City Branding of Hong Kong - Imagineering Authenticity 2011

8/18/2019 City Branding of Hong Kong - Imagineering Authenticity 2011

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Stockholm University School of Business

106 91 Stockholm

Telephone: +46 (0)8 16 20 00

www.fek.su.se

City Branding of Hong Kong –

Imagineering Authenticity

Christina König


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Abstract

Skepticism is increasingly becoming a part of people’s initial reaction toward place brands.The phenomenon is explored by addressing authenticity, which is considered to increase brandvalue. Viewed through the relation of building credible reputation as a causal effect of built-uplegitimacy, the argument is that rather than focusing on credibility and legitimacy, city

branding is more about effectively managing expectations. The dissertation concludes with theconcept of imagineering authenticity, which refers to the process of signifying andsymbolising the potential imagination of different audiences’ expectations.

Keywords

Place branding, City branding, Credibility, Legitimacy, Authenticity


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Acknowledgments

My interest in the multidisciplinary nature of city branding was one of the main reasons forchoosing it as the topic of my thesis. I found it especially interesting to apply to the case ofHong Kong due to my fascination with its dynamic mix of East-meets-West, as well as its

political status, which add extra dimensions to the complexity of a city.

I would like to thank my supervisor Professor Per-Olof Berg for his guidance and supportthroughout the thesis. Moreover, my thanks are also extended to my peer review group, EmmaGustafsson, Andrea Lucarelli, and my fellow students for their constructive feedback.

My sincere gratitude goes to all the interviewees for their time and willingness to sharevaluable information and knowledge of their respective fields.

Finally, special thanks go to Dana Bensimon, Andrew Merrie, and Tomas Rosén for theirencouragement and support, as well as my family, for believing in me.

Stockholm, May 2011.Christina König


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Table of Contents

1. Introduction ............................................................................................ 71.1 Problem formulation ...............................................................................................7

1.2 Case Introduction: “Hong Kong- Asia’s world city”..............................................8

1.3 Change of Focus......................................................................................................8

1.4 Aim and Research Questions ..................................................................................9

1.5 Method in Brief .......................................................................................................9

2. Literature review.................................................................................. 10

2.1 Branding Applied to Places...................................................................................102.2 From Product- and Corporate Brands to Place Branding......................................11

2.3 From Place Branding and Destination Branding to City Branding.......................11

2.4 Skeptical Audiences & Credibility in Place Branding..........................................12

2.5 Authenticity in Place- and City Branding .............................................................14

2.6 Summary ...............................................................................................................14

3. Theoretical Framework ....................................................................... 15

3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................153.2 Credibility .............................................................................................................15

3.3 Legitimacy.............................................................................................................16

3.4 Communication & Appropriation .........................................................................16

3.5 Authenticity...........................................................................................................17

3.6 Conceptualisation of Authenticity in light of skeptical audiences........................17

4. Methodology ......................................................................................... 19

4.1 Introduction – Data Collection – Textual Research – Field Study .......................194.2 Interviewees and Verbal Sources ..........................................................................20

4.3 Data Analysis Approach .......................................................................................21

4.4 Trustworthiness & Limitation ...............................................................................21


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5. Empirical Results ................................................................................. 23

5.1 Introduction to BrandHK ......................................................................................23

5.1.1 History of Branding Hong Kong....................................................................23

5.1.2 Place of Opportunity, where East-meets-West ..............................................23

5.1.3 Pearl of the Orient ..........................................................................................24

5.1.4 Connecting Hub & Gateway to China ...........................................................25

5.2 BrandHK Campaign & Context ............................................................................25

5.2.1 Branding Campaign: Asia’s World City ........................................................25

5.2.2 Context of BrandHK ......................................................................................27

5.3 BrandHK’s Positioning as Asia’s World City ......................................................28

5.3.1 Brand Attributes .............................................................................................28

5.3.2 Brand Core Values .........................................................................................29

5.4 Objective of BrandHK ..........................................................................................32

5.5 Visual Identity ...................................................................................................33

5.6 Brand Governance.................................................................................................34

5.6.1 BrandHK Management ..................................................................................34

5.6.2 BrandHK Management Cooperations ............................................................34

5.7 Target Groups........................................................................................................35

6. Analysis ................................................................................................. 37

6.1 Credibility .............................................................................................................37

6.1.1 ‘Secure’ and ‘Connected’...............................................................................37

6.1.2 ‘Diverse’ & ‘Cosmopolitan’ ..........................................................................37

6.1.3 ‘Quality Living’ .............................................................................................38

6.1.4 Credibility in Light of Skeptical Audiences...................................................39

6.2. Legitimacy............................................................................................................39

6.2.1 Creating and Revitalising BrandHK ..............................................................39

6.2.2 BrandHK Governance....................................................................................40

6.3 Communication & Appropriation .........................................................................41

6.4 Authenticity...........................................................................................................42

7. Discussion & Conclusion ..................................................................... 43

8. References ............................................................................................. 46

Appendices ..................................................................................... 52 - 55


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List of Figures

Figure 3.1 Conceptual Theoretical Model ..............................................................18

Figure 5.1 Colonial Emblem of Hong Kong...........................................................24

Figure 5.2 BrandHK Attributes...............................................................................28

Figure 5.3 BrandHK Core Values...........................................................................30

Figure 5.4a BrandHK Logo Comparison..................................................................33

Figure 5.4b BrandHK Logo Writing .........................................................................33

Figure 5.5 Faces of Hong Kong ..............................................................................35

Figure 6.1 Octopus Card .........................................................................................38


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1 Introduction __________________________________________________________________________

This chapter will introduce the research of the thesis together with the background outliningthe field of study. A gap in current theory will be established, along with justification for the

research and a brief explanation of the methodology.

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Government authorities may have different objectives to actively market and brand their cities,regions and nations. However, it has been acknowledged that there are increased pressures tocompete in the global market for investors, talent and the cosmopolitan elite (Anholt 2007). Inthis context, cities are increasingly making use of place branding techniques, especially inlight of them being considered “the key centres of human activity and the engines of economicgrowth in the world today” (Ratcliffe & Krawczyk 2004). More than half of the world’s

population lives in cities as a result of rapid transformations through technological change,globalisation and cultural shifts, among others (Ratcliffe & Krawczyk 2004).

City branding is thus considered to be a strategy to increase competitive advantage, by providing them with an image, a source of economic value, political and cultural significance,and spur socio-economic development (e.g. Kavaratzis 2004). The main aim is to attract moreinward investments, potential residents, and tourists, along with community development andthe reinforcement of local identity (Kavaratzis 2004).

1.1 Problem Formulation“Sydney- there’s no place in the world like Sydney”, “Stockholm- The Capital ofScandinavia”, “Johannesburg- a world class African city”, “Hong Kong - Asia’s world city”;

these are just a few examples of city branding. The city slogans reflect that they are trying tofind a niche and differentiate their brands. Hence, in contemporary society, the dominantimage of a city in people’s minds, “in terms of historical narrative, personalities, buildings,companies, etc. […] is normally […] influenced by commercial actors, reinforced by mediatedsigns” (Jansson 2003: 463). In this respect, the “symbolic refueling” (Jansson 2003: 463) ofthe city is made up in large part of the continuous labour of professional image-makers. Thegeneral public may therefore be skeptical of the credibility of the claims of the brands, as it“generally thinks of PR professionals as untrustworthy” (Merkelsen 2011: 133). Ooi &Strandgard Pedersen (2010) argue that “the place brand will be less legitimate”, especiallywithout the backing of the local audience.

It can be inferred that branding depends on “patterns of social interaction that are not only beyond its control, but the autonomy of which is crucial to the authenticity of the brand”(Hornskov 2007). How a commercially created city image develops “and how different groupsexperience it, depend upon the activities of social actors as well as systemic forces” (Jansson2003: 464). Moreover, even while the dominant city image may be supported and “foundedupon alliances between political, cultural and economic actors, alternative and oppositionalgroupings are always challenging such points of view” (Jansson 2003: 464). Although

branding “aims to balance social forces with communicational strategies (Lury 2004, as citedin Hornskov 2007: 318), “it often fails to recognise the potential and challenges of these socialforces” (Hornskov 2007: 318). Therefore, the main issue in city branding may not just becommunication; a potential problem is how to make audiences believe that the brand claims

are credible and legitimate.


