Summarizing Student Achievement Chapter Sixteen Educational Psychology: Developing Learners 6th edition Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

Summarizing Student Achievement

Chapter Sixteen

Educational Psychology: Developing Learners 6th edition

Jeanne Ellis Ormrod

Summarizing Student Achievement

The three most widely used methods for summarizing student achievement are: Course grades Portfolios Standardized test scores

Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

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Jeanne Ellis OrmrodEducational Psychology: Developing Learners, sixth edition

Summarizing the Results of a Single Assessment

Teachers use scores to summarize how students perform on individual classroom assessments.

Raw Scores This score is based solely on the number or point value

of correctly answered items. Advantages

Easy to calculate Easy to understand (on the surface)

Disadvantage Difficult to know exactly what raw scores really mean




Course Grades: Scores

Criterion-Referenced Scores Scores that specifically indicate what a student knows

or can do Determined in relation to student’s achievement on

specific objectives or standards May be an either-or score (pass or fail) or indicate a

level of competence Advantages

Useful for determining what specific objectives students have obtained, what skills have been mastered, and where specific weaknesses lie





Norm-Referenced Scores Scores that indicate how a student’s performance on

an assessment compares with the average performance of peers

Grade-equivalent scores indicate the grade level of a student to whom his/her performance is most similar.

Age-equivalent scores indicate the age level of a student to whom his/her performance is most similar.

Grade- and age-equivalent scores used frequently because they are fairly easy to use

Do not indicate the typical range of performance for students at a particular grade or age level

Often used inappropriately May encourage people to believe that all students

should be performing at grade level





Percentile Ranks Scores that indicate the percentage of peers in the

norm group getting a raw score less than or equal to a particular student’s raw score

Good for reporting test results May distort actual differences between students

A ten point difference between percentile ranks implies a greater difference in achievement than may actually be present





Standard Scores Scores that indicate how far a student’s performance is

from the mean with respect to standard deviation units These scores tend to reflect the normal distribution of

scores

Low Moderate High

Characteristics Being Measured

Many

Some

None

Number

of

People





Standard Scores The numbers used to derive standard scores are the standard

deviation and the mean




Determining Final Class Grades

Problems with traditional grading techniques include: Lower reliability and validity of individual assessment

instruments may lead to inaccurate grades. Different teachers use different criteria to assign

grades. In heterogeneous classes, different students might be

working toward different goals. Typical grading practices promote performance goals

rather than mastery goals.




Strategies for Ensuring Accurate Grades

Taking the job of grading seriously Basing grades on achievement Basing grades on hard data Being selective about the assessments used to

determine grades Identifying a reasonable grading system and sticking

to it Accompanying grades with qualitative information




Considering Improvement

Problems exist with basing final grade solely on improvement including: Some students come to class already possessing some of

the knowledge and skills to be tested, leaving little room for improvement.

Some students may start out with the lowest possible performance in order to “beat the system.”

In order to reward improvement, teachers should: Assign greater weight to assessments conducted at the end

of semester Consider offering retakes when applicable




Considering Effort

Most experts recommend against basing grades on effort. More skilled and knowledgeable students

don’t need to exert as much effort and may therefore be penalized.

Effort can only be assessed subjectively and is therefore highly unreliable.

It’s best to encourage and reward effort in informal assessments.




Considering Extra Credit

Course grades should be based on student’s performance and achievement in relation to the instructional goals and objectives.

If used, extra-credit work should be available to all students and relate to the instructional goals and objectives.




Using Portfolios

A portfolio is a collection of a student’s work compiled systematically over a lengthy period of time.

In addition to paper-pencil assignments, it may include photos, videos, or student-created objects.

Advantages include: The ability to capture the complexity of student achievement Allowing instruction to be intertwined with assessment Encouraging students to reflect on and evaluate their own

accomplishments Positively influencing the nature of instruction




Using Portfolios Effectively

Consider the specific purpose for which a portfolio will be used

Involve students in the selection of the contents

Identify the criteria by which products should be selected and evaluated

Ask students to reflect on the products they include in their portfolio




Types of Standardized Tests

Achievement tests Assess how much students have learned from the

things they have been taught Enable comparisons of students from many different

places Assist in tracking students’ progress over time

May help identify the onset of learning difficulties Content validity may be an issue





Scholastic aptitude and intelligence tests Assess a general capacity to learn and are

used to predict future academic achievement

Specific aptitude tests Predict future ability to succeed in a particular

content domain Not used as frequently as in the past





School readiness tests Assess cognitive skills important for success

in a typical kindergarten or first-grade curriculum

Helpful for looking for specific delays, but scores do not correlate with actual school achievement after enrollment




Selecting and Using Standardized Tests

Choose a test that has high validity for your particular purpose and high reliability for students similar to your own

Make sure that the test’s norm group is relevant to your population

Take students’ age and development into account Make sure students are adequately prepared to take

the test When administering the test, follow the directions

closely and report any unusual circumstances




Interpreting Standardized Test Scores

Have a clear and justifiable rationale for establishing cutoffs for acceptable performance

Compare two standardized test scores only when those scores are derived from the same or equivalent norm group(s)

Never use a single test score to make important decisions




High-Stakes Testing and Accountability

There is considerable pressure on teachers and educational administrators to raise scores on standardized tests.

The No Child Left Behind Act mandates that all states establish challenging academic content standards.

“Adequately yearly progress” in meeting state-determined standards is required.




Problems with High-Stakes Testing The tests don’t always reflect important instructional

goals. Teachers spend a great deal of time teaching to the tests. School personnel have disincentives to follow

standardized testing procedures and to assess the progress of low achievers.

Different criteria lead to different conclusions abut which students and schools are performing at high levels.

Too much emphasis is placed on punishing low-performing schools; not enough is placed on helping those schools improve.

Students’ motivation affects their performance on the tests and consistently low performance affects motivation.




Potential Solutions to the Problems

Identify and assess those things that are most important for students to know and do

Educate the public about what standardized tests can and cannot do

Look at alternatives to traditional objective tests such as authentic assessments

Advocate for the use of multiple measures in any high-stakes decisions




Taking Student Diversity into Account Remember that assessment instruments can be

culturally biased. Items can offend or unfairly penalize some students on

the basis of their ethnicity, gender, or SES. Teachers should continually be on the lookout for

unintentional bias.

Language skills and differences affect performance on many kinds of assessments.

The use of portfolios may be more effective at conveying the progress and achievements of students with a variety of disabilities and special needs.




Documents

Summarizing Student Achievement Chapter Sixteen Educational Psychology: Developing Learners 6th edition Jeanne Ellis Ormrod