added together create lots of pollution. Therefore, car manufacturers are required to reduce the amount o

nitrogen oxides and other pollutants released by new cars. One type of technology used in cars is called a catalyticconverter. This piece of equipment has been used for over 20 years to reduce the amount of nit rogen oxidreleased by cars.

Some new cars can also use cleaner fuels, such as natural gas

What can each one of us do

Conserve Energy

Since energy production creates large amounts of the pollutants that cause acid rain, one important step you can take is to

conserve energy. You can do this in a number of ways:

Turn off lights, computers, televisions, video games, and other electrical equipment when you're not using them.

Try to limit the use of air conditioning.

Buy ENERGY STAR appliances

Car pool, use publ ic transport, walk or c ycle

http://www.epa.gov/acidrain/education/site_students/whatisacid.html


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Documents

Consolidated Notes Enviromental Science1