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1.2 Case Introduction: “Hong Kong – Asia’s world city”Having established that a potential problem with city branding could be the skepticism ofaudiences, especially in light of the credibility, legitimacy and authenticity of the brandclaims, the case of Hong Kong provides an illustrative example. Originally launched in 2001as “Hong Kong - Asia’s world city”, the brand was again revitalised in 2010 with a new logoand platform to engage more with local residents.

From its inception until presently with the re-adjustments, criticism has been voicedthroughout, mainly from the midst of the local public. This became especially clear afterconducting field research in Hong Kong and talking to members of the local Hong KongChinese population, who expressed criticism related to the brand with regard to its focus onoverseas audiences or the claim to be a world city, to name a few.

In light of the above, there are several reasons why Hong Kong is an appropriate case to studyin the context of ‘challenged cities’. First of all, the ambiguous cultural identity and politicalstatus of Hong Kong, as it had to redefine its identity from a British colony to fit in a GreaterChina context, provides fertile ground to contest the brand credibility claims. While there areother places which underwent de-colonisation, such as Singapore or Macao, Hong Kong’scase is unique in the sense that it has been considered one of the main financial hubs in theworld after London and New York. Yet with the rise of other Chinese cities, such as Shanghaiand Shenzhen, it is exposed to the risk of losing significance and sustainability of its brand.Secondly, there are critics among the local community who disagree with Hong Kong’s worldcity status and/or the overcommercialisation of its identity, which seems to be catering largelyto foreigners. According to a number of scholars, brand steerers should ensure that the brandreflects its reality to some extent to gain the audience’s trust. Moreover, it is also important togain the buy-in of local stakeholders for the success and sustainability of a place brand, or elseit could result in the undermining of the brand to external audiences. Finally, two recent case

studies on Hong Kong examine the city branding through the world city paradigm (Flowerdew2004; Shen 2010), rather than considering the brand authenticity perspective.

Due to these reasons and the fact that most studies about brand authenticity have been made intourism literature, it is of interest to study the case of Hong Kong in terms of brandauthenticity from a city branding perspective.

1.3 Change of FocusHaving initially researched the digital footprint of Hong Kong by studying the official brandwebsite as well as organisations officially using the brand, the impression conveyed was that

of a well orchestrated and highly controlled communication strategy. For this reason, theinitial purpose was to examine what symbols and other materials are being provided to localstakeholders in appropriating the identity, which Hong Kong brand authorities are trying tocommunicate. However, after conducting interviews during the field study and informallyasking Hong Kong residents about their views on the city brand, it became clear that despitethe consistent communication, there is still ambiguity and doubt. This was reflected to theextent that most of the questioned members of the expat community regarded Hong Kong asan international place and a world city, whereas most local Hong Kong Chinese respondentsdid not see it that way and perceived Tokyo, among others, to be more of an Asian world city.

The mixed reactions within Hong Kong, which put the credibility of the brand in doubt was

interesting and seemed a more appropriate focus, rather than the communication process


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alone. The latter would have been based on the assumption that local stakeholdersunconditionally accept the brand propositions and appropriate it through the symbols provided

by brand steerers. Therefore, the focus changed to examine the phenomena of ‘challengedcities’, concentrating on the case of Hong Kong.

1.4 Aim & Research Questions

The aim of this dissertation is to conceptualise authenticity in city branding by focusing on theconcepts of credibility and legitimacy, facing skeptical audiences. The following researchquestions arise in this context:

- How do the legitimacy and credibility of city brands influence the perception of authenticityin light of skeptical audiences?

- How can city brand authorities convince audiences about the authenticity of the brand?

1.5 Method in BriefThe examination of the city branding of Hong Kong will mainly be based on anethnographically-inspired field study on site, since it allows for “applying multiple datacollection methods at a single phenomenon” (Goulding 2005: 299). Interviews with twelve

persons were conducted and empirical data gathered in order to “derive concepts, themes, or amodel” (Thomas 2006: 238) for the theoretical framework. The discussion will aim to connectwith the literature review, theoretical framework and analysis.

The following section will provide a theoretical foundation of the topic to be investigated, witha review of relevant place- and city branding literature. The focus will be on credibility,legitimacy and authenticity, in light of skeptical audiences.


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2 Literature Review ____________________________________________________________________The literature review acknowledges recent developments in city branding and serves toidentify literature gaps and to justify the focus of this dissertation. First, general branding

concepts will be introduced which will form the backbone of city branding theory. Thereafterrelevant and existing place- and destination branding literature will be reviewed, in order to

focus on the recent developments in city branding. The focus will be narrowed down tocredibility and authenticity in light of skeptical audiences. In doing so, the review justifies thetheoretical foundation for the dissertation.

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2.1 Branding Applied to Places Place branding theory is mainly founded on the successful application to products andcorporations (Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2005). The American Marketing Association (2011)defines a brand as “a customer experience represented by a collection of images and ideas;often, it refers to a symbol such as a name, logo, slogan, and design scheme”. Hence, the

concept of a brand generally refers to the recognition of a name, including the reputationaffiliated with the promise of authenticity and quality, and the differentiation to other productofferings in a competitive market (Anholt 2007).

The advantage of creating and maintaining a place brand is that it can be used as a means fordifferentiation in a global competitive environment, to stakeholders both visiting and livingthere. The place brand identity can be visually and verbally communicated to stakeholdersthrough a logo and advertisements; for instance, the city brand name New York is expressed inthe logo and slogan “I ! NY”. Another advantage of applying branding concepts to places isthat it could facilitate reputation building and boost their brand equity. A brand is thus morethan a static component.

A place brand may be equivalent to the identity of the location itself (Kavaratzis & Ashworth2005; Ooi 2010). Since the image of a place brand is formed as a collection of associations inthe audience’s minds (Hankinson 2004; Anholt 2007; Moilanen & Rainisto 2009), it may notalways coincide with the actual place identity. Through the conceptualisation of brandrelationships (e.g. Hankinson 2004), the place brand can deliver emotional aspects tostakeholders through its behaviour, e.g. “event-based strategies”, [...] mega-events and culturalregeneration” (Kavaratzis 2004).

Hence, “place branding, reflects the growing interest in the ways that communities, cities,regions and countries market their entity” (Merrilees et al. 2009: 362). They can thus “act as

umbrella brands for a portfolio of leisure, investment and business tourism, and stakeholderand citizen welfare products” (Trueman et al. 2004). However, Freire (2005, as cited in Freire2009) goes so far as to argue that “places [...] ‘will function as a brand even if not managedunder a branding conceptual framework’ ” (p. 420) because they are embedded with meaning;a view echoed by Codato & Franco (2006). For instance, for some place brands, such asLondon or Paris, which do not have an officially created brand, most people still recognisetheir names and have formed certain images and associations around them.


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2.2 From Product- and Corporate Brands to Place Branding There is a general consensus that concepts of place branding are grounded in corporate

branding and general marketing concepts which have been adapted for the purpose (Freire2009; Hankinson 2001, 2004 & 2007; Kotler & Gertner 2002; Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2005 &2007; Kavaratzis 2004; Morgan et al. 2002; Trueman et al. 2004).

Product branding can be applied to place branding because it has tangible and intangible

components, relies on services, and can be positioned through slogans (Caldwell & Freire2004; Hall 2007; Matson 1994; Murphy et al. 2000; Pike 2005). However, since it is mainlyshort-term oriented and does not address a multitude of stakeholders, corporate brands areconsidered to resemble place brands more (Hankinson 2007; Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2007;Kavaratzis 2004; Hankinson 2007; Parkerson 2007; Parkerson & Saunders 2005). This is

because corporate branding captures the complexity of place brands in terms of multipleidentities, the multitude of stakeholder groups, and long-term development (Kavaratzis &Ashworth 2007), as well as stimulating “associations with heritage and articulate strategicvisions of what is to come” (Olins 1989, as cited in Hatch & Schultz 2003: 1045).

However, since both product and place branding capture different characteristics of place branding, it is appropriate to consider aspects of both in place branding, instead of mutuallyexcluding them. Rather, one could think of a place brand as “the whole entity of the place

products, in order to achieve consistency in the message sent” (Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2005:512). Thus, lessons can be drawn from both in terms of identity, differentiation, relationship

building, communications, and strategy (Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2005; Trueman et al. 2004). By applying these concepts to place brands, brand authorities can also makes use of selective

brand stories to reflect their desired positioning and communicate with stakeholders, thusincreasing credibility (Beverland 2005; Huang 2010; Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2005; Kavaratzis2004).

