CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Learning strategies for L2 Language learners

Learning strategies are the way used by learners to improve their learning.

Through learning strategies, learners can control their own learning by improving

language skills, increasing the motivation in the learning process and also their

confidence (Shi, 2017). There are six learning strategies that are used by L2

language learners, such as cognitive, metacognitive, memory-related strategies,

compensation strategies, affective strategies, and social strategies (Oxford, 2003).

There are also other that taxonomies that have been classified by O’Malley and

Chamot in 1990 (O'Malley, 1990), such as: Metacognitive, Cognitive and Social-

Affective. The one shared by oxford (2003) is known as SILL (Stretegy Inventors

for Language learning. This theory is considered to be more complete in

accomodating the context of this study that of EFL students tend to be introduced

more strategies by the teachers.

2.1.1 Cognitive Strategies

Rubbin (1997) as cited in Choiriyah (2016) stated that Cognitive

strategies are according to the method used in learning which needs

transformation, direct analysis, or blended learning materials.

Rubbin classified cognitive strategies into six categories, namely:

practice, memorization, monitoring, clarification or verification,

deductive reasoning, and guessing or inductive reasoning.

O’Malley and Chamot (1990) identifies that cognitive strategies

consist of resourcing, grouping, note taking, sumarizing, deduction,

imager, auditory representation, elaboration, transfer, and inference

In addition, according to Oxford (1990), Cognitive Strategies help

the students to aim the language target and task. They involve

reasoning, analysis, and drawing conclusions, for examples:

practice the language using drills method and the use of a

dictionary to help students find the difficult words.

2.1.2 Metacognitive Strategies

Metacognitive strategies used several processes such as planning,

self-management, setting goals, and prioritizing to manage their

own language learning or self-direct language learning (Rubin

(1987), as cited by Choiriyah (2016))

According to Rebecca L. Oxford (2003) metacognitive strategies

used for controling overall learning process. Metacognitive have

various categories such as evaluating the success of various types

of learning strategy, knowing self language learning style and

requirement, setting a scedhule and room for study, controling

mistakes, collecting and organizing materials.

2.1.3 Memory-related Strategies

Memory-related Strategies / Memorization Strategies are methods

to effectively remember, to take and share information necessary

for future language use. This strategy helps students to memorize

the important information collected from their learning and get the

information back when it is necessary in the future, for example the

semantic map of a group of nouns or verbs that shows the

relationship between the words (Oxford (1990), as cited in Hardan

(2013))

2.1.4 Compensation Strategies

Compensation Strategies helps students make up for a lack of

knowledge. These involve the use of synonyms, gestures,

paraphrase, and guess the meaning from context (Oxford, 2003).

Furthermore, Fᴂrch and Kasper (1980) as cited by (Poulisse &

Schils, 1989) said that compensation can be classified as ways that

used by the speaker to achieve his or her authentic communicative

purpose by using alternative speaking plan.

2.1.5 Affective Strategies

Affective strategies used to manage L2 emotion and motivation in

language learning. According to the research conducted by Oxford

and Ehrman (1995) towards EFL, and also the research by Dreyer

and Oxford (1996) towards South African EFL learners, showed

that there are significantly related between affective strategies and

L2 proficiency. However in the other research that conducted by

Mullins (1992) towards Thailand EFL learners, as cited by

(Oxford, 2003) affective strategies did not have a positive

connection with some measures of L2 proficiency.

2.1.6 Social Strategies

Social strategies, such as: asking of a confusing point to get

clarification, asking the question, asking for some help, and also

becoming culturally aware by cooperating with the L1 Speakers of

the language (Raftari & Alawi, 2012). According to the research by

Dreyer and Oxford (1996) and also related study by Oxford and

Ehrman (1995) towards the South African EFL, social strategies

significantly connected with L2 proficiency.

2.2. High Stakes Testing in EFL Context

2.2.1 High Stakes Testing in EFL High School Context

Johnson, Johnson, Farenga, and Ness. (2008) as cited in Ashadi &

Rice (2016) state that a testing program or test became high stakes are

according to some factors such as the teachers accountabillity, the quality

of students grade promotion or graduation, the school reputation. In the

other side, Au (2008) argued that testing program became high stakes

when the test performance has an impact to some form of students

achievement, teachers, school administrators, schools, local school

systems.

