Considering Argumentation

ADAPTED FROM: Costa, V. and Shand, K. (January 2010) Analyzing and Evaluating Information with Intel’s Showing Evidence Tool.  Presentation for the Teaching with Technology Faculty Showcase, California State University Fullerton.

Why Teach Students to Argue?

Research Findings: Importance of Teaching Argumentation

Prepares students for real-world problemsArguments are constructed in all different disciplines and professions and are also an important part of everyday life.

Helps students develop higher-order thinking skillsHelps them learn how to support claims with appropriate evidence and reasoning (McNeill, Lizotte, Krajcik, and Marx, 2004)

Increases students’ content knowledgeRequires students to think deeply about the content and to construct their own understanding of the content as they construct their arguments (Driver, Newton, and Osborne, 2000)

Encourages thoughtful student discussionsCreates an environment where students question each other’s claims and identify appropriate evidence, warrants, and backing (Jimenez-Alexandre, Rodriquez and Duschl, 2000)

Research Findings: Negative Findings about Argumentation

Students have difficulty constructing arguments.When asked to construct arguments without specific instruction in this area, students, grades 5-12 generally generate weak arguments (Means and Voss, 1996).

Students need instructional support as they construct arguments.Even with instruction, students have difficulty providing certain components of arguments, such as describing reasoning for why evidence supports their claim (McNeill et al, 2004).

Format of an Argument

Toulmin’s Model

There are three major and necessary parts of an argument.

3 Necessary Parts to an Argument

Claim• Main point, thesis, controlling idea• Claim may be directly stated• First of a text, but sometimes at end for effect• OR claim may be applied• Found by asking “what is the author trying to prove?”

You should buy our tooth-whitening product.

Universities should reinstate affirmative action admission policies.

3 Necessary Parts to an Argument

Supports• Reasons given in support of the claim• Also known as evidence, proof, data,

arguments, or grounds• Support can be facts and figures, expert opinion, examples,

explanations, and logical reasoning.• Found by asking “what does the author say to persuade the reader

of the claim?

Studies show that teeth are 50% whiter after using the product for a specified time.

Studies show that affirmative action provides increased access to education for all ethnic groups, with the largest increases for Hispanic Americans.

3 Necessary Parts to an Argument

WarrantsAssumptions or presuppositions underlying the argument• Generally accepted beliefs and values, common ways our culture or

society views things• Author and audience may share warrants; or warrants of each may

be in conflict• Provide the underlying reasons linking the claim and the support• Found by asking “what’s causing the author to say the things she

does?” or “where is the author coming from?”

People want whiter teeth.

Equality of access is a basic American value.

Toulmin’s Model

There are three optional but helpful additional parts of an argument.

3 Additional Parts to an Argument

Qualifiers• Because argument is about probability

and possibility, not about certainty, don’t use superlatives like: all, every, absolutely, never, none, no one

• Qualify your claim with expressions like: many, many times, some, rarely, few, possibly

Rebuttal• Take into consideration other conflicting viewpoints and deal with them fairly.• Answer questions and objections raised in the minds of the audience.• Otherwise, your own argument will be weakened and subjet to attach and counter-argument• Sometimes rebuttal will be directed to opposing claims. Other times rebuttal will be directed at

alternative interpretations or evidence of new evidence

Backing• Sometimes warrant needs evidence to support it, to make it more believable.

EXAMPLE

Qualifier: If a university does not have a diverse student bodyClaim: . . . It should use affirmative action admissions policiesSupport: Studies show that affirmative action provides increased access to education for all ethnic groups, with the largest increases for Hispanic Americans.Rebuttal: Affirmative action policies do not result in “reverse discrimination” because they are only part of a process that attempts to ensure fairness in college admissions.Warrant: Equality of access is a basic American valueBacking: Equality before the law is a fundamental right of all Americans.

Five Types of Claims(and an example of

each!)

Five Categories of Claims

CLAIM OF FACT: GUN CONTROL

There are serious restrictions on our Constitutional right to bear arms.This argument will cite facts, examples, and statistics relating to laws and policies that restrict the sale and use of firearms.