2.3 From Place Branding and Destination Branding to City Branding Since place branding is a relatively new and growing area (Hankinson 2001; Caldwell &Freire 2004; Hanna & Rowley 2008; Skinner 2008; Freire 2009), there is little clarity oragreement about the terminology or definitions (Anholt 2004). Moreover an apparent lack ofempirical research remains (Caldwell & Freire 2004).

Anholt (2004, cited in Kerr 2006) defines place branding as “the practice of applying brandstrategy and other marketing techniques and disciplines to the economic, social, political andcultural developments of cities, regions and countries” (p. 278 ). A ‘place’ signifies “towns,cities, regions and countries (or nations)” (Rowley & Hanna 2008: 69). Since place branding

“emphasises the marketing and branding of cities to the residents (and potential residents) as a place to live, and to businesses as a place to invest” (Merrilees et al. 2009: 362), it is mainlyused in branding and business (Rowley & Hanna 2008). The focus in destination branding ison the tourist perspective, as it selectively identifies chief image attributes “with a short time-horizon in mind”, thus it is primarily used in tourism literature (Rowley & Hanna 2008;Merrilees et al. 2009).

The usage of the two aforementioned terms may imply their focus, but it does not mean thatthey must necessarily be mutually exclusive. For instance, place branding to local stakeholdersmay lead to its transformation, which may in turn affect the destination branding to tourists.Hence, these areas are in some ways overlapping. For this reason, a city can be considered

both a place and a destination, as long as the focus is made clear.


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To clarify, city branding is about identifying a set of brand attributes that the city has in orderto form a basis from which to generate positive perceptions across multiple audiences (Dinnie2010: 4). Thus, the following definition will be adopted: City branding is “the purposefulsymbolic embodiment of all information connected to a city in order to create associations andexpectations around it” (Berg 2009). To this extent, it deals with “the process of ensuring thatthe generated expectations in actual and potential city users’ minds are met in the way they

experience the city” (Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2007: 528). Promotion activities andcommunication influence these expectations, which will feed back to people’s own ‘internalcity’ image (Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2007).

There are different goals for city branding: “it selectively frames the city, it asserts a uniqueidentity for the place and it provides a set of lenses for people to understand and interpret thecity” (Ooi & Strandgard Pedersen 2010: 327). Consequently, mobilising and gaining localsupport, public-private collaborations and engaging with international audiences areconsidered to be important in the branding process (Ooi & Strandgaard Pedersen 2010).Stakeholders may include “residents, industry players, local government, central governmentand the branding authorities” (Ooi & Strandgaard Pedersen 2010: 317). Researchers advocate

that stakeholder support is crucial in successful city branding (Ooi & Strandgaard Pedersen2010).

!"#$"%$#& (" )*+, #$-$%*,( .(*/$0"-1$#2. .344"#(& Kavaratzis (2008) stresses the importanceof a communication framework to the city branding process in effectively communicating theimage and achieving the overall city brand vision. Along the lines, Trueman et al. (2004) agreethat perceptions can be enhanced and influenced through clearer communications. Citiesshould thus effectively communicate what they are ‘doing’ in order to gain community buy-inand trust with all who are involved in the brand development” (Kavaratzis 2008; Underwood& Fray 2008). Therefore, “the desired image must be close to reality, believable, simple,appealing and distinctive” (Kotler & Gertner 2002: 47). Hence, solely providing information isnot adequate. Many scholars agree that the brand story should accurately reflect the place’sculture and reality (Hankinson 2004 & 2009; Kavaratzis 2009; Kavaratzis & Ashworth 2005;Morgan et al. 2004). According to Kavaratzis (2004), “promotion comes only after one hassomething to promote” (p.69), or else a brand may run into the risk of communicating anempty image to stakeholders.

Furthermore, since everyone has different experiences and is shaped by their respective backgrounds, communicating a city’s image happens on different levels, which Graham(2002) refers to as the ‘internal city’ (Graham 2002, cited in Kavaratzis 2004: 62-63).Therefore, “two-way symmetrical communication” plays a major role in aiding the

communications, taking charge of engagement with stakeholders, and gaining trust (Toth2007: 36).

Yet one of the main criticisms with regard to city branding is that it reduces the multifacetedcharacteristics and internal contradictions to a simplified image (Philo & Kearns 1993).

2.4 Skeptical Audiences & Credibility in Place- and City BrandingAs stated, a large part of the branding process takes place in people’s minds, as they interpretthe brand through a personal lense, thus place brands may face skepticism. While notexplicitly stated, skeptical audiences make an appearance in a number of case studies.


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Trueman et al. (2004) investigate the rebranding exercise of Northern English city Bradford, pointing out how conflicting branding messages in the government policy faces localstakeholders’ skepticism, which can weaken the brand. The authors advocate the importanceof brand honesty, which is “grounded in stakeholder perceptions of reality or ‘socialexpectation’ ”(Grof 2001, cited in Trueman et al. 2004: 328). Moreover, the view that aconsultation with stakeholders has to take place is echoed by “many researchers in place

branding literature” (Ooi & Strandgard Pedersen 2010: 329), which could then facilitate the

communication of brand reality. According to this line of thought, this could bring about the backing of local stakeholders, which is needed, in order to achieve a knock-on effect in promoting the city to external audiences (e.g. Freire 2009). However, it can be assumed thatreaching general consensus through consultation can be affected by the audiences’ skepticismof the place brand.

Atkinson et al.’s study on the British city of Hull (2002) shows that “applying abstract theoriesof image-creation often proves contentious and contested on the ground” (p. 29). This isreflected in the skepticism of local audiences whose collective memory is rooted in a fishingheritage. Whereas in contrast, the City Council’s attempts to revise Hull’s image as a post-industrial, pioneering city in order to attract investors, businesses and tourists. Partly due to the

differences in collective memory, stakeholders question the rationale and objectives behind thecity brand and the potential of its success. Fijalkow (2010) echoes similar concerns in a casestudy on Paris, arguing that municipalities need to address and be in line with local collectivememory in order to develop urban projects successfully.

In the context of skeptic audiences “the credibility of the storyteller is important” (Bergqvist2009: 60). Enhancing the credibility of a place brand is given with the example of Nässjö, asmall region in Southern Sweden. In order to enhance and sustain the notion that the regionsupports and facilitates businesses, it uses “ ‘success stories’ of previous establishments in theregion, and by highlighting positive statements made by top-level managers within business”,as well as using a “supplementary communication channel” of “personal and informalcontacts” (Bergqvist 2009: 60, 65). Although Bergqvist (2009) believes in a well-balancedmix of the factual, logistical and emotional in order to credibly communicate the “distinctivevalue proposition”, the appeal of the place image itself is based on rationality and credibility(Kotler 200, cited in Bergqvist 2009: 65).

It has also been argued by scholars and practitioners that policies which support the brandingexercise and “have a tangible impact on how local people and visitors experience the city”need to be in place to ensure credibility and sustainability of the place brand (Bianchini &Brookes 2006: 288-289; Trueman et al. 2004). For instance, the New Zealand governmentestablished policies to promote the country as a destination and film location with investments

and tax incentives, in order to attract foreign film productions and creative talents, thussupporting the 100% Pure New Zealand branding campaign (Jones & Smith 2005).

While there seems to be a general consensus that a place brand should to some extent begrounded in reality, it is debatable that its image appeals through rationality and credibilityonly, as argued by Bergqvist (2009). Hankinson (2004) may shed further light into thediscussion with his argument that brands can be conceptualised as relationships analogous tothe relationship between two people, based on the idea of brand personality (Aaker 1997). It“widens the focus of branding activities beyond communications to include behaviours, afocus of considerable relevance to place branding” (Hankinson 2004: 112). Hence theemotional appeal of place brands is important to acknowledge, especially when it comes to

gaining local stakeholder support; e.g. national pride is a part of it and charged with emotions.


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This is demonstrated by the fact that “direct experience and personal recommendations areoften cited as the most credible sources of information” (Sussmann and Ünel 1999, cited inMcCartney et al. 2008: 185), which also shows that the formation of an image is not purelyrational or free from emotion.

