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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Enlightenment and Revolution,1550–1789

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Starting in the 1500s, European thinkers overturned old ideas about the physical world with a new approach to science. Thinkers of theEnlightenment hoped to use reason to make a better society in which people werefree. Enlightenment ideas spread throughout Europe. They had a profound effectin North America, forming the basis of the new government of the United States.

Summary

The Scientific RevolutionKEY IDEA In the mid-1500s, scientists began to questionaccepted beliefs and make new theories based onexperimentation.

During the Middle Ages, few scholars ques-tioned ideas that had always been accepted.

Europeans based ideas about the physical world onwhat ancient Greeks and Romans believed or whatwas said in the Bible. Therefore, people stillthought that the earth was the center of the uni-verse. To them, the sun, moon, other planets, andstars moved around it.

In the mid-1500s, however, attitudes changed.Scholars now started a scientific revolution drawnfrom a spirit of curiosity. One factor was the newfocus on careful observation. Another was the will-ingness to question old beliefs. European explo-rations were a third factor. When they reached newlands, Europeans saw new plants and animals neverseen by ancient writers. These discoveries led tothe opening of new courses of study in universities.

The first challenge came in astronomy. In theearly 1500s, Nicolaus Copernicus studied the starsand planets for many years. He concluded that theearth, like the other planets, revolved around thesun, and the moon revolved around the earth.Fearing attack, he did not publish his findings untiljust before his death. In the early 1600s, JohannesKepler used mathematics to confirm Copernicus’sbasic idea.

An Italian scientist—Galileo Galilei—made sev-eral discoveries that undercut ancient ideas. Hemade one of the first telescopes and used it to studythe planets. He found that Jupiter had moons, thesun had spots, and Earth’s moon was rough. Thesestatements went against church teaching, and Galileowas forced to deny their truth. Still, his ideas spread.

Interest in science led to a new approach, thescientific method. With this method, scientists ask a question based on something they have seen in

the physical world. They form a hypothesis, or anattempt to answer the question. Then they test thehypothesis by making experiments or checkingother facts. Finally, they change the hypothesis ifneeded. The English writer Francis Bacon helpedfoster this new approach to knowledge by tellingscientists they should base their ideas on what theycan see and test in the world. The French mathe-matician René Descartes also had great influence.His thinking was based on logic and mathematics.

In the mid-1600s, the English scientist IsaacNewton described the law of gravity. Using mathe-matics, Newton showed that the same force ruledthe motion of planets and the action of bodies onthe earth.

Scientists made new tools to study the worldaround them. One invented a microscope to studycreatures too small for the naked eye to see. Othersinvented tools for understanding weather.

Doctors also made advances. One made draw-ings that showed the different parts of the humanbody. Another learned how the heart pumped bloodthrough the body. In the late 1700s, Edward Jennerfirst used the process called vaccination to preventdisease. By giving a person the germs from a cattledisease called cowpox, he helped that person avoidgetting the more serious human disease of smallpox.Scientists made advances in chemistry as well. Onechallenged the old idea that things were made ofonly four elements—earth, air, fire, and water. Heand other scientists were able to separate oxygenfrom air.

The Enlightenment in Europe

KEY IDEA A revolution in intellectual activity changedEuropeans’ view of government and society.

New ways of thinking arose in other areas. In the intellectual movement called the

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Enlightenment, thinkers tried to apply reason andscientific method to laws that shaped human actions.They hoped to build a society founded on ideas ofthe Scientific Revolution.

Two English writers were important to thismovement. Thomas Hobbes wrote that without agovernment, there would be a war of “every managainst every man.” As a result, Hobbes said, peo-ple formed a social contract—an agreement—inwhich they gave up their rights so they couldsecure order and safety. The best government, hesaid, is that of a strong king who can force peopleto obey. John Locke believed that all people havethe rights to life, liberty, and property. The purposeof government is to protect those rights. When itfails to do so, he said, people have a right to over-throw the government.

A group of French thinkers had wide influence.They had five main beliefs: (1) thinkers can find thetruth by using reason; (2) what is natural is goodand reasonable, and human actions are shaped bynatural laws; (3) acting according to nature canbring happiness; (4) by taking a scientific view, people and society can make progress and advanceto a better life; and (5) by using reason, people cangain freedom.

Three French thinkers had great influence.Voltaire wrote against intolerance and criticized the laws and customs of France. The Baron deMontesquieu made a long study of laws and gov-ernments. He thought government power shouldbe separated into different branches. Each shouldbe able to check the other branches to preventthem from abusing their power. Jean JacquesRousseau wrote strongly in favor of human free-dom. He wanted a society in which all people wereequal. The Italian Cesare Beccaria wrote aboutcrime and justice. Trials should be fair, he said, andpunishments should be made to fit the crime.

Many Enlightenment thinkers held traditionalviews about women’s place in society. They urgedequal rights for all men but ignored the fact thatwomen did not enjoy such rights. Some womenprotested this unfairness. “If all men are born free,”wrote one, “how is it that all women are bornslaves?”

Enlightenment ideas had strong influence on theAmerican and French Revolutions, which came atthe end of the 1700s. They had three other effects.They helped spread the idea of progress. By usingreason, people thought, it is possible to make soci-

ety better. These ideas also helped make Westernsociety more secular—that is, more worldly and lessspiritual. Finally, Enlightenment ideas promotedthe notion that the individual person was important.

The Enlightenment Spreads KEY IDEA Enlightenment ideas spread through theWestern world, and influenced the arts and government.

In the 1700s, Paris was the cultural center ofEurope. People came there from other countries

in Europe and from the Americas to hear the newideas of the Enlightenment. Writers and artistsgathered in the homes of wealthy people to talkabout ideas. A woman named Marie-ThérèseGeoffrin became famous for hosting these discus-sions. She also supplied the money for one of themajor projects of the Enlightenment. With herfunds, Denis Diderot and other thinkers wrote and published a huge set of books called theEncyclopedia. Their aim was to gather together allthat was known about the world. The French gov-ernment and officials in the Catholic Church didnot like many of the ideas that were published inthe Encyclopedia. They banned the books at first,but later they revoked the ban.

Through the meetings in homes and works likethe Encyclopedia, the ideas of the Enlightenmentspread throughout Europe. The ideas also spreadto the growing middle class. This group of peoplewas becoming wealthy but had less social statusthan nobles and had very little political power.Ideas about equality sounded good to them.

Art moved in new directions, inspired by theEnlightenment ideas of order and reason. Artistsand architects worked to show balance and ele-gance. Composers wrote music of great appeal fortheir creative richness. In this period, the novelbecame a popular form of literature. This new formtold lengthy stories with many twists of plot thatexplored the thoughts and feelings of characters.

Some Enlightenment thinkers believed that thebest form of government was a monarchy. In it, aruler respected the rights of people. They tried toinfluence rulers to rule fairly. Rulers followed theseideas in part but were unwilling to give up muchpower. Frederick the Great made changes inPrussia. He gave his people religious freedom,improved schooling, and reformed the justice sys-tem. However, he did nothing to end serfdom,which made peasants slaves to the wealthy

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landowners. Joseph II of Austria did end serfdom.Once he died, though, the nobles who owned theland were able to undo his reform.

Catherine the Great of Russia was another ofthe rulers influenced by Enlightenment ideas. Shetried to reform Russia’s laws but met resistance.She hoped to end serfdom, but a bloody peasants’revolt convinced her to change her mind. Instead,she gave the nobles even more power over serfs.Catherine did manage to gain new land for Russia.Russia, Prussia, and Austria agreed to dividePoland among themselves. As a result, Poland dis-appeared as a separate nation for almost 150 years.

The American RevolutionKEY IDEA Enlightenment ideas help spur the Americancolonies to create a new nation.

The British colonies in North America grew inpopulation and wealth during the 1700s. The

13 colonies also enjoyed a kind of self-government.People in the colonies began to see themselves lessand less as British subjects. Still, Parliament passedlaws that governed the colonies. One set of lawsbanned trade with any nation other than Britain.

The high cost of the French and Indian War,which ended in 1763, led Parliament to pass lawsthat put taxes on the colonists. The colonistsbecame very angry. They had never paid taxesdirectly to the British government before. Theysaid that the taxes violated their rights. SinceParliament had no members from the colonies,they said, Parliament had no right to pass tax lawsthat affected the colonies. They met the first tax,passed in 1765, with a boycott of British goods.Their refusal to buy British products was veryeffective and forced Parliament to repeal the law.

Over the next decade, colonists and Britaingrew further apart. Some colonists wanted to pushthe colonies to independence. They took actionsthat caused Britain to act harshly. These harshresponses, in turn, angered some moderatecolonists. Eventually, the conflict led to shooting.Representatives of the colonists met in a congressand formed an army. In July of 1776, theyannounced that they were independent of Britain.They issued a Declaration of Independence thatwas based on the ideas of the Enlightenment.

From 1775 to 1781, the colonists and Britainfought a war in North America. The colonists had a poorly equipped army and the British were pow-

erful. However, in the end, they won their in-dependence. The British people grew tired of thecost of the war and pushed Parliament to agree to apeace. The Americans were also helped greatly byaid from France. In 1783, the two sides signed atreaty in which Britain recognized the independentUnited States.

The 13 states formed a new government thatwas very weak. It struggled for a few years, butstates held all the power and the central govern-ment had little. In 1787, many leaders met againand wrote a new framework of government.

The Constitution of the United States drew onmany Enlightenment ideas. From Montesquieu, itput in effect the separation of powers into threebranches of government. Each branch was able toprevent other branches from abusing their power.From Locke, it put power in the hands of the peo-ple. From Voltaire, it protected the rights of peopleto free speech and freedom of religion. FromBeccaria, it set up a fair system of justice. Many ofthese rights were ensured in a set of additions tothe Constitution called the Bill of Rights. Approvalof these additions helped win approval of theConstitution as a whole.

Review1. Contrasting Contrast how people in the Middle

Ages and people in the scientific revolutionlooked at the physical world.

2. Determining Main Ideas How is the scientificrevolution connected to the Enlightenment?

3. Drawing Conclusions What were three majorideas of the Enlightenment?

4. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing EffectsWhat factors led to the spread of theEnlightenment?

5. Analyzing Issues How did the government ofthe United States reflect Enlightenment ideas?

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The French RevolutionBegins

KEY IDEA Economic and social inequalities in the OldRegime helped cause the French Revolution.

In the 1700s, France was the leading country ofEurope. It was the center of the new ideas of

the Enlightenment. However, beneath the surfacethere were major problems causing unrest. Soonthe nation would be torn by a violent revolution.