According to Collier (2010) in Ashadi & Rice (2016) data

collected from the testing program can help schools to measure the

teaching of various skills and areas of the curriculum, it also foccused on

the professional development program for a school administrator. Clarke

(2003); Crocker (2004); Jones (2007) as cited on Ashadi & Rice (2016)

argue that testing program promotes state and national equalization of the

curriculum, sending an unbiased signal to schools that make the schools

aware about what is the most important to teach.

There are various kinds of high stakes testing, such as O-NET

(Ordinary National Education Test) in Thailand, and also Ujian Nasional

(UN) in Indonesia. In Thailand, O-NET used to measure students’

knowledge and also their thinking ability, therefore O-NET used by the

school to improve their teaching and learning strategies. According to

NIETS (2015) as cited in Sundayana (2018) O-NET consists of 5 major

subjects of the National Education Curriculum, they are the Thai

Language; Mathematics; Science; Social Studies, Religions, and Cultures;

and Foreign Language.

2.2.2 National Examination in Indonesia

National Examination in Indonesia was first implemented in 2002,

National Examination was conducted annually for all students in the

highest grade on each educational level. The subject that examined on

primary schools were Mathematics, Science, and Indonesian Language;

Mathematics, Science, Indonesian Language, and English at junior high

schools; and Mathematics, Indonesian Language, Englsih and also three

specific subjects according to the study field that choosen by senior high

school students. The results of National Examinations will be used by the

public as a measurement of school performance quality.

According to Sukyadi & Mardiani (2011), as cited in Sundayana

(2018), UN (National Examination) have aims to evaluate Indonesian

students’ achievement of Standar Kompetensi Lulusan (SKL – Graduate

Learning Outcomes) at the end of each educational level. The SKL

contains knowledge competence, skill competence (including thinking

skills), and attitude competence. The UN is focused on knowledge and

skill competencies.

National exam does not stimulate students’ logical thinking,

innovative thoughts, and emotional survival Santoso (2004) cited in

Sulistyo (2009). Besides, Santoso (2004) states that the items in the test

are focused on academic pedagogical perspectives, building a possible

character for the students to be careless to their environment. Zubaidi

(2014) and Virgo (2016) as cited in Sundayana (2018) state that teachers

usually only focused on teaching to face test, as a result, students prefer to

answer the question directly than elaborate their answer. In addition, UN

tends to force the students to memorize answers because UN only oriented

on the passive aspects of English using thus, the students tend to learn how

to answer the questions right than learn how to use the languafe fluently

(Zubaidi & Novitasari, 2014).

Previously, according to the function, National Examination in

Indonesia was a high stakes testing because the result of National

Examination was become a determinant to the students’ graduation.

However Peraturan Pemerintah (2015) as cited in Saukah & Cahyono

(2015) find that National examination becomes low state testing because

of its function, nowadays students’ graduation is determined by their

academic achievements at schools. On the other hand, according to the

result of the study from Saukah & Cahyono (2015) outside of its function,

National Examination is still high-stakes testing, indicated by the low

aspect of honestly in National Examination.

2.3. Review on Instruments of Learning Strategies

2.3.1 Strategy Inventors for Language Learning (1989)

SILL has been adopted into about 17 languages and distributed to

about 10.000 learners (Chamot A. U., 2001). SILL have two

versions that used as learning strategy questionnaire. First is for

English native speaker (L1) who learn a foreign language (version

5.0, 80 items). The other is for EFL or ESL learners (version 7.0,

50 items). The Strategy Inventors for Language Learning (SILL)

version 7.0 for ESL or EFL learners consist of 50 questions and

uses five scale responses (“never or almost never true of me” to

“always or almost always true of me”) for each strategy described,

this strategy was developed by Oxford in 1990. The SILL is consist

of 6 subscales: Cognitive strategies, Metacognitive strategies,

Memory strategies, Compensation strategies, Affective strategies,

Social strategies.

Oxford & Ehrman (1995) state that ESL/EFL SILL is consists of

six subscales, the SILL reliability is depending with the all of the

instrument, it because of the subscale have a high connection with

the SILL mean (.66 to .81) and have a medium connection to each

other (.35 to .61). In conclusion, the ESL/EFL SILL reliabilities are

high, according to the literature report. SILL questionnaire is

frequently used in studies worldwide, and the SILL became the

only language learning strategy instrument that has been checked

for Reliability and validated in multiple ways, that are the reason

why the SILL will be utilised in this research.