2.5 Authenticity in Place- and City BrandingAlthough authenticity is an often discussed and established concept in tourism literature (seee.g. Belhassen et al. 2008; Bruner 1991; Cohen 1988; Cole 2007; Harkin 1995; Pearce &Moscardo 1986; Redfoot 1984; Taylor 2001; Wang 1999, etc.), the author did not come acrossmany articles or case studies in extensively treating authenticity within city branding.

While the primary motivation for travel in tourism literature lies in a quest for authenticity(MacCannell 1976, as cited in Taylor 2001: 13), most discussions on authenticity in place orcity branding revolve around management challenges of perceptions and holism, spaceappropriation, communications, and urban conservation (Campelo et al. 2011; Hornskov 2007;Jansson 2003; Jivén & Larkham 2003; Ooi 2008). In both streams, authenticity discourses also

focus on the uniqueness and place identity, often in a historical or cultural context (Condevaux2009; Jivén & Larkham 2003, Jones & Smith 2005; Taylor 2001).

Some lessons drawn in tourism literature about authenticity can also be applied to city branding. Authenticity is regarded as being defined by the expectations and stereotypedimages of audiences (Bruner 1991 ; Silver 1993 ; Wang 1999). It shows that authenticity can

be understood as socially constructed from a more subjective, abstract perspective (see e.g.Condevaux 2009; Kim & Jamal 2007 Taylor 2001; Wang 1999).

Borgerson & Schroeder (2002) further argue that communications is about authenticity andreinforcing the legitimacy and identity of the place by expressing something “true or essential

about those represented” (as cited in Campelo et al 2011: 31).

2.6 SummaryFrom the literature review it can be gathered that the problem of dealing with skepticalaudiences does not necessarily only lie in communication issues. Skepticism seems to occur inconnection with doubts related to a credible reputation, when generated expectations divergefrom the actual place experience and when legitimacy is put in question which underminescredibility. This seems to be directly connected with the perceived brand authenticity of a

place. However, the literature does not clarify the relations between credibility, legitimacy andauthenticity in light of skeptical audiences, which can lead to brand tensions. In the following,

a theoretical framework will be conceptualised to address this problem.


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3 Theoretical Framework __________________________________________________________________________

The aim in this section is to adopt a conceptual framework, through which it can beunderstood how brand authorities try to convince skeptical audiences of the authenticity of

their brand. __________________________________________________________________________

3.1 IntroductionThe concept of credibility is adopted in the theoretical framework because “brands are built oncredibility” and it is considered to be “a fundamental asset for persons, organisations, political

parties, products or media in reaching their goals” (Maathuis et al. 2004: 340). Brandingliterature acknowledges that credibility helps “deactivate suspicious judgements about the

brand” (Varadarajan & Menon 1988; Trimble & Rifon 2006, cited in Bigne et al. 2009: 437). Moreover, credibility has also been related to “the context of organisational legitimacy” inmanagement literature (Maathuis et al. 2004: 334), which Greyser (2003) considers to be animportant concept within behavioural relationships of organisations, in this case, therelationship between BrandHK and its audiences. In this regard, the communication and‘appropriation’ of the brand are also considered in the theoretical framework, with theobjective being to understand how brand expectations based on credibility and legitimacy areinfluenced through communication, and thus appropriated by audiences. Managing theseexpectations takes a major part in the perception of brand authenticity, which will act as thered thread of the thesis.

Hence, this section will outline a conceptual framework to understand the relations betweenauthenticity, legitimacy and credibility, and how they are appropriated by audiences through

brand communication.

3.2 CredibilityHerbig & Milewicz define credibility as “the believability of an entity’s intentions at a

particular moment in time” (p. 26). It means that credibility can change over time for the betteror the worse, as it is based upon intentions and actions which may “confirm or disconfirm” thevalues the entity stands for (Herbig & Milewicz 2009).

According to Sobel (1985, as cited in Herbig & Milewicz 2009: 26), credibility has to exist“before the message or action to have any significant effects”. This can be achieved by firstdeveloping the reputation (Herbig& Milewicz 2009), which can be understood as “a historicalnotion based on the sum of the past behaviours”, while credibility is focused on the current

intention. Reputation differs from credibility in the sense that it can arise regardless of whetherthe actions send mixed signals – “saying one thing while doing another” (Herbig & Milewicz2009: 27). Inconsistent signals cause the entity not to have a reputation at all, since it is next toimpossible for audiences to interpret anything behind them. Moreover, when “actions and

pronouncements are inconsistent” credibility decreases and the future reputation is eroded(Herbig & Milewicz 2009: 27). However, if signals, such as actions with the messages and

past actions are consistent, it may lead to a good reputation, and credibility thus increases(Herbig & Milewicz 2009).

The credibility of brand communication is primarily defined by “believability, fairness andcompleteness” (Gordon 1982). Audiences base their evaluation of the entity’s signals and

behaviour on source credibility, advertising credibility, content credibility, and media


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credibility (Bigne-Alcaniz et al. 2009; Herbig & Milewicz 2009); the more persuasive, thehigher the credibility is (Herbig & Milewicz 2009). This implies that source credibility is thus

perception-based which means that messages themselves may not possess credibility. Itdepends on the audiences’ perceptions.

3.3 Legitimacy

In corporate branding literature, organisational legitimacy has been defined as the “congruence between social values and organisational actions” (Greyser 2003: 159); in the case of HongKong’s city branding, it refers to the administration’s policies and actions which support its

brand within the social context. Achieving legitimacy is essential because audiences will perceive the brand steerers “as more worthy, [...] more meaningful, more predictable, andmore trustworthy (Suchman 1995, as cited in Merkelsen 2011: 127). It also serves as “areservoir of continuously confirmed positive expectations that build up trust”, thus a “lack oftrust is often a symptom of underlying legitimacy problems” (Merkelsen 2011: 127).

However, legitimacy is not only related to trust, but it has also been recognised as “ageneralised perception or assumption that the actions of an entity are desirable, proper, orappropriate within some socially constructed system of norms, values, beliefs, and definitions(Suchman 1995, as cited in Merkelsen 2011: 127). Black (2008) stresses that legitimacy is“rooted in the acceptability and credibility of the organisation to those it seeks to govern”(p.144). This shows that while legitimacy and credibility are to some extent causally related and

perception-based, they are conceptually distinct.

Moreover, since legitimacy “always involves other people’s perceptions”, it is “essentiallyrelational” (Merkelsen 2011: 131). Hence, the audiences’ perception of legitimacy is “largelydependent on the construction, communication and management of the city’s image”(Kavaratzis 2004: 54). It is partly achieved through the use of “classifications, routines, scripts

and schemas, much of which is derived from the day-to-day interaction in which societymembers construct mutually shared impressions” (Beverland, 2005: 1005). Black (2008)suggests that in order to gain support from different legitimacy communities, which havedifferent legitimacy demands, actions should be tailored to gain their support.

3.4 Communication & AppropriationUntil this point, it has been demonstrated that effective brand communication depends ondifferent types of credibility (Bigne-Alcaniz et al. 2009; Gordon 1982; Herbig & Milewicz2009), and the brand communication influences the audience’s perception of legitimacy(Kavaratzis 2004). In a conceptual model devised for place brands, Hankinson (2003)

underlines the importance of communication and stakeholder relationships among others.

The process, in which audiences ‘receive’ the brand communication sent by city brand steerersand thus interact with the city brand, can be viewed from the appropriation lense.Appropriation has been used in different fields of research, including consumer culture theory,management, and social science, to understand the interaction between people and physicalobjects, places, or ideas (Bonnin 2006). In the context of this dissertation, appropriation will

be adopted as a concept “to understand the relationship between people and theirenvironment” (Bonnin 2006: 53). Fischer (1981, as cited in Bonnin, 2006: 52-53) “definesappropriation as a system of empowerment on places which includes the types of action on theenvironment that result in possession and attachment relationships”. Attachment relationships

in this case can be explained through place attachment theory, which refers to “the bonding of


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people to places” (Altman & Low 1992: 2). Simply explained, the branding activities andmeaning prescribed to Hong Kong as Asia’s world city by brand steerers, aim to influenceaudiences into appropriating the same meaning to Hong Kong and applying it to their owncontexts. Appropriation is thus linked to the way the city brand is communicated, as well ashow the relationship with audiences is developed by brand steerers.