One problem was that people were not treatedequally in French society. The French were dividedinto three classes, or estates. The First Estate con-sisted of the Roman Catholic clergy. The SecondEstate was made up of rich nobles. Only about twopercent of the people belonged to these twoestates. Yet they owned 20 percent of the land andpaid little or no taxes. They had easy lives.

Everybody else belonged to the Third Estate.This huge group included three types of people:• the bourgeoisie—mostly well-off merchants and

skilled workers who lacked the status of nobles• city workers—cooks, servants, and others who

were poorly paid and often out of work• peasants—farm workers, making up more than 80

percent of the French peopleMembers of the Third Estate were angry. They

had few rights. They paid up to half of their incomein taxes, while the rich paid almost none.

Three factors led to revolution. First, theEnlightenment spread the idea that everyoneshould be equal. The powerless people in the ThirdEstate liked that. Second, the French economy wasfailing. High taxes kept profits low, and food sup-plies were short. The government owed money.Third, King Louis XVI was a weak, unconcernedleader. His wife, Marie Antoinette, was a bigspender and was disliked.

In the 1780s, deeply in debt, France neededmoney. Louis tried to tax the nobles. Instead, theyforced the king to call a meeting of delegates of thethree estates to decide tax issues. The meeting began

in May 1789 with arguments over how to countvotes. In the past, each estate had cast one vote.The top two estates always voted together and gottheir way. Now the Third Estate delegates wantedto change the system. The Third Estate had asmany delegates as the other two estates combined.They wanted each delegate to have a vote. Theking and the other estates did not agree to the plan.

The Third Estate then broke with the others andmet separately. In June 1789, its delegates voted torename themselves the National Assembly. Theyclaimed to represent all the people. This was thebeginning of representative government for France.

Louis tried to make peace. He ordered the clergyand nobles to join the National Assembly. However,trouble erupted. Rumors flew that Swiss soldierspaid by Louis were going to attack French citizens.On July 14, an angry crowd captured the Bastille, aParis prison. The mob wanted to get gunpowderfor their weapons in order to defend the city.

A wave of violence called the Great Fear sweptthe country. Peasants broke into and burned nobles’houses. They tore up documents that had forcedthem to pay fees to the nobles. Late in 1789, a mobof women marched from Paris to the king’s palaceat Versailles. They were angry about high breadprices and demanded that the king move to Paris.They hoped he would end hunger in the city. Theking and queen left Versailles, never to return.

Revolution Brings Reformand Terror

KEY IDEA The revolutionary government of France madereforms but also used terror and violence to retain power.

In August 1789, the National Assembly took stepsto change France. One new law ended all the

special privileges that members of the First andSecond Estates had enjoyed. Another law gave allFrench men equal rights. Though women did notget these rights, it was a bold step. Other laws cutthe power of the Catholic Church. The government

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The French Revolution andNapoleon, 1789–1815

CHAPTER OVERVIEW France’s lower classes revolted against the king. Thousandsdied. Napoleon took control of France and created an empire. After his defeat,European leaders restored the rule of monarchs to the continent.

Summary

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took over church lands, hoping to sell them andraise money.

The new laws about the church divided peoplewho had backed the Revolution. Catholic peasantsremained loyal to the church. They were angry thatthe church would be part of the state. Thereafter,many of them opposed the Revolution’s reforms.

For months the assembly worked on plans for anew government. During this time, Louis was fear-ful for his safety in France. One night he and hisfamily tried to escape the country. They were caught,brought back to Paris, and lived under guard. Afterthis, the king and queen were even less popular.

In the fall of 1791, the assembly drew up a newconstitution that gave the king very little power.The assembly then handed over its power to a newassembly, the Legislative Assembly. After the newassembly began to meet, however, it divided intoopposing groups. Some wanted an end to revolu-tionary changes. Others wanted even more radicalchanges.

At the same time, France faced serious troubleon its borders. Kings in other countries feared thatthe French Revolution would spread to their lands.They wanted to use force to restore control ofFrance to Louis XVI. Soon France found itself atwar—a war it quickly began to lose. Foreign sol-diers were coming near to Paris. Many peoplethought that the king and queen were ready to helpthe enemy. Angry French citizens imprisoned them.Many nobles were killed in other mob action.

The government took strong steps to meet thedanger from foreign troops. It took away the king’spowers. In 1792, the National Convention—anothernew government—was formed. It declared Louis acommon citizen and then put him to death. It alsoordered thousands of French people into the army.

Soon one man, Maximilien Robespierre, beganto lead France. He made many changes. Heordered the death of many people who did notagree with him. His rule, which began in 1793, wascalled the Reign of Terror. It ended in July 1794,when Robespierre himself was put to death.

France got a new, but less revolutionary, plan ofgovernment. Tired of the killing and unrest, theFrench people wanted a return to order.

Napoleon Forges an EmpireKEY IDEA Napoleon Bonaparte, a military genius, seizedpower in France and made himself emperor.

Napoleon Bonaparte became the master ofFrance. In 1795, he led soldiers against

French royalists who were attacking the NationalConvention. For this, he was hailed as the savior ofthe French republic. Later he invaded Italy to endthe threat from Austrian troops located there.

By 1799, the unsettled French government hadlost the people’s support. In a bold move, Napoleonused troops to seize control of the government. Hethen wielded complete power over the country.Other nations feared his power and attacked Franceagain. Napoleon led his armies into battle. In 1802,the three nations fighting him agreed to a peace.Napoleon went back to solve problems at home.

He made several changes that were meant tobuild on the Revolution’s good ideas:1. He made tax collection more fair and orderly. As

a result, the government could count on a steadysupply of money.

2. He removed dishonest government workers.3. He started new public schools for ordinary

citizens.4. He gave the church back some of its power.5. He wrote a new set of laws that gave all French

citizens the same rights. However, the new lawstook away many individual rights won during theRevolution. For example, they limited freespeech and restored slavery in French colonies.Napoleon had hoped to make his empire larger

in both Europe and the New World. In 1801, hehad sent soldiers to retake the island of present-dayHaiti. During a civil war, slaves on the island hadseized power. But Napoleon had to give up on hisplan. Too many of his soldiers died in battle orfrom disease. Napoleon eventually abandoned hisNew World plans. In 1803, he sold the largest partof France’s North American land—the hugeLouisiana Territory—to the United States.

Stopped in the Americas, Napoleon moved toadd to his power in Europe. In 1804, he made him-self emperor of France. He quickly captured coun-try after country. Other nations joined against him.However, after Napoleon won a major battle inAustria in 1805, almost all of his European enemiesagreed to a peace treaty. Napoleon’s only loss dur-ing this time was to the British navy off the south-west coast of Spain. This loss prevented him from

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invading and conquering Britain. That failurewould be costly.

Napoleon’s Empire CollapsesKEY IDEA Napoleon’s conquests aroused nationalisticfeelings across Europe and contributed to his downfall.

Napoleon loved power. He took steps to makehis empire larger. However, these steps led to

mistakes that brought about his downfall.Napoleon’s first mistake was caused by his desire

to crush Britain. He wanted to hurt the British econ-omy. So in 1806 he tried stopping all trade betweenBritain and the lands he controlled. The effort failed,for some Europeans secretly brought in Britishgoods. At the same time, the British put their ownblockade around Europe. Because their navy was sostrong, it worked very well. Soon the French econ-omy, along with others, began to grow weak.

Napoleon’s second mistake was to make hisbrother king of Spain in 1808. The Spanish peoplewere loyal to their own king. With help fromBritain, they fought back against Napoleon for fiveyears. Napoleon lost 300,000 troops.

Napoleon’s third mistake was perhaps his worst.In 1812, he tried to conquer Russia, far to the east.He entered Russia with more than 400,000 sol-diers. He got as far as Moscow, which was desertedand on fire. His soldiers found no food or suppliesthere. Winter was coming, and Napoleon orderedthem to head back to France. As the soldiersmarched west, bitter cold, hunger, and attacks byRussian troops killed thousands. Thousands moredeserted. By the time the army exited Russian ter-ritory, only 10,000 of its men were able to fight.

Other leaders saw that Napoleon was weakernow, and they moved to attack. He was defeated inGermany in 1813. In 1814, Napoleon gave up histhrone and was sent away. Nevertheless, in March1815, he boldly returned to France. He took powerand raised another army. By June, though,Napoleon had lost his final battle near a Belgiantown called Waterloo. This time he was sent to afar-off island in the southern Atlantic Ocean. Hedied there in 1821.

The Congress of Vienna KEY IDEA After exiling Napoleon, European leaders atthe Congress of Vienna tried to restore order andreestablish peace.

After Napoleon’s first defeat, in 1814, leaders ofmany nations met for months. They tried to

draw up a peace plan for Europe that would lastmany years. They called the meeting the Congressof Vienna. The key person there was the foreignminister of Austria, Klemens von Metternich. Heshaped the peace conditions that were accepted.

Metternich insisted on three goals. First, hewanted to make sure that the French would notattack another country again. Second, he wanted abalance of power in which no one nation was toostrong. Third, he wanted to put kings back incharge of the countries from which they had beenremoved. The leaders agreed with Metternich’sideas. An age of European peace began.

Across Europe, kings and princes reclaimedtheir thrones. Most of them were conservatives anddid not encourage individual liberties. They did not want any calls for equal rights. However, manypeople still believed in the ideals of the FrenchRevolution. They thought that all people should beequal and share in power. Later they would fightfor these rights again.

People in the Americas also felt the desire forfreedom. Spanish colonies in the Americas revoltedagainst the restored Spanish king. Many nationswon independence from Spain. National feelinggrew in many places in Europe, too. Soon people inareas such as Italy, Germany, and Greece would rebeland form new countries. The French Revolution hadchanged the politics of Europe and beyond.

Review1. Analyzing Causes What factors led to the

French Revolution?2. Following Chronological Order Trace the

fate of Louis XVI during the Revolution.3. Summarizing What did Napoleon do to restore

order in France?4. Making Inferences Why did Napoleon’s empire

collapse?5. Determining Main Ideas What were the goals

of the Congress of Vienna?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Nationalist Revolutions Sweep the West, 1789–1900

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Spurred by the French Revolution, Latin American colonieswon independence. In Europe, liberals and radicals pushed for change but con-servatives resisted. Nationalism spread throughout Europe, and Germany andItaly formed as nations. Artistic and intellectual movements emphasized natureand feelings, true life, and “impressions” of a subject or moment.

Summary

Latin American Peoples Win Independence

KEY IDEA Spurred by discontent and Enlightenmentideas, peoples in Latin America fought colonial rule.

