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Chapter Five
Educational Psychology: Developing Learners6th edition
Jeanne Ellis Ormrod
Individual Differences & Special Educational Needs
Individual Differences
Variability in abilities and characteristics among students at a particular age
Students with special needs: Students different enough from their peers to require specially adapted materials and practice
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Keeping Individual Differences in Perspective
Labels assist teachers in selecting appropriate instructional strategies. The difficulty of labeling is:
Labels can be misused and misunderstood. Labels do not define a person.
Differences originate from different sources. Most differences are the result of both heredity
and the environment
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
The Issue of Intelligence
What does it mean to be intelligent?
Is it one ability or many?
Can it be quantified?
How can it be accurately measured if we can’t even properly define it?
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Intelligence
Ability to modify and adjust behaviors to accomplish tasks successfully
Involves many different mental processes May vary in nature depending on one’s
culture
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Intelligence…
Is adaptive Can be related to learning ability Involves the use of prior knowledge to
analyze and understand new situations Involves many different mental processes Is evident in different arenas Is culture specific
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Limitations of Intelligence Tests
Different kinds of intelligence tests may yield different scores.
Students’ performance is affected by many temporary factors, such as general health, mood, fatigue, etc.
Test items typically reflect skills valued in mainstream Western culture.
Unfamiliarity with the content or types of tasks in particular test items may yield poor performance.
Students with limited English proficiency are at a disadvantage.
Some students may not be motivated to perform at their best and so may obtain scores that underestimate their abilities.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Theories of Intelligence
Spearman’s g (1927) Theory that ntelligence is a single entity, a
general factor that influences one’s ability to learn in a wide variety of contexts
Information-Processing Theorists Believe that g reflects the speed and efficiency
with which people can process information, learning tasks, and problems
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Theories of Intelligence
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences An individual has at least 8 different
intelligences that are relatively independent. Each intelligence may be controlled by
different parts of the brain. Different intelligences may manifest
themselves differently in different cultures. Acceptance of Gardner’s idea is fairly
controversial.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences
Linguistic Logical-
Mathematical Spatial Musical
Bodily-Kinesthetic Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Distributed Intelligence
Distributed intelligence is the idea that intelligent behavior depends on people’s physical and social support systems.
People can “distribute” their intelligence in three ways: They can use objects, such as technology. They can represent and think about situations they
encounter in a symbolic manner, such as in the use of diagrams and charts.
They can work with others to explore ideas and solve problems.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Measuring Intelligence
Intelligence Tests General measure of current cognitive
functioning, often used in a predictive manner Provide an IQ score
A comparison of a person’s performance with that of others in the same age group
Score of 100 indicates average performance
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
IQ Score Distribution
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
IQ and Achievement
Performance on intelligence tests is correlated with school achievement.
Important points to remember: Intelligence does not necessarily cause
achievement. The relationship between IQ scores and
achievement is not perfect; there are always exceptions to the rule.
IQ scores simply reflect a student’s performance on a particular test at a particular time.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Nature, Nurture, & Group Differences in Intelligence Intelligence has a heritable component.
Identical twins have more similar IQ scores than fraternal twins.
Adopted children are more similar in IQ scores to their biological parents than to their adoptive parents.
Intelligence has an environmental component. E.g., quality of nutrition in childhood impacts IQ scores. Movement from an impoverished to stimulating environment
can provide gains of up to 15 points on intelligence tests. Differences in scores between ethnicities and genders are
due largely to differences in experiences.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Cognitive Styles and Dispositions
Individual differences in the way that students approach classroom tasks and think about classroom topics
Frequently referred to as learning styles Several productive dispositions identified by
researchers: Stimulation seeking Need for cognition Critical thinking Open-mindedness
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Educating Students with Special Needs
in the General Education Classroom More than two-thirds of American students
with special needs are in general ed classrooms for part or all of the day. Federal legislation mandates inclusion to the
greatest extent possible. Public Law 94-142: Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) IDEA grants educational rights to people with
cognitive, emotional, or physical disabilities from birth to age 21.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
IDEA
Guarantees the following: A free and appropriate education Fair and nondiscriminatory evaluation Education in the least-restrictive environment Individualized education program Due process
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Students with Cognitive or Academic Difficulties Learning Disabilities students:
Comprise the largest single category of students with special needs
Have average or above average IQ but specific deficiencies
May have difficulty sustaining attention Have poor reading skills Have ineffective learning/memory strategies Have difficulty with tasks involving abstract reasoning Have low motivation/poor self-concept Have poor motor skills (not always) Have poor social skills (not always)
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Students with Cognitive or Academic Difficulties
Strategies for adapting instruction for students with learning disabilities include: Minimizing potentially distracting stimuli Using multiple methods of presentation Analyzing students’ errors for clues about
processing difficulties Teaching learning and memory strategies Providing study aids
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Students with Cognitive or Academic Difficulties Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
(ADHD) Children with ADHD have the following
characteristics: Inattentiveness, hyperactivity, and impulsive
behavior Cognitive processing difficulties Poor school achievement Exceptional imagination and creativity Difficulty interpreting and reasoning about social
situations Few friendships
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Students with Cognitive or Academic Difficulties
Strategies for adapting instruction for students with ADHD include: Giving the most challenging academic
subjects and tasks in the morning Teaching attention-maintaining strategies Providing outlets for excessive energy Helping them establish routines Teaching and encouraging appropriate
classroom behaviors
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Speech and communication disorders are characterized by impairments in spoken language and/or comprehension that interfere with classroom performance.