3.5 AuthenticityIt has been recognised that for brand steerers to succeed in getting audiences to appropriate thecity brand through communication in the way they intended, credibility and legitimacy need to

be in place first. Credibility can be built through a good reputation, and legitimacy can be seenas a repository of ‘fulfilled positive expectations’ that are built on trust. More importantly, theappropriation process also depends on managing the expectations of audiences. If audienceexpectations do not match the brand promises, it may lead to distrust and skepticism. A furtherconcept here is necessary to delve deeper than a consideration of brand credibility andlegitimacy. In this respect, authenticity should be considered, as it goes beyond simplyinterpreting whether something can be trusted or not (Blackshaw 2008).

Blackshaw (2008) points out that a symbiotic relationship between trust and authenticity arises because people trust brands that come across as real and sincere. “The term ‘authentic’ isderived from the Latin Authenticus and Greek Authentikas’ and means ‘worthy of acceptance,authoritative, trustworthy, not imaginary, false or imitation, conforming to an original’ ”(Cappanelli & Cappanelli 2004, as cited in Beverland 2009: 1005).

Communications are built on “a notion of authenticity: of organisations, of products, ofservices, and in relationships with customers”, because “there is a lot to gain” through “gettingauthenticity right”, such as ensuring the continuance of a loyal, trusting audience (Edwards2010: 192- 193). For this reason, it is not enough to assume that city brand steerers only drive

a brand with the help of a credible, established reputation and legitimacy. Being“commercially authentic” means to tap into the “geist” of a particular group of people so thatclaims which are made are accepted and trusted by target audiences” (Fachet 2009, as cited inEdwards 2010). In this sense, it has to be ensured that the brand is authentic in the context ofthe lived experience of the city.

While authenticity is not an attribute inherent in an object (Grayson & Martinec 2004), it “is better understood as an assessment made by a particular evaluator in a particular context”(Bruner 1994; Cohen 1988; DeLyser 1999; Grayson & Martinez 2004; Haslam 1985); in thiscase, the targeted audiences of the city brand. This implies that indicators can beconceptualised as subjective experiences, rather than objective realities (Merell 1995). To this

extent, authenticity is a construct, which can make a person, situation, brand or object seemoriginal, real and contextualised (Beverland 2006). Thus, authenticity is “a contrivance ratherthan a reality” (Brown et al. 2003: 553). It is “a claim that is made by or for someone,something, or performance and either accepted or rejected by relevant others” (Peterson 2005:1086).

3.6. Conceptualisation of Authenticity in light of skeptical audiencesIn order to conceptualise the theoretical framework, it will be attempted to link theaforementioned concepts in terms of their relations.

Blackshaw (2008) regards authenticity as “an especially important driver of credibility” (p.


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52). Edwards (2010) argues that one of the usages for authenticity is that as a “sales tool”,especially for marketing communications and reputation management, and thus credibility andlegitimacy. This is due to “the positive feelings associated with being authentic [...]”, which iswhy “communicators regularly attempt to associate authenticity with brands, products andorganisations as part of their promotional and image management strategies” (Edwards 2010:196). However, one should be careful in considering the object of a sales tool as authentic.Rather, authenticity can be thought of as the filtering lense of the brand communication, which

influences perceptions. As Formbrun and Van Riel (2004, as cited in Edwards 2010: 198)assert:

“The public appreciates authenticity, and to be well regarded, you can’t fake itfor long – you’ve got to be real. Authenticity creates emotional appeal, andthere’s no reputation building without emotional appeal”

Thus, one could think of authenticity as the subjective, emotional filter through whichaudiences evaluate whether consistent past actions and behaviours accumulate to a crediblereputation in the present. Moreover, to link to the previous discussion on credibility, if pastactions are perceived to be inconsistent, there may not be a hook on the emotional appeal of

authenticity, and future credible reputation may erode.

At first glance, the concepts of authenticity and legitimacy seem to be on opposing dimensionsof a spectrum. Legitimacy represents social integration and schematic order, while authenticityseems more focused on individual transcendence. Yet one can find overlapping features inthese dynamics. While the perception of legitimacy is based more on reason and mutuallyshared impressions, authenticity can be thought of as moving past them toward a morespiritual dimension.

Consequently, the following model conceptualises the relations between credibility,authenticity and legitimacy:

Figure 3.1

Authenticity resides where credibility and legitimacy intersect. The three of them togethermake up one aspect of the brand experience. On the one hand, the emotional filter ofauthenticity evaluates whether behaviours account for a credible reputation; on the other hand,the emotional dimension of authenticity questions the rules of legitimacy toward a spiritualdimension. Thus, it is about finding the right balance between the emotional appeal ofcredibility and legitimacy. If one element overweighs, the brand interaction may not meet theaudiences’ expectations, which could lead to a skeptical audience.


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4 Methodology __________________________________________________________________________

The chapter provides an outline of the research procedures. The motivations of the scientificapproach taken are explained. Furthermore, trustworthiness and limitations are discussed.

____________________________________________________________________

4.1 IntroductionThe dissertation is guided by an interpretive, humanistic inquiry approach, which usuallyrelies on qualitative data, such as observations and interviews (Hackley 2003; Hirschman1986). Since the purpose is to gain insight and understanding, rather than seekinggeneralisable facts, which can be measured, an exploratory research design is appropriate. Toachieve this, an ethnographically inspired approach involving “primary observation”(Hirschman 1986: 237) is used.

It facilitates the answering of “how” and “why” questions in exploratory research in a holisticmanner, while considering the context in which the phenomenon is embedded (Blomberg et al.

1993; Yin 2003; Baxter & Jack 2008). It is appropriate here, since the contemporary phenomenon of the city brand of Hong Kong is being investigated within its real-life context,with the objective of gaining an understanding of actors, interactions, sentiments and

behaviours “over which the investigator has little or no control” (Yin 2003: 9).

Data CollectionEthnography allows for “applying multiple data collection methods of a single phenomenon”(Goulding, 2005: 299; Hackley 2003). Potential data sources include but are not limited todocumentation, archival records, interviews, naturalistic observation, physical artifacts, andtextual analysis (Blomberg et al. 1993; Hackley 2003; Yin 2003). Hence, various sources ofdata collection have been applied in this dissertation, including textual research, observations,and interviews on site.

Textual ResearchInsights were gained through textual research, which includes advertisements, historicalrecords, newspapers, films, and books. Before the field study, BrandHK’s digital footprint was

put under the lense, which included the written and visual contents of the official BrandHKwebsite, as well as the websites of the brand users before the actual field research.

Field Study

An intensive one-month field study took place in March 2011, where interviews wereconducted and data collected. The broad selection of interviewees asked about theirimpressions on Hong Kong’s city branding included local Hong Kong Chinese residents,overseas Chinese, Western and Asian foreigners, as well as expatriates.

It is fair to mention to the reader that the author had previously lived in Hong Kong, from1992-2001 and 2006-2009. During the first period, the author attended an international school,thus gaining insight into Hong Kong’s expatriate community, whereas the second period wasspent working at a global professional services firm with mostly local Hong Kong Chinesecolleagues. Interacting and working closely with them allowed the author to become immersedin the local environment and to a large extent observe and experience life as a “local”. In this

regard, the “prolonged participation within a specific culture” allows the researcher to gain


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insight into how “culture constructs and is constructed by the behaviours and experiences ofits members” (Goulding 2005: 299).

4.2 Interviewees and Verbal SourcesAccording to Goulding (2005), “the voices of participants are an important source of data and

should be allowed to be heard in the written end-product, which should be a coherent, fluentand readable narrative” (Boyle 1994 & Muecke 1994, as cited in Goulding, 2005: 299).Hence, semi-structured interviews were conducted on site, with brand steerers (Brand HongKong Management Unit ‘BMU’, in the Information Services Department ‘ISD’ of theGovernment of Hong Kong), brand users (The Hong Kong Tourism Board ‘HKTB’,InvestHK, The Hong Kong Trade & Development Council ‘HKTDC’) and critics(practitioners and researchers from the areas of design, branding, economics, political scienceand literature). This last group was of interest to provide a counterpoint to the official city

branding exercise and to question its authenticity.

In order to get different perspectives on the brand, the interviewees were chosen based on thefollowing criteria:

- Who is in control of the management of BrandHK?- Who works in an organization, which officially uses and supports BrandHK?- Observers and critics of BrandHK?