In the early 1800s, colonial peoples throughoutLatin America followed the example of the

French Revolution. In the name of freedom andequality, they fought for their independence.

In Latin America, society was divided into sixclasses of people. Peninsulares—those born inSpain—were at the top. Next came creoles, orSpaniards who had been born in Latin America.Below them were mestizos, with mixed Europeanand Indian ancestry. Next were mulattos, withmixed European and African ancestry, and Afri-cans. At the bottom were Indians.

The first movement for independence was theFrench colony of Saint Domingue, on the island ofHispaniola. Almost all of the people who lived inthe colony were slaves of African origin. In 1791,about 100,000 of them rose in revolt. ToussaintL’Ouverture became the leader. By 1801, he hadmoved to the eastern part of the island and freedthe slaves there. In 1804, the former colonydeclared its independence as Haiti.

Meanwhile in other parts of Latin America, cre-oles felt that they were unfairly treated by the gov-ernment and the peninsulares. This bad feelingboiled over when Napoleon overthrew the king ofSpain and named his own brother as king. Creoles inLatin America had no loyalty to the new king andrevolted. However, even after the old king wasrestored, they did not give up their fight for freedom.

Two leaders pushed much of South America toindependence. Simón Bolívar was a writer, fighter,and political thinker. He survived defeats and exileto win independence for Venezuela in 1821. Joséde San Martín helped win independence forArgentina in 1816 and Chile in 1818. Bolívar ledtheir combined armies to a great victory in 1824

that gave independence to all the former Spanishcolonies.

Turmoil continued in the region. Local leadersdisagreed and split the new countries up into smallerunits. In 1830, the territory of Gran Colombiadivided into Colombia, Ecuador, and Venezuela.

In Mexico, mestizos and Indians led the fightfor independence. The struggle began in 1810when Miguel Hidalgo, a village priest, called for arevolt against Spanish rule. Creoles united withthe Spanish government to put down this revolt bythe lower classes, whom they feared. Fightingcontinued until 1815, when the creoles won. In1820, a new government took charge in Spain.Fearing that they would lose their rights this time,the creoles now united with the rebels and foughtfor independence. In 1821, Spain acceptedMexico’s independence. In 1823, the region ofCentral America separated itself from Mexico. In1841, the United Provinces of Central Americasplit into five republics.

In Brazil, independence took a different turn.When Napoleon’s armies entered Portugal in 1807,the royal family escaped to Brazil, its largest colony.For the next 14 years, it was the center of thePortuguese empire. By the time Napoleon wasdefeated, the people of Brazil wanted their inde-pendence. In 1822, 8,000 creoles signed a paperasking the son of Portugal’s king to rule an inde-pendent Brazil. He agreed, and Brazil became freethat year through a bloodless revolt.

Europe Faces RevolutionsKEY IDEA Liberal and nationalist uprisings challengedthe old conservative order of Europe.

In the first half of the 1800s, three forces strug-gled for power within the countries of Europe.

Conservatives supported the kings who had ruledthese lands for many centuries. These were noblesand other people who owned large amounts of

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property. Liberals wanted to give more power toelected legislatures. They were typically middle-class merchants and business people. They wantedto limit voting rights to people who were educatedand owned property. Radicals wanted the end ofrule by kings and full voting rights for all people,even the poor.

At the same time, another movement arose inEurope—nationalism. This was the belief that aperson’s loyalty should go not to the country’s rulerbut to the nation itself. Nationalists thought thatmany factors linked people to one another. Firstwas nationality, or a common ethnic ancestry.Shared language, culture, history, and religion werealso seen as ties that connected people. Peoplesharing these traits were thought to have a right toa land they could call their own. Groups with theirown government were called nation-states. Leadersbegan to see that this feeling could be a powerfulforce for uniting a people. The French Revolutionwas a prime example of this.

The first people to win self-rule during thisperiod were the Greeks. For centuries, Greece hadbeen part of the Ottoman Empire. In 1821, Greeksrevolted against this Turkish rule. Rulers in Europedid not like the idea of revolts, but the Greek causewas popular. Other nations gave aid to the Greeks,helping to defeat the Ottomans’ forces in 1827. TheGreeks won their independence by 1830.

Other revolts broke out. In 1830, the Belgiansdeclared their independence from rule by theDutch. Nationalists began a long struggle to unifyall of Italy, which had been broken into many dif-ferent states. Poles revolted against Russian rule.Conservatives managed to put down these rebel-lions. However, new ones broke out again in 1848among Hungarians and Czechs. Once again, theywere put down forcefully.

Events differed in France. Riots in 1830 forcedthe king to flee and put a new king in his place. Anew revolt broke out in 1848 that overthrew theking and established a republic. However, the radi-cals who had won this victory began arguing overhow much France should be changed. Somewanted only political changes. Others wanted socialand economic changes that would help the poor.When these forces fought in the streets, the Frenchgave up on the radical program. They introduced anew government, with a legislature and a strongpresident. The new president was Louis-Napoleon,Napoleon Bonaparte’s nephew. He later named

himself emperor of France. He built railroads andpromoted the growth of France’s industry. Theeconomy revived and more people had jobs.

Russia in the early 1800s had yet to build anindustrial economy. The biggest problem was thatserfdom still existed there. Peasants were bound tothe nobles whose land they worked. Russia’s rulersdid not wish to free the serfs, though. They fearedthey would lose the support of the nobles. In the1850s, the Russian army lost a war to take over partof the Ottoman Empire. The new ruler of Russia,Alexander II, decided that Russia’s lack of a mod-ern economy caused the defeat. He decided tobegin many reforms.

The first, in 1861, was to free the serfs. Thoughit seemed bold, Alexander’s move went only partway. Nobles kept half their land and were paid forthe half that went to the peasants. The former serfswere not given the land. They had to pay for it, andthis debt kept them still tied to the land. The czar’sefforts to make changes ended short when he wasassassinated in 1881. Alexander III, his successor,brought back tight control over the country andmoved to make the economy more industrial.

Nationalism Case Study:Italy and Germany

KEY IDEA The force of nationalism contributed to theformation of two new nations and a new political orderin Europe.

Nationalism can be a force uniting people whoare divided from others like themselves. The

case studies on Germany and Italy will show this.However, nationalism can also cause the break-upof a state. This may occur when a group resistsbeing part of a state. The Greeks in the Ottomanempire are an example. Finally, nationalism canpull different groups together to build a nation-state. The United States is a good example of this.

In the late 1800s, feelings of nationalism threat-ened to break apart three aging empires. TheAustrian Empire was forced to split in two parts,Austria and Hungary. However, nationalist feelingcontinued to plague these rulers for 40 years andthe kingdoms later broke up into several smallerstates. In Russia, harsh rule and a policy of forcingother peoples to adopt Russian ways helped pro-duce a revolution in 1917 that overthrew the czar.The Ottoman Empire, like the other two, brokeapart around the time of World War I.

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Italians used national feeling to build a nation,not destroy an empire. Large parts of Italy wereruled by the kings of Austria and Spain. Nationaliststried to unite the nation in 1848, but the revolt wasbeaten down. Hopes rested with the Italian king ofthe state of Piedmont-Sardinia. His chief minister,Count Cavour, worked to expand the king’s controlover other areas of the north. Meanwhile, GiuseppiGaribaldi led an army of patriots that won controlof southern areas. He put those areas under controlof the king. In 1866, the area around Venice wasadded to the king’s control. Four years later, theking completed the uniting of Italy.

Germany had also been divided into many differ-ent states for many centuries. Since 1815, 39 stateshad joined in a league called the German Con-federation. Prussia and Austria-Hungary controlledthis group. Over time, Prussia rose to become morepowerful. Leading this move was prime ministerOtto von Bismarck. He joined with Austria to gaincontrol of new lands. He then quickly turned againstAustria, defeating it in war to gain even more terri-tory. Other German states formed a new confedera-tion that Prussia alone controlled. Bismarck’s nextstep was to win the loyalty of the remaining Germanareas in the south. He purposefully angered a weakFrance so that it would declare war on Prussia.When the Prussian army won, Bismarck reached hisgoal. The war with France had given the southernGerman states a nationalistic feeling. They joinedthe other states in naming the king of Prussia ashead of united Germany.

As a result of these events, the balance of powerin Europe had changed. Germany and Britain werethe strongest powers, followed by France. Austria,Russia, and Italy were all even weaker.

Revolutions in the ArtsKEY IDEA Artistic and intellectual movements bothreflected and fueled changes in Europe in the 1800s.

In the early 1800s, the Enlightenment wasreplaced by another movement, called romanti-

cism. This movement in art and ideas showed greatinterest in nature and in the thoughts and feelingsof the individual person. Gone was the idea thatreason and order were good things. Romanticthinkers valued feeling, not reason, and nature, notsociety. Romantic thinkers held idealized views ofthe past as simpler, better times. They valued thecommon people. As a result, they enjoyed folk sto-

ries, songs, and traditions. They also supported callsfor democracy. However, not all romantic artistsand thinkers supported these ideas.

Romantic writers had different themes. Frenchwriter Victor Hugo—who wrote The Hunchback ofNotre Dame—told stories of the poor individualwho fights against an unfair society. English poetWilliam Wordsworth celebrated the beauty ofnature. Novels such as Mary Shelley’s Frankensteinwere horror tales about good and evil.

Romanticism was important in music as well.Composers wrote music that tried to appeal to thehearts and souls of listeners. The German Ludwigvan Beethoven was the foremost of these composers.

In the middle 1800s, however, the grim realitiesof industrial life made the dreams of romanticismseem silly. A new movement arose—realism. Artistsand writers tried to show life as it really was. Theyused their art to protest social conditions that theythought were unfair. French writer Emile Zola’sbooks revealed harsh working conditions for thepoor, which led to new laws aimed at helping thosepeople. In England, Charles Dickens wrote manynovels that showed how poor people suffered in thenew industrial economy.

A new device, the camera, was developed inthis period. Photographers could use it to capture areal moment on film. In the 1860s, Parisian paintersreacted against the realistic style. This new art style—impressionism—used light and shimmering colors toproduce an “impression” of a subject or moment.Composers created moods with their music. Theyused combinations of musical instruments and tonepatterns to create mental pictures. Things like thesight of the sea or a warm day were favorites of thecomposers.

Review1. Making Inferences How did the divisions

of Mexican society affect the movement to independence?

Drawing Conclusions2. Explain how the freeing of Russia’s serfs in 1861

was an example of both liberal and conservativethought.