Claims of FACT: Is it real? Is it a fact? Did it really happen? Is it true? Does it exist?• Global warming is occurring.• Women are just as effective as men in combat.• Affirmative action undermines individual achievement.• Immigrants are taking away jobs from Americans who need work.

Five Categories of Claims

Claims of DEFINITION: What it is? What is it like? How should it be classified? How can it be defined? How do we interpret it? Does its meaning shift in particular contexts?• Alcoholism is a disease, not a vice.• We need to define the term family before we can talk abut family values.• Date rape is a violent crime.• The death penalty constitutes “cruel and unusual punishment.”

CLAIM OF DEFINITION: GUN CONTROLLaws governing the sale of firearms such as assault weapon and handguns do not constitute an infringement on our right to bear arms.This argument will focus on the Bill of Rights and its clause about the right to bear arms. It will argue for a particular definition of "right to bear arms" that includes the writing of laws that relate to ownership of firearms.

Five Categories of Claims

Claims of CAUSE: How did this happen? What caused it? What led up to this? What are the effects? What will this produce?• The introduction of the computer into university writing classes has enhanced student writing

ability.• The popularity of the Internet has led to a rise in plagiarism amongst students.• The economic boom of the 1990s was due in large part to the skillful leadership of the executive

branch.

CLAIM OF CAUSE: GUN CONTROL

Tougher laws governing the sale of handguns would result in a decrease in the number of homicides each year.This argument would seek to establish a link between difficulty in obtaining a handgun and a drop in the homicide rate. It will use statistics, facts, and analogies from other places where similar things have been done.

Five Categories of Claims

CLAIM OF VALUE: GUN CONTROL

The right to bear arms is still an important civil right in the United States.This argument will appeal to people’s sense of the value of gun ownership. It will probably appeal to authorities, such as the Constitution, to history, and to long-held customs.

Claims of VALUE: Is it good or bad? Beneficial or harmful? Moral or immoral? Who says so? What do these people value? What value system will b used to judge?• Doctor-assisted suicide is immoral.• Violent computer games are detrimental to children’s social development.• The Simpsons is not a bad show for young people to watch.• Dancing is good, clean fun.

Five Categories of Claims

CLAIM OF POLICY: GUN CONTROLThe sale of assault weapons in the United States should be banned.This argument will use a variety of motivational appeals and value proofs, analogies, facts and statistics cause and effect arguments, and appeals to authorities to provide that this is a favorable course of action.

Claims of POLICY: What should I do? How are we to act? What policy should we take? What course of action should we take to solve this problem?• We should spend less on the prison systems and more on early intervention programs.• The State of Oklahoma should issue vouchers for parents to fund their children’s

education.• Every person in the United States should have access to federally-funded health

insurance.

Now You Try It!

BE PREPARED TO SHARE EACH OF THE FOLLOWING:

With a partner – I’ll assign you a claim type.Compose a claim for each that relates to your discipline. Be sure to identify the evidence you’d expect to need to support this claim.

On your own:Compose a claim for your own research. Identify the type of claim as well as the evidence you’d need to support this claim.

Determining Acceptable Evidence

Different subject areas and audiences• Literature course may require quotations

from text as evidence• Science course may accept experimental

results/research from scientific journals• History course may accept primary sources,

certain academic Websites, and a list of approved books

• Project dealing with social issue may permit survey results, interviews, approved Websites, and certain books

• Audience is important to consider when determining the “best” evidence to use

• What is important to a teen may be different from that of a politician or doctor.

Determining Acceptable Evidence

Other Questions to Consider• What is the lowest acceptable source for

evidence? Where will you set the bar?• Should students consider all evidence – even

poor evidence – or will their be a minimum threshold for quality?

• What is the highest or most desirable source for evidence?

• Do you expect direct quotes or summaries of the evidence?

• How do you want the source cited?• Is there a minimum number of supporting

and/or opposing pieces of evidence?

References

Batey, A., Pllard, J., Shott, S., and Yost, J., (2005). Intel ® Teach to the Future Workshop on Teaching Thinking with Technology. Intel Corporation.

Thinking Tools with Technology

Toulmin's Analysis

Wood, N., Perspectives on Argument, 2nd ed., pp. 161-72.Swadley, Charles. “Argumentation.”