The interviews were recorded and transcribed with the exception of four, at the request of theinterviewees. The following people were interviewed:

Name Organisation Position / Title Date &

length 1 Confidential *Assistant Director

2 Confidential *Chief Brand Officer

3 Confidential *Senior Brand Officer

02.03.90 min

4 Brett FREE

BrandHK Management Unit,Information Services Dept.Government of Hong Kong

Assistant Director 02.0360 min

5 Confidential InvestHKGovernment of Hong Kong

Spokeswoman 04.0360 min

6 Confidential HK Trade Development Council Spokesman 11.0330 min

* For confidentiality reasons, the BMU officials will be referred to as BrandHK official 1, 2 and 3.


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7 Dr. HenrySTEINER

Steiner & Co.Brand Creation & Strategy

Graphic Designer &Brand Expert

14.0360 min

8 Dr. JohnFLOWERDEW

City University of Hong KongDept. of English Literature

Professor 15.0360 min

9 Dr. Simon

Xu Hui SHEN

HK Institute of Education

Dept. of Social Sciences

Professor 17.03

20 min

10 Confidential Administrative Staff 17.0330 min

11 Dr. TerenceTai-Leung CHONG

HK Quality of Life Research Centre

Chinese University of Hong Kong Professor &Researcher

17.0360 min

12 Confidential Hong Kong Tourism Board Official from PRDepartment

18.0345 min

4.2 Data Analysis ApproachDue to the change of focus explained above, the data analysis is guided by an inductiveapproach: “The researcher begins with an area of study and allows the theory to emerge fromthe data (Strauss & Corbin 1998, as cited in Thomas 2006: 238). It is appropriate because theraw data collected in form of interviews, observations and textual research can be interpretedand classified into meaningful categories “to derive concepts, themes, or a model” (Thomas2006: 238).

The analysis will relate to the theoretical framework and therefore the collected data will beconnected to legitimacy, credibility and authenticity concepts. The discussion will aim toconnect with the literature review, theoretical framework and analysis.

4.3 Trustworthiness & LimitationsTrustworthiness in qualitative research is based on “credibility, transferability, dependability,and confirmability” (Hirschman 1986: 244). The data collection and analysis in thisdissertation “relies on multiple sources of evidence”, and thus “benefits from the priordevelopment of theoretical propositions”, which enhances data credibility (Yin 2003: 13-14).The sources used in this thesis, such as textual analysis, observation and interviews, can also

be used to confront critical propositions, which facilitates credibility, dependability andconfirmability. Moreover, in order to achieve dependability, it is necessary to compare “thedata with the research findings and interpretations” (Thomas 2006: 243), e.g. comparing datafrom the digital footprint of BrandHK with brand steerers’ statements. In triangulating datasources, which support the same conclusion (Lincoln & Guba 1985, as cited in Hirschman1986: 243), “interpretations can be constructed more accurately” (Hirschman 1986: 243).

One of the primary limitations of an interpretive approach is that it seldom seeks to generalisefindings, mainly aiming for “a rich and insightful description of a particular issue, problem orevent in its social context” (Hackley 2003: 9), which could undermine transferability. But the

purpose is not the generalisability of a particular finding, as “no two social contexts are ever


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identical” (Hirschman 1986: 245). However, hopefully lessons can be drawn from this particular case in order to apply them to other, similar phenomena, while understanding “thespecifics of the context” (Hirschman 1986: 245).

Issues of trustworthiness may be further put in question, since the field study relies on theresearcher’s gaze and interpretation of the data. However, “the human observer- despite all ofhis or her intrinsic biases and preconceptions- has the mental capacity to expand, enlarge, and

reconceive a view of reality” (Hirschman 1986: 242). Thus the “data as gathered by theinquirer” can be employed “to represent a logical set of conclusions given the reasoning he orshe employed during the interaction, and to be a nonprejudiced, nonjudgmental rendering ofthe observed reality” (Hirschman 1986: 246).


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5 Empirical Results __________________________________________________________________________

In this chapter the collected data, including textual analysis and interviews, from the empirical field study are presented. The empirical results, starting from the background of BrandHK,

and details of the positioning and branding process, will be presented.

____________________________________________________________________

5.1 Introduction to BrandHKCentral to Hong Kong is its colonial heritage, which has shaped its sociopolitical, economicand cultural development. Some of the legacies left by the British which distinguish it fromcities in Mainland China are the judicial system – the rule of common law – and the capitalistsystem (Fung 1996). These legacies have allowed Hong Kong to develop into an international,stable financial hub in Asia. Although it became a part of Mainland China again in 1997 underthe ‘one country-two systems’ doctrine, its international persona remains separate from therest of China, e.g. being a member of the Asia-Pacific Economic Council (APEC) alongsideChina. Hong Kong’s identity as a city-state prior to the handover thus continues, not only on a

political, but also on an individual level:

“Many Hong Kong people, especially those who grew up under the British, areambivalent about China. They identify themselves according to an image of themodern free world with which they associate the British, and they perceiveChina as a nation of backward, erratic, and violent politics” (Ng 2009:32).

5.1.1 History of Branding Hong KongAlthough initiatives of actively branding Hong Kong can be traced back to 1997 under thethen HKSAR Government, Hong Kong’s image as the “Pearl of the Orient” where “East meetsWest” has captured the minds of foreign audiences way before that. Particularly the interaction

and hybridisation between the East and West has become a red thread throughout HongKong’s history and image projected to the outside. Apart from that Hong Kong has also beenconsidered to be a connecting hub to Greater China and other Asian regions.

5.1.2 Place of Opportunity, where East-meets-WestFrom its early beginnings to the 19th century, Hong Kong (“ ” in Chinese, meaning“fragrant harbour”) was a sleepy fishing village located on the southeast coast of Chinawithout much significance for the rulers. This changed when Hong Kong Island and theKowloon Peninsula became a British colony after the First (1839 - 1842) and Second OpiumWars (1856–1860). In 1898 the territory was extended by a 99-year lease to include the New

Territories, the adjacent northern lands to the Kowloon Peninsula. Historical accounts revealthat in the early days as a British colony, Hong Kong had a reputation as a “gold-rush town”and was quickly settled by Chinese and European opportunist adventurers to try their luck;within a few months the population had tripled to more than 15,000 (Ingham 2007: 49). Thismay be considered the origin of Hong Kong as a place of opportunity, as well as the East-Westfusion narrative which has manifested itself in foreign audiences' minds, for example inliterary or film classics.

In James Clavell’s “Tai-Pan” (1966) one of the main characters, Scotsman Dirk Struan, fusesEuropean and Chinese customs he admires together into a new way of living. In French authorJule Verne’s classic “Around the World in 80 Days” (1873), the Englisman Phileas Fogg,

accompanied by his French servant Passepartout, circumnavigate the globe in 80 days in order


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to win a bet. The city space of Verne’s imagination where East-meets-West was capturedthrough the eyes of fictional character Passepartout:

“Docks, hospitals, wharves, a Gothic cathedral, a government house,

macadamised streets give to Hong Kong the appearance of a town in Kentor Surrey, transferred by some strange magic to the antipodes.

Passepartout wandered with his hands in his pockets towards the Victoria

Port, gazing as he went at the curious palanquins and other modes ofconveyance, and the groups of Chinese, Japanese and Europeans who

passed to and fro in the streets” (Jules Verne 1873, as cited in Ingham2007: 26).

In the Hollywood film classic “Love Is a Many Splendoured Thing” (1955), the maincharacter is Eurasian and could be seen as the human embodiment of Hong Kong, reflectingthe challenges of defining an identity which is neither purely Asian nor Western, and trying tounderstand and synthesise its elements. Another film, “The World of Suzie Wong” (1960),which centres around the relationship between American artist Robert Lomax and local

prostitute Suzie Wong, shows not only the challenges in finding harmony between different

cultures, but it also portrays Hong Kong as a place of adventure and opportunity whereanything could happen.