3. Give one example each of how nationalism was aunifying and a destructive force.

4. Determining Main Ideas How did artisticideas change in the 1800s?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Industrial Revolution,1700–1900

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Britain fueled an Industrial Revolution, which changed soci-ety. Workers benefited eventually, but at first they suffered bad working and living conditions. Other nations followed Britain’s example and industrialized.Thinkers reacted to these changes by developing new views of society.Reformers pushed for changes to make society better.

Summary

The Beginnings ofIndustrialization

KEY IDEA The Industrial Revolution started in GreatBritain and soon spread elsewhere.

In the early 1700s, large landowners in Britainbought much of the land that had been owned

by poorer farmers. They introduced new ways offarming. One technique was to use a seed drill.This machine planted seeds in well-spaced rows.Before this, seeds were scattered by hand over theground. As a result, more seeds sprouted. Anothertechnique was to rotate crops annually. Those whoraised livestock used new methods to increase thesize of their animals. As a result of these improve-ments, farm output increased. More food was avail-able, and people enjoyed healthier diets. The popu-lation of Britain grew. The agricultural revolutionhelped produce the Industrial Revolution.

The Industrial Revolution refers to the greatlyincreased output of machine-made goods thatbegan in Great Britain in the mid–1700s.

For several reasons, Britain was the first countryto have an economy based on industry. It had 1) coal and water to power machines, 2) iron ore to make machines and tools, 3) rivers to move peo-ple and goods, and 4) good harbors for shippinggoods to other lands. Britain also had a system ofbanks that could fund new businesses. Finally, theBritish government was stable, which gave thecountry a positive attitude.

The Industrial Revolution began in the textileindustry. Several new inventions helped businessesproduce cloth and clothing more quickly. Businessowners built huge buildings—factories—thathoused large machines powered by water.

The invention of the steam engine in 1705brought in a new source of power. The steamengine used fire to heat water and produce steam,which was used to drive the engine. Eventuallysteam-driven machines were used to run factories.

At the same time, improvements were beingmade in transportation. An American invented thefirst steam-driven boat. This allowed people to sendgoods more quickly over rivers and canals. TheBritish also built better roads that included layersof stone and rock to prevent wagons from beingstuck in the mud.

Starting in the 1820s, steam fueled a new burstof industrial growth. At that time, a British engineerset up the world’s first railroad line. It used a steam-driven locomotive. Soon, railroads were being builtall over Britain. The railroad boom helped businessowners move their goods to market more quickly.The boom in railroad building created thousands ofnew jobs in several different industries. The railroadhad a deep effect on British society. For instance,people who lived in the country moved to cities.

IndustrializationCase Study: Manchester

KEY IDEA The factory system changed the way peoplelived and worked, ibringing both benefits and problems.

The change to an industrial economy broughtmany benefits to British people. They used coal

to heat their homes, ate better food, and wore bet-ter clothing. Many people also suffered, however.Industrialization caused many changes.

One change was a rise in the proportion of peo-ple who lived in cities. For centuries, most peoplein Europe had lived in the country. Now more andmore lived in cities. The number of cities withmore than 100,000 people doubled between 1800and 1850. Because they grew quickly, cities werenot ideal places to live. People could not find goodhousing, schools, or police protection. The citieswere filthy with garbage, and sickness sweptthrough slum areas. The average life span of a per-son living in a city was 17 years—compared to 38years in the countryside.

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Working conditions were harsh as well. Theaverage worker spent 14 hours a day on the job, 6days a week. Factories were dark, and the powerfulmachines were dangerous. Many workers werekilled or seriously injured in accidents. Some riotedagainst the poor living and working conditions.

Some people improved their lives in the neweconomy. The middle class—made up of skilledworkers, professionals, business people, andwealthy farmers—did well. They enjoyed comfort-able lives in pleasant homes. This class began togrow in size, and some people in it grew wealthierthan the nobles who had dominated society formany centuries. Still, nobles looked down on thepeople who gained their wealth from business.They, in turn, looked down on the poor workers.

Overall, the Industrial Revolution had many goodeffects. It increased the amount of goods and servicesa nation could produce and added to its wealth. Itcreated jobs for workers and over time helped themlive better lives. It produced better diets, betterhousing, and cheaper, better clothing. Many of thesebenefits were far in the future, however.

The English city of Manchester showed howindustrialization changed society. Rapid growthmade the city crowded and filthy. The factory own-ers risked their money and worked long hours tomake their businesses grow. In return, they enjoyedhuge profits and built huge houses. The workersalso worked long hours, but had few benefits.

Many workers were children, some only sixyears old. Not until 1819 did the British govern-ment put limits on using children as workers. Withso much industry in one place, Manchester suf-fered in another way. Coal smoke and cloth dyespolluted the air and water.Yet, Manchester also cre-ated many jobs, a variety of consumer goods, andgreat wealth.

Industrialization SpreadsKEY IDEA The industrialization that began in GreatBritain spread to other parts of the world.

Other countries followed the example of Britainand began to change their economies to an

industrial base. The United States was one of thefirst. Like Britain, it had water power, sources ofcoal and iron, and a ready supply of workers. TheUnited States also benefited from conflict withBritain. During the War of 1812, Britain stoppedshipping goods to the United States. As a result,

American industries had a chance to supply thegoods that Americans wanted.

The switch to an industrial economy began in theUnited States in the textile industry. In 1789, basedon memory and a partial design, a British workerbrought the secret of Britain’s textile machines toNorth America. He built a machine to spin thread. In1813, a group of Massachusetts investors built a com-plex of factories that made cloth. Just a few yearslater they built an even larger complex in the town of Lowell. Thousands of workers, mostly young girls,came to these towns to work in the factories.

In the United States, industry grew first in theNortheast. In the last decades of the 1800s, a rapidburst of industrial growth took place that was morewidespread. This boom was fueled by large suppliesof coal, oil, and iron. Helping, too, was the appear-ance of a number of new inventions, including theelectric light. As in Britain, railroad building wasalso a big part of this industrial growth.

Businesses needed huge sums of money to takeon big projects. To raise money, companies soldshares of ownership, called stock. All those whoheld stock were part owners of the company. Thisform of organizing a business is called a corporation.

Industrial growth spread to Europe as well.Belgium was the first to adopt British ways. It wasrich in iron and coal and had good waterways. Ithad the resources needed.

Germany was politically divided until the late1800s. As a result, it could not develop a wide indus-trial economy. However, west-central Germany wasrich in coal and did become a leading industrial site.

Across Europe, small areas began to change tothe new industries. Industrial growth did not occurin France until after 1830. It was helped by thegovernment’s construction of a large network ofrailroads. Some countries—such as Austria-Hungary and Spain—had problems that stoppedthem from building new industries.

The Industrial Revolution changed the world.Countries that had adopted an industrial economyenjoyed more wealth and power than those thathad not. The countries of Europe soon began totake advantage of lands in Africa and Asia. Theyused these lands as sources of raw materials neededfor their factories. They saw the people only asmarkets for the goods they made. They took con-trol of these lands, a practice called imperialism.

The Industrial Revolution changed life foreverin the countries that industrialized. Problems

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caused by industrialization led to movements forsocial reform.

Reforming the IndustrialWorld

KEY IDEA The Industrial Revolution led to economic,social, and political reforms.

The new industrial economy led to new ways of thinking about society. Some economists

thought that the government should leave businessowners alone. Their view was called laissez-faire,from a French phrase meaning “let people do asthey please.” Adam Smith argued that putting nolimits on business or on trade would help a nation’seconomy grow the most. He and other economistssupported a system called capitalism. In a capitalisteconomy, people invest their money in businessesto make a profit. Over time, society as a wholewould benefit, said Smith and the others. Thesepeople warned the government not to make lawstrying to protect workers. Such laws would upset theworkings of the economy, they said.

Other thinkers challenged these ideas. Onegroup was called the Utilitarians. They thought thatan idea or practice was good only as it proved use-ful. They thought it was unfair that workers shouldwork so hard for such little pay and live in suchpoor conditions. They thought the governmentshould do away with great differences in wealthamong people.

Some thinkers went farther and urged that busi-nesses should be owned by society as a whole, notby individuals. Then a few people would not growwealthy at the expense of many. Instead, all wouldenjoy the benefits of increased production. Thisview—called socialism—grew out of a belief inprogress and a concern for justice and fairness.

A German thinker named Karl Marx wroteabout a radical form of socialism called Marxism.He said that factory owners and workers werebound to oppose one another in the struggle forpower. Over time, he said, the capitalist systemwould destroy itself. The great mass of workerswould rebel against the wealthy few. Marx wroteThe Communist Manifesto in which he describedcommunism, a form of complete socialism in whichall production is owned by the people. Privateproperty would not exist. In the early 1900s, theseideas would inspire revolution.

While thinkers discussed these different ideas,workers took action to try to improve their lives.Many formed into unions that tried to bargain withbusiness owners for better pay and better workingconditions. When business owners resisted theseefforts, the workers went on strike, or refused towork. The struggle to win the right to form unionswas long and hard for workers in Britain and theUnited States. Still, by the late 1800s, workers inboth countries had made some progress.

The British Parliament and reformers in theUnited States also took steps to try to fix some ofthe worst features of industrialism. Britain passedlaws that put limits on how much women and chil-dren could work. Groups in the United Statespushed for similar laws.

Another major reform movement of the 1800swas the drive to abolish slavery. The BritishParliament took the first step by ending the slavetrade in 1807. It abolished slavery completely in1833. Slavery was finally ended in the United Statesin 1865, after the Civil War. Spain ended slavery inPuerto Rico in 1873 and in Cuba in 1886. Brazilbecame the last country to ban slavery, which it didin 1888.

Women were active in these and other reformmovements. As they fought for the end of slavery,many women launched an effort to win equal rightsfor women. The movement for equality began inthe United States in 1848. In 1888, women fromaround the world formed a group dedicated to thiscause.

Reformers took on other projects as well. Somepushed for—and won—improved education.Others hoped to improve conditions in prisons.

Review1. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

Why did the Industrial Revolution begin inBritain?

Determining Main Ideas2. What was the impact of the railroad?3. What reforms were popular in the 1800s?4. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

What effects did industrialization have on society?

5. Developing Historical Perspective How didindustrialization spread in the United States?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Age of Imperialism,1850–1914

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Several factors led Europeans to claim control of almost allof Africa. Some Africans resisted, but most efforts failed. The Ottoman Empirebroke apart, and European powers took some of its lands. The British took con-trol of India, where they modernized the economy to benefit themselves.Europeans gained lands in Southeast Asia, and the United States sought colonies.