Students with speech and communication disorders have the following characteristics: Difficulty with speaking, particularly in public Poor reading/writing skills
Students with Cognitive or Academic Difficulties
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Students with Cognitive or Academic Difficulties
Strategies for adapting instruction for students with speech and communication disorders include: Encouraging regular oral communication Asking for clarification when a message is unclear Providing a supportive environment for public speaking Listening patiently so that students have adequate time
to express themselves
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Students with Social or Behavioral Problems
Behaviors that consistently and significantly disrupt academic learning and performance Difficulty interacting in socially acceptable ways Difficulty maintaining satisfactory interpersonal
relationships Low self-esteem Frequent absences Inability to recognize the severity of problem
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Students with Social or Behavioral Problems
Strategies for adapting instruction for students with social or behavioral problems include: Being alert for problems at home (e.g., abuse) Making classroom events/topics relevant Showing a personal interest in student Being alert for suicidal signs TEACHING interpersonal skills Being clear about expectations Identifying problems early
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Autism is a disability characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors, restricted interests, and a strong need for a predictable environment.
Students with autism often have: Strong visual-spatial thinking skills Impaired social cognition Echolalia Strong attachments to certain inanimate objects Abnormal movements
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Mental Retardation
Disability characterized by significantly below-average general intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior
Different than Learning Disabled—below- average IQ (70 or below)
Require adapted instruction Often provided with vocational skills
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Students with Physical/Sensory challenges
Includes illnesses or physical impairments such as deafness, blindness, etc.
Learning ability usually perfectly normal Often given fewer opportunities to interact with peers Possibly low self-esteem, insecurity, embarrassment,
etc.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Students with Physical/Sensory Challenges
Adapting instruction for students with physical and/or sensory challenges: Be sensitive Learn about physical condition of student Educate classmates about condition Refer to text for specific recommendations for
each type of deficit
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Giftedness
There seems to be no universal agreement on what constitutes a gifted child. Creativity and imaginative thinking are
characteristics. Some “gifted” children excel in many areas,
some in specific areas. IQ of 130 or higher can be used as an
identifier.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Giftedness
Common characteristics of the gifted child include: Learn with little effort Highly motivated
Terman’s longitudinal study found gifted children to be “well-rounded,” emotionally stable, with good health, lower rates of delinquency, etc.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Giftedness: The Problems
Students may feel impatient with peers who are not as smart as they.
Gifted students report frequent boredom and frustration at school.
Adjustment problems are evident in the extremely gifted.
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Giftedness
Adapting instruction for the gifted student includes: Providing individualized tests and assignments Forming study groups of students with similar
interests and abilities Teaching complex cognitive skills within the context of
specific subject areas Providing opportunities for independent study Encouraging students to set high goals Seeking outside resources
Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Individual Differences: The Big Picture General strategies for accommodating students’ differing
abilities and disabilities within the general classroom include: Obtaining as much information as possible about each
student Individualizing instruction for nondisabled students as well
as for those with disabilities Being flexible in approaches to instruction Holding the same expectations for students with disabilities
as for other students Identifying and teaching important prerequisite skills Consulting and collaborating with specialists Including students in planning and decision making Promoting interaction between all students Being alert to identify students who may qualify for special
servicesJeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition
Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.