5.1.3 Pearl of the OrientFor a long time, the “Pearl of the Orient” has been another description for Hong Kong. Whilethere are no official narratives with regard to this image, there may be a historic connection toits geographic location at the Pearl River delta. During the era of the Southern Han rulers(917-971), Hong Kong, then known as ‘Meichuan’, was an important centre for pearl fishing(Ingham 2007: 35). Pearl fishers would dive into the eponymous Pearl River and risk their

lives to quench the emperors’ and ruling classes’ thirst for this luxurious status item (Ingham2007: 35). A pearl’s iridescence is made up of overlapping of successive layers, which could be transferred as a metaphor to Hong Kong’s multi-layered West-meets-East culture.Moreover, the lustre of pearls which depends on the reflection of light could be seen as thedifferent interpretations of Hong Kong’s hybrid characteristics of mixing Western practicesand local traditions, depending on the audience’s gaze.

The “Pearl of the Orient” metaphor was further embodied in the emblem of the colonial flagwhich was used from 1959-1997 (see Figure 5.1). The lion and dragon carriers of the crestreflect the British and Chinese characteristics of Hong Kong, which is symbolised as the islandthey are standing on. The pearl held by the lion wearing the imperial crown in the centre is

supposed to embody the dreamy expression “Pearl of the Orient” personifying Hong Kong.

Figure 5.1


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5.1.4 Connecting Hub & Gateway to China Nowadays Hong Kong is considered to be one of the busiest and biggest container ports in theworld, in terms of shipping movements, cargo handled and passengers carried (Government ofHong Kong Marine Department 2009). The Hong Kong International Airport (HKIA 2009) isone of the busiest airports in the world, with 48.6 million passengers and over 3.6 milliontonnes of cargo passing through in 2008 (HKIA 2009). The Hong Kong MTR carries anaverage of 3.7 million passengers every day (MTR Corporation 2009) and railway services

also extend to Shenzhen, Beijing and Shanghai. Since it serves as a transit hub to China, HongKong is also called ‘the gateway to China’.

From its origins as a fishing village, Hong Kong evolved into a strategically important military port for the British and eventually into an international financial centre: “Hong Kong was hostto over three thousand regional headquarters and offices of multinational corporations, morethan any other city in Asia” (Ng 2009: 9).

5.2 BrandHK Campaign & Context

5.2.1 Branding Campaign: Asia’s World City The idea of branding Hong Kong has its roots in 1997 (BrandHK Website 2011). According toBrett Free,“until 1997, the story was about the handover. Chief Executive Tung Chee Hwarecommended strategic positioning of Hong Kong so it could promote itself overseas.” Thishad to do with the fact that Hong Kong had to redefine its identity as a British colony to aSpecial Administrative Region in China. The positioning of Hong Kong as “Asia’s world city”was based on “extensive research and consultation”, “among opinion leaders in Hong Kongand overseas” (BrandHK Website 2011). The slogan was considered to reflect Hong Kong’sfeatures as “a natural, vital and multicultural gateway not only to and from China, but also to

the rest of Asia and beyond” (BrandHK Website 2011).

Thus, the first official brand campaign for BrandHK came about in May 2001 wih two goals:(1) to create a new strategic position in the international arena, and (2) to maintain the local

population’s confidence that Hong Kong would remain the world city in the region (HKSARG2002). According to Free, “the 2001 Brand Exercise was a more international marketingexercise, a lot of research was on international perception [...] initially the international

audience was targeted.”

In March 2010, BrandHK underwent an extensive revitalisation exercise (BrandHK 2011). ABrandHK official noted, “concerns were different from now.” According to Free, “In 10

years, HK has moved on and changed. Now people place more importance on the quality oflife.” This was confirmed by BrandHK official 3: “Concerns were different from now”. Freeascertained that it “would be sad if we didn’t move on [...] if you don’t evolve as a brand, youdie.”

Moreover, Free observed that another reason for the revitalisation was that BrandHK in 2001was “more externally focused [...] “locals were neglected, but business groups used it [BrandHK].” This became especially apparent, as “issues were pointed out in parliamentary reports,especially about democracy.” BrandHK official 1 added, “ for the core values, it’s moreimportant what HK residents think.” Hence, research for the revitalisation exercise started in

2008, according to BrandHK official 1. This time the research included public engagement


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through “quantitative and qualitative opinion surveys”, “consultation with a broad cross-section of discussion groups”, and “an online platform, myhk2020.com [...] to further engagethe public, including a music and lyrics competition and a drawing competition” (BrandHKWebsite 2011). According to BrandHK official 1:

“Based on an in-depth review, the brand’s core values and attributes

have been updated to reflect more accurately the community’s

perceptions of and aspirations for Hong Kong. So apart from being used for international promotion, the BrandHK programme now has a much stronger local dimension of public engagement.”

This is echoed on the BrandHK Website (2011): “The strategy focuses on the evolution ofBrandHK rather than its reinvention, building on the brand’s existing equity to further itsappeal and reach”. According to Free, the brand exercise in 2001 was “based on signs, ratherthan emotions” and it “was more cold before, with no personality.”

However, despite the revitalisation, BrandHK is still being criticised by skeptics. Thefollowing reflects the main points of opposition:

(1) the brand is more of a PR stunt;“What? Another HK$1.8 million on a PR consultancy on Brand Hong Kong,after the Government has spent HK$ 9 million on Burson Marsteller to give usour much lampooned “flying dragon” logo? [...] The current overseas PR“Brand Hong Kong” exercise is ridiculed with contradictions, and it is abouttime the government provides some leadership on this subject from the top”(Regina Ip, Legislative Council Member 2010).

(2) the focus on overseas audiences;“We as Hong Kong belongers naturally care about Hong Kong. But do peopleoutside Hong Kong really care about Hong Kong? [...] should our soul-searching be masterminded as a matter of overseas PR? [...] shouldn’t this bedealt with first and foremost as a domestic, self-examination exercise?” (ReginaIp, Legislative Council Member 2010).

(3) doubts about Hong Kong being a world city;“The problem is that when the term ‘world city’ was proposed for Hong Kong,it looked more like a lay branding, marketing and image constructing exerciserather than an affirmation of most of the defining features of world cities asidentified by academics. [...] the HKSAR government simply hoped to parallel

Hong Kong with London and New York, regardless of what the other two worldcities really possess” (Shen 2010: 206 - 207).

(4) commodification and loss of local identity;“To put it metaphorically: Hong Kong is Bruce Lee turning into Jackie Chan.

Before 1997, residents of Hong Kong displayed a distinctive energy, dignity and pride. Like the Bruce Lee they idolised, they projected discipline and self-

assurance. Today, more of Jackie Chan’s screen persona is projected: self-denigrating, buffoonish and opportunistic. Hong Kong’s Government follows

suit, acting without long term vision, appearing befuddled – even lost” (HenrySteiner).


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In summary, despite the brand revitalisation in 2010, BrandHK continuous to be under thescrutiny of local stakeholders who are skeptical about several aspects of the brand attribution.The following passage will examine the content of the brand. For a better understanding, thecontext in which Hong Kong finds itself will first be elaborated, as brands do not exist inisolation but are part of an eco-system where actors interact with and influence the brand.

5.2.2 Context of BrandHKIn trying to understand the context in which BrandHK is embedded, it is important to gain anunderstanding of its position, both geographically and ideologically.

When asking the BMU officials which other cities were considered to be Hong Kong’scompetitors, implications were made that the branding for Hong Kong is not necessarily seenas a competitive exercise in terms of “place wars”. Free stated, “At some point in time, the “S”cities have been named, e.g. Singapore, Shenzhen, Seoul, Sydney...”, while BMU official 2answered:

“We don’t think of competition as such [...] more like cooperation on differentlevels. With globalisation, cities now play a more complementary than

competing role, and there has been more cooperation and collaborationbetween them.”

Hong Kong’s location was cited as an example for cooperation between different cities and places: “HK’s connectivity to Asia may serve all of Asia, for example, an express rail is beingbuilt to Shenzhen and Guangzhou; you can also take side trips to Macau.” According to oneof the branding officials, each city has its own role to play, “We would say that all major citiesin Asia or in the world are unique and have their own attributes.” Hence, according to theofficials’ argumentation, Hong Kong is not necessarily “competing” for a spot as Asia’s world

city, it simply is a world city. Free added, “HK is also positioned as an international financialcentre in Asia, so it is what London is for Europe and what New York is for North America.”In this sense, it can be assumed that Hong Kong’s position is that of a sibling to London and

New York, serving the same functions in Asia as a world city, as these cities do on theirrespective continents. “But the difference is, HK is prosperous and China has only in the last

few decades started developing, as compared to Europe and North America”, according toFree.