Summary

The Scramble for AfricaKEY IDEA Ignoring the claims of African ethnic groups,kingdoms, and city-states, Europeans established colo-nial claims.

In the early 1800s, European nations had just atoehold in Africa, holding only areas along the

coast. In the mid-1800s, though, Europeans hadrenewed interest in Africa. This rose, in part, from adesire to create overseas empires, a movementcalled imperialism. European nations wanted tocontrol lands that had raw materials they needed fortheir industrial economies. They also wanted toopen up markets for the goods they made. National-ism fed the drive for empires as well. A nation oftenfelt that gaining colonies was a measure of its great-ness. Racism was another reason. Europeansthought that they were better than Africans. Finally,Christian missionaries supported imperialism. Theythought that European rule would end the slavetrade and help them convert native peoples.

As a result of these factors, the nations ofEurope began to seize lands in Africa. Technologyhelped them succeed. Steamships, railroads, andtelegraphs made them able to penetrate deep intoAfrica and still have contact with the home country.Machine guns gave them a weapon of far greaterpower than any African peoples possessed. Finally,the drug quinine gave doctors a weapon againstmalaria, which struck Europeans. They were alsohelped by the lack of unity among African peoples.

The competition for African land, called the“scramble for Africa” began in the 1880s. The dis-covery of gold and diamonds in Africa increasedEuropean interest in the continent. So that theywould not fight over the land, European powersmet in Berlin in 1884–85. They agreed that anynation could claim any part of Africa simply bytelling the others and by showing that it had controlof the area. They then moved quickly to grab land.

By 1914, only Liberia and Ethiopia were independ-ent of European control.

The Europeans began to build plantationswhere they grew peanuts, palm oil, cocoa, and rub-ber. They also mined Africa’s important minerals.The Congo produced copper and tin. South Africahad gold and diamonds.

In South Africa, three groups struggled over the land. In the early 1800s, the Zulu chief Shakacreated a large kingdom. The British seized controlof this land in 1887. Meanwhile, the British woncontrol of the Dutch colony on the southern coast.Many thousands of Dutch settlers, called Boers,moved north to escape the British. At the end ofthe century, the Boers fought a vicious war with theBritish. The Boers lost, and they joined the British-run Union of South Africa.

ImperialismCase Study: Nigeria

KEY IDEA Europeans embarked on a new phase ofempire-building that affected both Africa and the rest ofthe world.

European nations wanted to control more of thelife of their conquered peoples. As a result, each

colonized region operated under one of these forms:• colony—governed by a foreign power• protectorate—allowed its own government but

was under the control of a foreign power• sphere of influence—claimed as the exclusive

investment or trading realm of a foreign power• economic imperialism—controlled by private

businesses rather than by a foreign governmentThe imperialist powers had two main methods

of running their colonies. Britain and the UnitedStates used indirect control. In this system, localrulers had power over day-to-day matters. Therewere also councils of native peoples and govern-

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ment officials. These councils were a first step fornative peoples to someday govern themselves.

Britain tried to rule Nigeria through indirectcontrol. Because the area was huge and peopled bymany different groups, it was difficult for the Britishto rule directly. They let local chiefs maintain orderover their areas and collect taxes. The system didnot always work. Chiefs had ruled before in thesoutheast and southwest of Nigeria. The chiefsresented having their power limited.

France and other European nations used theother method—direct control. Feeling that nativepeoples could not handle the complex business ofrunning a country, the European power governed.The French also had a policy of assimilation. Allinstitutions were patterned after their counterpartsin France. They hoped that the native peopleswould learn and adopt French ways.

Some Africans tried to resist imperialism.People in Algeria fought against the French foralmost 50 years. In German East Africa, thousandsdied when they tried to use spiritual power to fightGerman machine guns. Only in Ethiopia did resis-tance succeed. There, Emperor Menelik II cleverlyplayed one European country against another. In1896, he used European weapons to defeat aninvading Italian army. With this victory, Ethiopiastayed independent.

Africans did enjoy some benefits from colonialrule. European governments put an end to ethnicconflict. Colonial powers brought Africaneconomies fully into the world market and builtrailroads, dams, and telephone and telegraph lines.

For the most part, though, imperialism causeddamage. Traditional African society was destroyed.People were forced out of their homes and made towork under horrible conditions. Finally, the politi-cal boundaries that Europeans drew had no rela-tion to ethnic divisions in Africa. These boundariescreated problems many decades later when thecolonies became independent nations.

Europeans Claim Muslim Lands

KEY IDEA European nations expand their empires byseizing territories from Muslim states.

The Ottoman Empire, based in modern Turkey,had lasted for hundreds of years. By the 1800s,

it was weak. In 1830, Greece won its independenceand Serbia won the right to govern itself. European

nations eyed what remained of the empire hungrily.Russia hoped to win control of the Black Sea so

it could ship grain across the Mediterranean Sea. Itfought a war with the Ottomans in the 1850s butlost when Britain and France joined against it. Still,the Ottomans later lost almost all of their land inEurope and parts of Africa. By 1914, the empirewas much smaller than it had ever been. Muslimleaders, seeing this decline, decided to modernizetheir countries.

In Egypt, Muhammad Ali broke away fromOttoman control. He put in place reforms to changethe army and the economy. He pushed Egypt’sfarmers to grow cotton, a cash crop in demand inEurope. However, peasants suffered when theywere turned away from growing food. His grandsoncontinued to modernize. He joined with the Frenchin building the Suez Canal, which connected theMediterranean to the Red Sea. When Egypt hadmoney troubles, Britain took control of the canal—and the country.

In Persia, the Russians and the British com-peted for control with local powers. Russia wantedto win Persia to have access to the Indian Ocean.Britain wanted some land there as a barrierbetween Russia and its colony in India. In the early1900s, oil was discovered in Persia. A British com-pany signed an agreement with Persia’s ruler todevelop these oil fields. Persians rebelled againsttheir ruler—who was corrupt—and the growinginfluence of Europeans. Then Russia and Britainstepped in and took control of the land.

British Imperialism in IndiaKEY IDEA As the Mughal Empire declined, Britainseized almost the whole subcontinent of India.

In the early 1700s, the Mughal Empire of Indiafell into decline. By the middle of the century,

the British East India Company was becoming themost important power in India. It held hugeamounts of land—almost the entire subcontinent.

British law forced India to supply raw materialssuch as tea, indigo (a dye), coffee, and cotton. Thelaw also forced Indian manufacturing out of business.India became even more important when the EastIndia Company built rail lines that linked growingregions in the interior with ports on the coast.

India enjoyed some gains from British rule. Itsrail system was the third largest in the world andhelped make the economy more modern. The

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British made other improvements, too. They builttelephone and telegraph lines, dams, bridges, andcanals. They also improved sanitation and publichealth and built schools. More and more Indianslearned to read.

British rule caused problems as well. Many eco-nomic benefits flowed out of India to Britain. Indianindustry died out because of British trade laws.Many farmers and villages lost their ability to feedthemselves because they were made to grow cashcrops. Many peoples died when famines struck.British racist attitudes damaged Indian culture.

By the mid-1800s, many Indians felt growingresentment. When Indian soldiers heard rumorsthat offended their religious feelings, manyrebelled. The East India Company needed a year—and British troops—to put it down. The Indianslost because of their own divisions. Muslims andHindus did not trust each other. After the revolt,the British government took direct control ofBritish India.

Indians tried other ways of resisting British con-trol. Leaders such as Ram Mohun Roy urgedchanges in traditional Indian practices to makeIndian society more modern. He hoped to freeIndia of foreign control with these changes. Indiansresented the fact that they were treated unfairly.They formed two groups—the Indian NationalCongress and the Muslim League. Both began topush the British to make changes. In the early1900s, they called for self-government.

Imperialism in Southeast Asia

KEY IDEA Demand for Asian products drove Westernimperialists to seek possession of Southeast Asian lands.

European nations also grabbed land in SoutheastAsia and the islands on the edge of the Pacific

Ocean. They wanted the area for its resources andbecause it was close to China. The United Statesjoined this quest for colonies.

European powers found that these lands weregood for growing such cash crops as sugar, coffee,cocoa, rubber, and fruit. As trade in these itemsgrew, Europeans moved to take more land. TheDutch ran Indonesia, where their settlers remainedat the top of society. The British took the port ofSingapore plus Malaysia and Burma (modernMyanmar). Needing workers, the British broughtmany Chinese to Malaysia. France grabbed

Indochina (modern Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam).They made farmers grow rice for export. Becausemost of the rice was shipped away, the farmers hadless to eat even though they were growing morerice than before. One land—Siam (modernThailand)—stayed independent. King Mongkut andhis son modernized Siam without giving up power.

Colonialism brought some features of modernlife to these regions. However, economic changesbenefited European-run businesses, not local people.The native peoples did benefit from better schooling,health, and cleanliness. Plantation farming broughtmillions of people from other areas to Southeast Asia.The mix of cultures and religions did not always gosmoothly. Even today, some conflict between groupsresults from this period.

In the late 1800s, the United States also beganto seek colonies. In 1898, as a result of the Spanish-American War, the United States won possession of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippine Islands.Filipino nationalists fought Americans for theirfreedom, just as they had fought the Spaniardsbefore. The United States defeated the rebels andpromised to give the Philippines self-rule later. Inthe meantime, American businesses took advantageof Filipino workers.

Some American businessmen grew wealthyfrom sugar plantations in Hawaii. In the 1890s,when Queen Liliuokalani tried to regain control ofher country, they overthrew her. They declared arepublic and asked the United States to annex—take possession of—Hawaii. In 1898, it became aterritory of the United States.

Review1. Summarizing What led to European imperial-

ism, and why did it succeed?2. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

What happened when Africans tried to resistimperialism?

3. Comparing and Contrasting Contrast how theBritish and French ruled their colonies.

4. Drawing Conclusions How were the effects ofimperialism in Southeast Asia typical of those forother regions?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Transformations Around theGlobe, 1800–1914

CHAPTER OVERVIEW In China, a weak government could not resist Europeanpower. In Japan, a reforming emperor modernized the country and launchedimperialist expansion. The Latin American economies fell prey to European businesses, and the United States became the dominant power in the region. A revolution freed Mexico from France, but civil war raged for decades.

Summary

China Resists OutsideInfluence

KEY IDEA Western economic pressure forced China toopen to foreign trade and influence.

In the late 1700s, China was self-sufficient. It hada strong farming economy based on growing rice.

Other crops, introduced from the Americas, helpedto feed its large population. Industry made silk, cot-ton, and ceramics. Mines produced salt, tin, silver,and iron. China needed nothing from the outsideworld.