2.4. Review on Related Studies

There are some researches related to this research. According to Lestari

(2015) entitled “Language learning strategies of English education

departement of FITK (A Comparsion Descriptive Study at the Fourth and the

Sixth Students)”, this study using same instruments with current study, but the

age of the partcipants is different. This research found that the whole

participants used all learning strategies such as memory, cognitive,

compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategy. All the

participants are categorized as a moderately user of learning strategy.

In this research, metacognitive strategy become the most used strategy that

used by both students in 4th

semester and 6th

semester, while the most rarely

used strategy is different between 4th

semester students and 6 th

semester

students, the most rare strategy used by 4 th

semester students of FITK is

Memory strategy, while the most rarely used strategy that used by 6 th

semester is social strategies. the research also proved that the 4th

semester

students used more learning strategies than 6th

semester students.

In second research by Choiriyah (2016) Learning Strategies Used by

Twelfth Year Students to Upgrade Their English for Facing National

Examination, the research is relevant with current study because the context is

same. The research showed the twelth year students use kinds of learing

strategies according to O’Malley and Chamot: meta-cognitive, cognitive, and

social-affective strategies. This research compares 2 groups of students on Xth

grade in SMK Muhammadiyah 1 Sukoharjo the 1st is 2 students of Software

Engineering and the 2nd are 2 students of Motorcycle Engineering. Based on

the result of the National Examination 2015, Students of Software

Engineering have a higher score than Students of Motorcycle Engineering.

This research using descriptive qualitative research and used observation,

interview, and document as the data. According to the data findings, Software

Engineering students uses 11 strategies that consist of 5 meta-cognitive

strategies, 4 cognitive strategies, and 2 social affective strategies. In Contrast,

there are 10 strategies that used by Motorcycle Engineering Students, those

strategies consist of 5 meta-cognitive strategies, 4 cognitive strategies, and 1

social affective strategies. The researcher concludes that learning strategies

which used by Software Engineer Students are more effective to help the

students to face National Exam.

Another research has been done by Grossmann (2011) entitled “A Study of

Cognitive styles and Strategy Use by Successful and Unsucessful Adult

Learners in Switzerland”, the research is using 3 data collection strategies

(BIQ, Mind organisation index, and SILL). This research also finds out the

existence of a connection between cognitive style and learning strategies and

compare it to successful and unsucessful learners in researcher’s classroom.

The respondents of this research are Nineteen volunteers which joined First

Certificate in English (FCE) or Certificate in Advanced English (CAE)

examination classes, where the researcher as a teacher. All the participants use

Swiss-German as their L1, the participants are consist of the female and male

participant, 79% population of the participants are female, the age of 70% of

participants are under-thirty five.

The results of the research have 4 research findings. The first finding shows

that planning clear goals are important to achieve success in the classroom. The

second finding shows that successful learners use more strategies the the

unsuccessful learners, although it was found that the character of strategy use

become extremely individualistic. The third finding shows that each group of

cognitive style has similarities on the use of strategies, but these patterns look

different between succesful and unsuccesful learners, for example, memory

and social strategies are important to successfull PPs (Power Planners);

memory, compensation, and affective strategies seem significant for succesul

RRs (Radical Reformers); metacognitive strategies are influantial for

successful FFs (Flexible Friends). The fourth finding finds out that successful

learners prefer to use strategies that support the strengths and counter their

weakness that related to their cognitive style. The researcher added Grossman

(2011) in relevant study because the researcher is difficult to find the relevant

study of learning strategies in students context.

2.5. Theoretical Framework

Based on the description that has been raised previously and some contract

theories that have been noted above, the variables involved in this stud can be

formulated through framework as follows:

Figure 2.1 Theoretical Framework

High Stakes Testing

Johnson, Johnson, Farenga, and Ness (2008) as cited in

Ashadi & Rice (2016) state that a testing program or

test became high stakes are according to some factors

such as the teachers accountabillity, the quality of

students grade promotion or graduation, the school

reputation.

L2 Language Learning Strategies

There are six learning strategies that are used by L2

Language learners, such cognitive, metacognitive,

memory-related strategies, compensation strategies,

affective strategies, and social strategies (Oxford,

2003).

Strategy Inventors for Language Learning (SILL)

(Oxford, 1989) as adapted by Lestari (2015)

A Survey Study of Language Learning Strategies used by

“NEUTRON” Students to prepare National Examination