Another topic during the discussion was the difference between Hong Kong and MainlandChina. According to Free, “while the terms ‘Hong Kong’ and ‘China’ are specific, they’realso fuzzy... that’s the challenge with location branding.” He added that Hong Kong’s free

society enables innovation and flexibility. Moreover, he stated:

“China may [...] look up to Hong Kong as a knowledge bank [...] with theworld’s best practices. [...] All this contributes to the brand cache of Hong

Kong of being ‘Chinese and global’, for example quality advice [...] So whenChina wants to do something, they come to Hong Kong first.”

Another brand official added, “HK people’s identity is unique due to their Western colonialhistory and Chinese history; we are not trying to deny our colonial history”.


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5.3 BrandHK’s Positioning as Asia’s World City

5.3.1 Brand Attributes

Apart from the government officials’argument that each city is unique and plays acomplimentary role, which serves to justifyHong Kong’s positioning as “Asia’s world

city”, they provided more reasons what makesHong Kong a world city. A “free port” with“a first-rate infrastructure and a commitmentto the rule of law”, and “large business

presence” were the main characteristicsnamed by the BMU officials. Moreover, Freeascertained:

“Unrestricted access to the internet, since people can access all the

information it also makes for a dynamic society.”

It was also mentioned by his colleagues that the reputation of a world city included“being cosmopolitan” and “offering a skilled and knowledgeable workforce.” Freeexplained this in detail:

“Hong Kong people study overseas and come back with different expectationsand new knowledge, which helps to upgrade Hong Kong [...]. Due to this open

society, Hong Kong can pick the best. [...] It makes Hong Kong a global citybecause it is not just rooted in one culture, neither only British nor only

Chinese”.

Echoing this, it is stated in a booklet titled “This is Hong Kong”, published by the ISD:

“About eight per cent of Hong Kong’s seven million population, or around560,000 people, hold foreign passports. Of these, the largest groups come fromthe Philippines, Indonesia, the U.S., Thailand, India, Canada, Nepal, Pakistan,Australia, Malaysia, the U.K. and Japan” (BrandHK Booklet a 2010: 8).

Apart from its “business-friendly” environment, and being “a convenient, open and safe city”,the brand officials also emphasise that what defines a world city is that it is “a place wherethere are interesting things to do and discover.” As examples, Hong Kong’s nature and

cultural activities were given.

The characteristics attributed to BrandHK, according to a booklet (BrandHK Booklet b 2010:16-17), are in line with the brand official’s definition of what makes Hong Kong a world city.Hence, the positioning and platform of Hong Kong as Asia’s world city is the following:

“Hong Kong is a free and dynamic society where creativity andentrepreneurship converge. Strategically located in the heart of Asia, it is acosmopolitan city offering global connectivity, security and rich diversity, andis home to a unique network of people who celebrate excellence and qualityliving” (BrandHK Website 2011).


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Compared to the brand exercise in 2001, the BMU officials believed that “many HK peopleresponded to the positioning of HK as Asia’s World City”, especially due to the reflection ofthe shift of emphasis, which was readjusted for the 2010 relaunch. According to BMU official3:

“People are not only interested in economic objectives. Like when business

people come to Hong Kong, they think it’s all about business. But we want to

show them that Hong Kong also has to offer something other than businessactivities, like leisure activities.”

Although interviewees seemed to agree with most of the attributes of BrandHK, there was stillsome skepticism whether Hong Kong fits the criteria of being a world city. For instance,Professor Flowerdew’s comment weakens the attribute of ‘diversity’:

I mean, Hong Kong is practically 98% Chinese [...] in Hong Kong there’s onlyreally one community. Most of the others are domestic helpers [...] And then

there’s your wealthy expat area [...].”

Moreover, both Steiner and Flowerdew believe that it is not necessarily important to focus thecity branding efforts on the local audience before targeting external audiences. According toFlowerdew, it is because city branding “is designed for outsiders more than insiders [...]

People can be proud if they are living in Asia’s World City. I think it’s more important for the

outside than the inside.” He argued that branding to locals “can be counterproductive andcreate this resistance where people say ‘we aren’t really a world city... we haven’t got this and

haven’t got that...’ ”

In line with this, Steiner mentions the example of New York’s city brand: “This administrativemuddle is no more evident than in how Hong Kong has projected its brand to the world. Take

Hong Kong’s half-baked, work-in-progress effort as compared to ‘ I ! NY’ which attractedvisitors and also gave its citizens a new pride in their city.” Flowerdew’s and Steiner’s viewscould thus be interpreted as, focusing on the external audiences and attracting them to visit the

place can positively project on residents’ local pride, rather than the other way around. Steinermotivates this with the fact that rather than changing behaviour, “the most important thing is

getting people to visit and having their expectations match the reality”. He regards it as promising people something whose expectations are then fulfilled. He illustrates this with thefollowing example:

“The Cantonese are not rude, but they are loud. That’s the way they talk; it’s

distinctive local colour. So if you say, ‘Come to Hong Kong and bring your

earplugs’ when people here start yelling, the tourists will say ‘Oh yeah, I know,they already told me about that’. They anticipated it and that makes for a goodexperience.”

5.3.2 Brand Core Values

BrandHK is treated like a corporate brand with clearly defined core values and brandattributes. These are stated on the BrandHK website and other promotional literature,complemented by citizens’ opinions on them. According to one booklet which highlights thecore values, they are “reflected in the attitudes and aspirations of its people” which “help to setthe city apart” (BrandHK Booklet b 2010: 10-11).


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When asked, which of the values is the strongest insupporting BrandHK, the officials stated that, “Theyare all vital to making Hong Kong the vibrant,dynamic and attractive place it is”. However, BMUofficial 1 ascertained, “Some of the core values, suchas ‘quality living’, are aspirational values”. BMUofficial 3 explained this further:

“There’s a shift in values, so the younger generation of Hong Kong people does not want

to work such long hours. As you know, theworking hours in Hong Kong are among the

longest in the world. They want to spendquality time with their family and enjoy the

leisure; it’s different from the older generation,

say, in the 1980’s, who are used to working longhours”.

Yet despite the optimism of the brand steerers, according to Flowerdew, there is resistancetoward the brand among citizens:

“If you read letters to the editor in the newspaper quite often you find peoplewriting in a sarcastic manner. They want to criticise and then they say ‘How

can we be a world-class city [...]?’ So I think there is resistance, but I wouldn’tdeny that it doesn’t have some sort of effect on the collective consciousness of

people who realise, ‘Yes, we are being branded in this way’ and they do identifywith some aspects and resist others.”

Other interviewees showed skepticism toward the five core values of BrandHK. According toSteiner:

“The most important thing is getting people to visit and having their expectationsmatch the reality. So that if you were to say ‘free, enterprising, quality living,innovative, and excellence’ they’re going to be sadly disappointed.”

The following table gives an overview of criticisms and comments on the different corevalues.

FREE Flowerdew:

“ [...] ‘free’ is probably the most controversial of them because [...] thiswhole ‘one-country-two-systems concept’... [...] a lot of people said with

Tung Chee Hwa that he emphasised the one country over two systems.

So to that extent Hong Kong is not totally free. They have to do what the

Mainland says. But if they had taken it out, I’m sure there would have

been a big uproar and the Democrats would have gone on to that.”

ENTERPRISING Shen:“Rather than ‘enterprising’, opportunity is a value that should be

considered by the government. According to young people, this means

creating a society of egalitarian opportunity. It would make residents

proud to be local.”

Steiner:

“ ‘free’, ‘enterprising’, maybe.”


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QUALITY LIVING Flowerdew: “Quality living... that’s definitely an aspiration. [...] that’s where things

can be manipulative. [...] ‘quality living’ is very questionable in the

context of Hong Kong, if you look at what’s going on. First of all, the

housing situation in Hong Kong is... people live in tiny flats, there’s

terrible price inflation with property, so people cannot afford to buy

their own flats, there is terrible pollution... people always complain

about pollution... So, I can well see that might be an aspiration, but not

really a description of the status-quo. [...]”

Steiner:“ ‘quality living’, no, unless you mean expensive.”

INNOVATIVE Steiner: “ ‘innovative’- absolutely not.”

EXCELLENCE

Documents

City Branding of Hong Kong - Imagineering Authenticity 2011