China allowed only limited trade with Europeanpowers, and it all had to come through one port.Also, the trade at this port was in China’s favor. Inother words, the Chinese sold more than theybought. Europeans, especially the British, wereeager to find something that the Chinese wouldwant in large quantities. In the early 1800s, theyfound it—the drug opium, shipped mostly fromIndia. Soon millions of Chinese were addicted toopium, and the Chinese government complained.When the British refused to stop the trade, warbroke out. Because British ships had more power-ful guns, China lost the war. As a result, in 1842 theBritish took possession of Hong Kong. Later, theUnited States and European nations won the rightto trade in five ports. The Chinese resented thesetreaties but could not stop them.

China had internal problems as well. The popu-lation had grown quickly. Yet food production hadbarely increased, so millions starved. The Chinesebegan to rebel against their government. A leaderarose in southern China who hoped to save China.He launched a rebellion that won control of largeparts of the south, including the city of Nanjing.The government needed 14 years to put down theTaiping Rebellion. The fighting resulted in the deathof millions.

In the late 1800s, European powers and Japaneach won a foothold in China—a “sphere of

influence.” This is a region in which a foreignnation controls trade and investment. The UnitedStates opposed these steps. It urged an Open DoorPolicy, in which all powers had equal access toChinese markets. While the Europeans agreed, theresult had little benefit for China. Though it wasnot formally carved into colonies, it was clearlydominated by foreign powers.

The Empress Cixi ruled China in fact, eventhough younger emperors ruled in name. She supported some reforms. She backed the self-strengthening movement, which produced newships for China. The program was not a completesuccess, though. In 1898, the young EmperorGuangxu tried to put in place broader reforms.Conservatives didn’t like this. The retired Cixi hadhim arrested and took back control of the govern-ment. China had lost a chance to change.

Many Chinese grew increasingly resentful offoreign influence. They formed the Society ofHarmonious Fists, known as the Boxers. Theywanted to get rid of all Western influence—includ-ing any Chinese who had accepted Western cultureor the Christian religion. In early 1900, an army ofBoxers surrounded Beijing’s European section.After many weeks, they were finally driven out by amultinational army of soldiers.

Finally Cixi began to allow major reforms.Change came slowly, though. In 1908, the court saidthat China would become a constitutional monarchyby 1917. However, unrest would soon return.

Modernization in JapanKEY IDEA Japan followed the model of Western powersby expanding its foreign influence.

From the early 1600s to the mid-1800s, Japanwas virtually isolated. It did have relations with

China and Korea and had limited contact with Dutchtraders. That changed in 1853 when Americansteamships, with cannons, entered Japanese waters.

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The next year, Japan agreed to open up trade to theUnited States. Soon after, it made similar dealswith European nations.

Many Japanese were upset with the shogun, themilitary dictator, who had agreed to these newtreaties. The Emperor Mutsuhito rallied their sup-port and managed to overthrow the shogun. Forthe first time in centuries, the emperor ruled Japandirectly. He reigned for 45 years, from 1867 to1912, in what is called the Meiji era. The nameMeiji, which he chose for his reign, means “enlight-ened rule.”

The emperor was determined to modernize hiscountry. He sent government officials to Europeand the United States. From what they saw, theyshaped a new Japan. They modeled the govern-ment after the strong central government ofGermany. They patterned the army after Germany’sand a new navy after Britain’s. They adapted theAmerican system of schooling for all children. Theemperor also supported changes to Japan’s econ-omy. The country built railroads, mined coal, andconstructed factories.

These steps had results. In just a few years,Japan’s industrial economy equaled almost any inthe world. By 1890, it was the strongest militarypower in Asia. It asked foreigners to give up theirspecial rights in Japan. The countries agreed, and aproud Japan felt equal to them. Now, it wanted todemonstrate its power.

Japan began to expand its influence like theEuropean powers. When China broke an agreementnot to send armies into Korea, Japan went to war. Itdrove China out of Korea and gained Taiwan andsome other islands as new colonies. In 1904, Japanand Russia fought a war over China’s Manchurianterritory. Japan surprised the world by defeating alarger power that was supposed to be stronger.

The next year, Japan attacked Korea, and by1910 it had won complete control. The Japaneseproved to be harsh rulers. They shut down Koreannewspapers and changed schools so that onlyJapanese language and history were taught. Theytook away land from Korean farmers and gave it toJapanese settlers. They built factories to be run byJapanese only. Koreans were not allowed to startnew businesses. Koreans bitterly resented theseactions. They began a nationalist movement andprotested against Japanese rule.

U.S. Economic Imperialism KEY IDEA The United States put increasing economicand political pressure on Latin America in the 1800s.

In the early 1800s, the new nations of LatinAmerica had serious problems. Most people

were poor. They worked on farms for largelandowners who took advantage of them. Anotherproblem was political unrest. Local leaders rivaledone another for power. Military dictators, or caudil-los, generally held power with the backing of thelandowners, because the dictators refused to givepower to the mass of poor people. Only peoplewith property could vote. Sometimes reformers didtake office and lead their countries. They neverlasted long, though. When their reforms upset thepower of the wealthy too much, a caudillo wouldrise and remove them from office.

With Spain no longer ruling the lands, old tradelaws were gone. The new countries could now tradewith any nation. Britain and the United Statesbecame the chief trading partners. Soon businessesin these nations dominated Latin Americaneconomies.

The economies of Latin America depended onexporting goods. They shipped goods such as cof-fee, beef, fruits, and vegetables. Each countryfocused on producing and exporting one or twogoods. The volume of exports rose rapidly duringthe 1800s. The coming of railroads and steamshipshelped. The invention of refrigerated cars helpedalso, allowing producers to increase food exports.

This trade mainly went to benefit other coun-tries, though. Latin America did not develop indus-tries of its own. It had to import manufacturedgoods, which cost more than what was earned fromexports. Also, Latin American countries often bor-rowed money to expand the facilities used to increasethose exports. They had to borrow the money fromforeign banks. When they could not repay the loans,lenders took control of the businesses. In this way,much of Latin American business fell into foreignhands.

In the 1890s, the United States began to take amore active role in Latin American affairs. Thepeople of Cuba were fighting for their independencefrom Spain. American businesses had importantinterests on the island. Also, Spain had placedCuban citizens in concentration camps, which out-

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raged many Americans. For these reasons, theUnited States joined the war. The Spanish quicklygave up, and the United States gained several newterritories. After the war, though, the United Statesput a military government in place in Cuba. Thisstep and others helped promote anger among manyCubans against the United States.

The United States next set its sights on Panama.Ships traveling from the east to the west coast hadto go around the southern tip of South America,which took many weeks. Americans hoped to builda canal across Panama. President Roosevelt offered$10 million to Colombia—to which Panamabelonged—for the right to build this canal. WhenColombia asked for more money, the United Stateshelped the people of Panama revolt for independ-ence. In return, the United States won a ten-mile-wide zone in Panama in which to build a canal. Thecanal opened in 1914.

In 1904, Roosevelt said that the United Stateshad the right to act as “an international policepower” in the western hemisphere. Over the nextdecades, it acted on that belief many times. Whentrouble arose in various countries, the UnitedStates sent its troops. Sometimes they stayed formany years.

Turmoil and Change inMexico

KEY IDEA Political, economic, and social inequalities inMexico triggered a period of revolution and reform.

Antonio López de Santa Anna was a leadingfigure in the early history of independent

Mexico. He fought to win independence fromSpain and led in another war when Spain tried torecapture Mexico. He served as president fourtimes, shrewdly changing his positions in order toretain power.

In the 1830s, though, he was unable to preventpeople in Texas from winning their freedom fromMexico. In the 1840s, the United States annexedTexas, which angered many Mexicans. When a bor-der dispute broke out, the United States invadedMexico. Santa Anna led his nation’s army and wasdefeated. Mexico had to surrender huge amountsof land.

Another important leader of the middle 1800swas Benito Juárez. A Zapotec Indian, Juárezwanted to improve conditions for the poor in

Mexico. He led a movement called La Reforma—the reform—that aimed at breaking the power ofthe large landowners and giving more schooling tothe poor. He and his liberal supporters won controlof the government in the late 1850s. The conserva-tives who opposed them did not give up, however.They plotted with France to retake Mexico. In1862, Napoleon III of France sent an army thatcaptured the country in 18 months. He named aEuropean noble as emperor. But, Juárez and hisfollowers kept fighting. In 1867, they drove theFrench from Mexican soil and killed the emperor.

Juárez once again pressed for his reforms. Hemade some progress but died in office in 1872. Soonafter, a new leader emerged. Porfirio Díaz dominatedMexican politics for more than 30 years. Díazbrought order to the country and encouraged eco-nomic growth. However, he sharply limited politicalfreedom.

In the early 1900s, calls for reform got louder.Leaders “Pancho” Villa and Emiliano Zapata gath-ered support with their demand for better lives forthe poor. They raised small armies and forced Díazto step down. Fighting continued, however, formany years as several leaders struggled for power.In the midst of this turmoil, Mexico adopted a newconstitution in 1917. It called for breaking up largelandholdings and for limits on foreign ownership ofbusiness. It promoted the right to strike for work-ers and promised some rights for women. Conflictcontinued until a new political party gained controlof Mexico in 1929. The Institutional RevolutionaryParty (PRI) brought peace and political stability toa troubled land.

Review1. Summarizing Describe China’s two major

attempts to remain isolated from the outsideworld.

2. Recognizing Effects What was the result ofJapan’s feelings of pride and strength in the late1800s?

3. Evaluating Courses of Action Through whatmethod did the Japanese modernize during theMeiji era?

4. Drawing Conclusions Why did the LatinAmerican nations not benefit from growing trade?

5. Comparing What did Juárez, Villa, and Zapatahave in common?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Great War, 1914–1918CHAPTER OVERVIEW Strong national feelings and strong armies produced com-petition between European nations and led to war. The system of alliancesturned a local conflict into a general European war and then a world war.Horribly brutal, it changed the lives of millions and transformed Russia when ithelped cause a revolution.

Summary

Marching Toward WarKEY IDEA In Europe, military buildup, nationalistic feel-ings, and rival alliances led to a continental war.

In the later 1800s, many people in Europe joinedgroups to promote peace. They met several

times between 1843 and 1907 to urge their cause.While this movement for peace was building, sowere other developments. These other factorswould soon plunge Europe into war.

One of those factors was nationalism—the deepfeeling of attachment to one’s own nation. Thisforce helped unify the people of a country. It alsohelped promote competition between countries. By1900, six nations were rivals for power in Europe.These nations, called the Great Powers, wereGermany, Austria-Hungary, Great Britain, Russia,Italy, and France. They competed economically,and they competed for neighboring land.

Imperialism was another force that helped leadto war. France and Germany, each seeking controlof parts of Africa, almost came to war twice in theearly 1900s. Such competition bred mistrust.

The third factor leading to war was a growingarms race. Each country in Europe—except GreatBritain—built a large army. Generals in each countrymade complex plans to be able to mobilize theirarmies or rush troops to battle as quickly as possible.

Growing rivalry led the nations to make allianceswith one another. Fearing that France would wantrevenge for its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War,Otto von Bismarck set out to isolate France. In1879, he formed a Triple Alliance with Austria-Hungary and Italy, and a treaty with Russia.However, when Wilhelm II became kaiser, oremperor, of Germany, he did not want to sharepower. He forced Bismarck out and followed hisown policy. He let the agreement with Russiaexpire, and Russia quickly allied itself with France.This alliance meant that Germany would have tofight enemies on east and west borders if there werea war with either country. Wilhelm II then moved tomake the German navy larger. Britain grew alarmed

and began to build more ships of its own. It made aTriple Entente alliance with France and Russia. Thesix Great Powers had now formed two camps:Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy against Britain,France, and Russia.

Meanwhile, trouble was brewing in the Balkans,in southeastern Europe. The Ottoman Empire,which controlled this area, was breaking apart.Both Austria-Hungary and Russia wanted some ofthis land. The kingdom of Serbia, which was in thisregion, wanted to bring other Slavic peoples wholived in the Balkans under its control. In 1908,Austria-Hungary seized Bosnia and Herzegovina.These lands had Slavic peoples, and the Serbs wereangered. However, their Russian allies were unwill-ing to support them, and they backed down.

By 1914, the situation was different. Serbia hadgained land in other parts of the region and feltstrong. Austria worried that Serbia might interferewith its control of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Amidthese tensions, a shot rang out. In June 1914, aSerbian shot and killed the heir to the throne ofAustria-Hungary. Austria-Hungary declared war onSerbia, Russia came to Serbia’s defense, and soonmost of Europe was at war.

Europe Plunges into WarKEY IDEA One European nation after another wasdrawn into a large and industrialized war that resulted inmany casualties.

The system of alliances turned the war betweenAustria-Hungary and Serbia into a wider war.

Russia moved against Austria-Hungary. Figuringthat Germany would support Austria-Hungary,Russia moved troops against Germany as well.Germany declared war on Russia. Soon after, it alsodeclared war on France, Russia’s ally.

Germany had a plan for winning the war on twofronts. It called for a rapid push through France, aquick defeat of that nation, and a turn to face Russiain the east. To capture France quickly, Germany

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moved through Belgium, which was a neutral coun-try. Britain was outraged by this and declared waron Germany. France, Britain, and Russia were laterjoined by Italy, which broke from Germany andAustria-Hungary. They were called the Allies.Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joined Germanyand Austria-Hungary. They were called the CentralPowers.

After the German army moved almost to Paris,French defenses strengthened and stopped them inSeptember 1914. Both sides became bogged downin a bloody conflict. Soldiers dug deep trenches intothe ground, protecting themselves with barbed wireand machine guns. Inside the trenches, they lived inmud, suffered the lack of food, and were killed orwounded by exploding bombs. Attacks were evenworse. Generals still hoped to win ground withmassed attacks of huge armies. But, when soldiersleft the trenches to storm enemy lines, they facedpowerful weapons. Machine guns, tanks, poison gas,and larger pieces of artillery killed hundreds ofthousands of soldiers. This was the war in France,which was called the Western Front.

The war on the Eastern Front showed moremovement at first—but it was equally destructive.Russian armies attacked both Germany andAustria-Hungary. After some early success, theywere driven back in both places. One reason wasthat Russia did not have a fully industrial economy.It could not keep troops supplied. Still, Russia hada huge population and could send millions to war.The large Russian army provided a constant threatto Germany, preventing it from putting its fullresources against the allies in the west.

A Global ConflictKEY IDEA World War I spread to several continents andused the full resources of many governments.

The war moved into Southwest Asia when theAllies hoped to take a part of the Ottoman

Empire called the Dardanelles. That would allowthem to capture Constantinople—the Ottomancapital—and send supplies to Russia through theBlack Sea. The attack failed with great loss of life.In another thrust at that empire, a British officernamed T. E. Lawrence helped lead an Arab revoltagainst Ottoman rule. As a result, the Allies wereable to capture several important cities inSouthwest Asia.

Japan took German colonies in China and thePacific Ocean. The Allies also captured three of thefour German colonies in Africa. People in the Allies’colonies joined in the war effort. Some worked forthe Allied cause. Others fought in the armies.

The British had used their strong navy to blockall supplies from reaching Germany. In response,the Germans increased their submarine attacks onships that brought food and supplies to the Allies.U.S. President Woodrow Wilson had protested thispolicy before, and did so again. When Americanships were sunk, the American people grew angry.Then the British intercepted a secret message fromGermany to Mexico. It offered to help Mexicoregain land lost to the United States in the 1840s ifMexico allied itself with Germany. This and thesubmarine attacks turned many Americans againstGermany. In April 1917, Congress declared war onGermany.

By that year, the war had had a terrible impact,killing millions and radically changing the lives ofmillions more—people at home as well as soldiers.This “Great War,” as it was called, was a total war.It demanded all the resources of the countries thatfought it. Governments took control of factories,telling them what to produce and how much of it tomake. Governments rationed food and other goods,limiting how much people could buy and hold.That way they were sure to provide needed suppliesto the armies in the field. They used propaganda togenerate support for the war. They also took stepsto put down any dissent against the war.

With so many men in the field, women played agrowing role in the economies of the countries atwar. They worked in factories, offices, and shops.They built planes and tanks, grew food and madeclothing. These changes had an impact on people’sattitudes toward what kind of work women could do.

In 1917, the United States entered the war, andRussia left it. Suffering during the war chippedaway at the Russian people’s support for the czar.In March, he stepped down. The new governmenthoped to continue fighting the war, but the Russianarmies refused. Just months later, a new revolutionstruck. Communists seized Russia’s government.They quickly made a treaty with Germany, givingup huge amounts of land in return for peace. InMarch 1918, Germany tried one final attack. Onceagain, the German army nearly reached Paris. Thesoldiers were tired, and supplies were short, though.

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The Allies—now with fresh American troops—drove the Germans back.

Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire surrendered.In October, a revolution toppled the emperor ofAustria-Hungary. In November, Kaiser Wilhelm IIwas forced to step down in Germany. The new gov-ernment agreed to stop fighting, and on November11, 1918, Europe was finally at peace.

The war had made a great and terrible mark onthe world. About 8.5 million soldiers had died andanother 21 million had been wounded. Countlesscivilians had suffered as well. The economies of thewarring nations had suffered serious damage, too.Farms were destroyed and factories ruined. Oneestimate said the war had caused $338 billion indamage.

Along with this death and destruction, the warhad an emotional cost. People felt disillusionedsince all the suffering did not seem to have a pur-pose. The art and literature of the years after thewar reflected a new sense of hopelessness in people.

A Flawed PeaceKEY IDEA After winning the war, the Allies dictated aharsh peace that left many nations feeling betrayed.

Many nations sent delegates to peace talks inParis. The main leaders were Woodrow

Wilson of the United States, Georges Clemenceauof France, and David Lloyd George of Britain.Germany and its allies and Russia were not present.

Wilson pushed for his peace plan called theFourteen Points. He wanted to end secret treatiesand alliances and give people the right to formtheir own nation. He also hoped to set up a worldorganization that could police the actions of nationsand prevent future wars.

Britain and especially France had different views.They had suffered greatly in the war and wanted topunish Germany. After long debates, the leadersfinally agreed on a peace settlement called theTreaty of Versailles.

The treaty called for a League of Nations—theworld organization that Wilson wanted. It wouldinclude 32 nations, with the United States, Britain,France, Japan, and Italy making up the leadership.Germany and Russia were left out of the League.The treaty took away German land in Europe andtook away its colonies. Limits were placed on thesize of Germany’s armed forces. Finally, Germany

was given complete blame for the war, whichmeant it would have to make payments to the Alliesfor the damage caused.

Germany’s former colonies were given to theAllies to govern until they decided which were readyfor independence. Poland, Czechoslovakia, andYugoslavia were all declared independent. Finland,Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania—once part ofRussia—were made independent nations as well.The Ottoman Empire was broken up. The Ottomanskept control only of Turkey.

The treaty never made a lasting peace. This wasin part because the United States Senate neverapproved either the treaty or joining the League ofNations. Also, Germans bitterly resented the treaty,which placed all the blame for the war on them.Colonial peoples in Africa and Asia had hoped thatthey could win their independence. They were angrywhen the treaty did not allow for that. Japan andItaly were also upset with the treaty. They had bothjoined the war in hopes of winning more land andwere disappointed by getting few territorial gains.

ReviewAnalyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects1. What factors led to World War I?2. Why did a revolution occur in Russia?3. Summarizing What was the war like on the

Western Front?4. Analyzing Issues How did the war change the

countries that fought it?5. Forming and Supporting Opinions Discuss

the weaknesses of the Treaty of Versailles.

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Revolution and Nationalism,1900–1939

CHAPTER OVERVIEW Old problems in Russia produced a revolution that resultedin the first Communist government. Joseph Stalin took control of the SovietUnion and became a dictator. Nationalists tried to gain control of China, but thecountry was plunged into decades of fighting. Nationalists pushed for self-government in India and won that right in Turkey, Iran, and Saudi Arabia.

Summary

Revolutions in RussiaKEY IDEA Unrest in Russia erupted in revolution to produce the first Communist government.

In 1881, reforms in Russia stopped when the czarwas killed by radical students. The new czar,

Alexander III, took back control of the Russian gov-ernment. He cracked down on anyone who seemedto threaten his government. He also oppressed allnon-Russian peoples who lived within the Russianempire, especially Jews.

In 1894, his son Nicholas II became czar andcontinued the strong rule. He launched a programaimed at building up Russia’s industry. Russiaquickly became a leading producer of steel in theworld. However, this rapid industrial growthbrought problems. Working conditions were poor,wages were low, and children were forced to work.Workers grew angry and often went on strike.Revolutionary groups wanted to topple the govern-ment. Some followed the teachings of Karl Marx.In 1903, they argued about how to carry out theirrevolution, and they split into two groups. Onegroup—the Bolsheviks—was led by VladimirLenin. He fled Russia a few years later to await abetter time to push his ideas.

Russia suffered a huge defeat at the hands ofJapan in a war that started in 1904. In early 1905,the Russian army killed hundreds of hungry work-ers who had peacefully gathered to ask for relief.Strikes spread in protest, and Nicholas was forcedto allow some reforms to take place.

The suffering caused by World War I was thefinal blow against the czar’s rule. In just the firstfew months of war, Russia had four million soldierskilled, wounded, or captured. As the war worsened,the czar lost control of Russia. Soldiers refused tofight, prices shot sky high, and people starved. InMarch 1917, almost 200,000 workers took to the

streets of one city to protest high prices. Soldiersshot into the crowd. Later they fired at theirofficers and joined the protest. The czar was forcedto step down. A year later, he and his family wereexecuted. A government led by AlexanderKerensky was formed.

Kerensky hoped to keep Russia in the war. Thedecision cost him the support of soldiers whowanted to fight no longer and workers and peasantswho wanted an end to food shortages. Across thecountry these forces formed local councils calledsoviets. In some cities, the soviets actually hadmore real power than the government.

In the midst of this unrest, Lenin returned toRussia determined to bring about his revolution.His slogan “Peace, Land, and Bread” was soontaken up by many people. In November 1917,armed workers took control of government offices.The Kerensky reign was ended.

To win the peasants’ support, Lenin ordered allfarmland be given to them. Workers were givencontrol of the factories. Soon Lenin agreed to apeace treaty with Germany. It gave away largeamounts of Russian land, but it ended the war.Then, forces opposed to Lenin’s revolution—sup-ported by the Allies who fought Germany—tried todefeat Lenin’s army in battle. The civil war lastedthree years. The fighting and the famine that fol-lowed it killed 15 million Russians. In the end,though, Lenin’s Red Army won.

In 1921, Lenin launched a new plan to rebuildthe Russian economy. It allowed for some privateownership of property, relaxing Lenin’s desire forcomplete state control. He also changed the gov-ernment to form a new nation—the Soviet Union.It would be run by the leaders of the CommunistParty. By the late 1920s, the Soviet economy hadcome back. Farms and factories were producing asmuch as they had before World War I.

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TotalitarianismCase Study: Stalinist Russia

KEY IDEA After Lenin died, Stalin seized power andtransformed the Soviet Union into a totalitarian state.

The term totalitarian describes a governmentthat takes complete control over all parts of life

in a country. This includes both public and privatelife. To keep everything under control totalitariangovernments use several tactics. These include:police terror, propaganda, and persecution. Thecase study uses Joseph Stalin and Russia to showhow a totalitarian state operates.

Joseph Stalin joined Lenin’s revolutionary movement. Over time, he slowly built up his power.When Lenin died in 1924, Stalin took control of theCommunist Party. He was less interested thanLenin in promoting revolution around the world.He wanted to increase the power of the SovietUnion. To achieve that, he built a totalitarian state.Government had total control over its people’s lives.

Stalin kept tight control by creating a powerfulsecret police. In the mid-1930s, he turned againstenemies—both real and imagined—within theCommunist Party. Thousands were arrested andsent to exile or killed. Stalin also used propagandato keep control. Official literature praised the govern-ment and its success. Any writings that expressed adifferent view were seized and their authors pun-ished. Stalin’s government also moved against reli-gion. Churches were destroyed, and church leaderskilled or sent into exile.

Stalin built a command economy—one in whichthe government makes all decisions of economiclife. He pushed to complete the work of makingthe economy fully industrial. All resources weredevoted to this effort. As a result, the Soviet peoplelacked food, housing, and clothing for many years.The plan did not meet Stalin’s goals, but the indus-trial part of the economy did grow.

Stalin also launched a farming revolution. Thegovernment took control of the farms that peopleowned. It put them together in large, government-owned farms called collective farms. When peasantsresisted, millions were killed, and millions morewere sent to Siberia. With these brutal methods,Stalin got farm output to rise.

Stalin completely changed Soviet society. Womenenjoyed equal rights—though rights were few. Theyfilled all kinds of jobs on the farms and in factories.

They studied for careers that had been closed tothem before. People in general were more educated.

Imperial China CollapsesKEY IDEA After the fall of the Qing Dynasty, nationalistsand communists struggled for power.

Unrest also plagued China. Many Chineseresented the great control that foreign nations

had over their economy. Some wanted to modernizeChina so it could regain power. One of the leadersof this push was Sun Yixian. His group was calledthe Kuomintang, or Nationalist Party. In 1912, heled a revolt that toppled the Qing Dynasty and wasmade the president of the new republic.

Sun had three main principles. He wantedpolitical and economic rights for all Chinese peopleand an end to foreign control of China. Sun turnedover his presidency six weeks later to Yuan Shikai,who became a military dictator. After Yuan died in1916, civil war broke out. The people suffered ter-ribly from famine and brutal attacks. Sun could notreorganize his Kuomintang.

China’s leaders hoped to win the support of theAllies during World War I. They declared war onGermany. When the war ended, though, they weredisappointed. Instead of giving China freedomfrom foreign influence, the Treaty of Versaillesmerely changed masters. The parts of China thathad been controlled by Germany were handed overto Japan. Angry Chinese protested.

In the 1920s, rebels began to look to Marxismand the Russian Revolution for a solution to China’sproblems. The Communist Party in China wasorganized. One of the leaders was Mao Zedong.The Communists joined with the Kuomintang. Sundied in 1925, and Jiang Jieshi became leader of theKuomintang. Many in the party were business peo-ple. They now feared Communist ideas about gov-ernment control of economic life. Jiang agreed withthem.

Jiang did not move against the Communists atfirst. In 1927, though, his forces struck againstthem. Only a few Communists survived, and theywere forced into hiding. In 1928, Jiang becamepresident of China. Soon China was torn by a civilwar between the remaining Communists andJiang’s forces.

The Communists, under Mao Zedong, movedto south-central China. They built an army of peas-

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ants that struck quickly against Jiang’s forces. In1933, Jiang’s army completely surrounded them.But the Communists sneaked away on a famousLong March of 6,000 miles to the north. Thousandsdied, but the Communists survived, hiding in caves.

At the same time, China had other problems. In1931, Japan invaded the part of China calledManchuria. They took control there and six yearslater began a new invasion of other areas. Theywere able to quickly seize large parts of the country.With this new threat, Jiang and the Communistsagreed to join together to fight the Japanese.

Nationalism in India andSouthwest Asia

KEY IDEA Nationalism triggered independence move-ments to overthrow colonial power.

Many Indians of the upper classes were edu-cated in British schools. They learned the

Western ideals of nationalism and democracy. Theyalso grew angry at British domination of Indian life.Some formed into two groups, the Congress Partyand the Muslim League.

More than a million Indians served in theBritish army in World War I. The British promisedto make changes to the government of India thatwould give the Indian people greater control oftheir own nation. After the war, though, returningIndian soldiers were once again treated as second-class citizens. Reforms were not made. WhenIndians protested, the British Parliament passed alaw that allowed protesters to be jailed without atrial. Indians were further enraged. About 10,000Indians gathered to protest this act. The Britishhad also banned such public meetings, but thecrowd was mostly unaware of that fact. Britishtroops fired on the crowd, killing several hundred.The massacre at Amritsar sparked further protests.

Mohandas K. Gandhi became the leader ofIndia’s protest movement. He organized a wide-spread campaign of noncooperation with theBritish and passive resistance to unjust laws. Heasked Indians to stop buying British goods, attend-ing British schools, paying British taxes, or voting inBritish-run elections. He also convinced his follow-ers to take these actions without using violence.

British jails filled with thousands of Indians whobroke British laws in order to protest them.

Indians resented a British law that forced them tobuy salt only from the government. Gandhi organizeda huge march to the sea to make salt by evaporatingsea water. At a related march, police beat many peo-ple protesting the salt tax. In 1935, the British finallygave in. They passed a law that allowed local Indianlimited self-government. Though they had met somesuccess, Indians had other problems. Tensionsbetween Hindus and Muslims were high.

Other changes took place in Southwest Asia.Mustafa Kemal, a military commander, became theleader of a new republic in Turkey. He took manysteps to modernize society and the economy inTurkey. He loosened Islam’s hold on Turkish law.Another commander led a revolt in Persia that wonindependence from Britain in that land. He alsomodernized his country, and he changed its nameto Iran. In both Turkey and Iran, women gainednew rights. A new leader also emerged in Arabia.He united different groups into one kingdom,which he called Saudi Arabia. While he took stepsto modernize life in his land, he kept the traditionalpractices of Islam strong.

Starting in the 1920s, Southwest Asia saw amajor new economic change. Western companiesdiscovered large reserves of oil in several countriesin this part of the world. Oil brought huge sums ofmoney to these countries. The desire to tap intothis wealth also persuaded Western countries to tryto gain power in the area.

Review1. Drawing Conclusions How did the problems

of the early 1900s lead to the RussianRevolution?

2. Comparing and Contrasting CompareKerensky’s and Lenin’s plans.

3. Summarizing In what ways was Stalin’s govern-ment an example of totalitarian rule?

4. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing EffectsHow did the Treaty of Versailles add to China’sproblems?

5. Determining Main Ideas Explain Gandhi’sideas of noncooperation and nonviolent protest.

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Years of Crisis, 1919–1939CHAPTER OVERVIEW After World War I, new ideas and technologies changed oldways of thinking and living. The economic collapse called the Great Depressiontested weak democratic governments in Europe. This crisis helped bring dictatorsto power in eastern Europe in the 1930s. Meanwhile, Japan, Germany, and Italytook actions that would soon plunge the world into another war.

Summary

Postwar UncertaintyKEY IDEA The postwar period was one of loss anduncertainty but also one of invention and creativity.

Two thinkers developed radical new ideas thatchallenged old ways of thinking. Albert

Einstein revolutionized physics with his ideas aboutspace, time, matter, and energy. He said that asmoving objects neared the speed of light, space andtime become relative. That means they change. Hisidea is the theory of relativity. Sigmund Freud’swork changed the way people thought about thehuman mind. He said that much of human behav-ior was irrational—due to urges and desires buriedin the unconscious mind of each person. Thoughresisted at first, Freud’s ideas gained wide influence.

Looking at the destruction of World War I, manyphilosophers lost faith in reason and progress. Onegroup of them was called existentialists. They arguedthat there is no universal meaning to the world.Each person must give it his or her own meaningthrough actions taken. They were influenced byFriedrich Nietzsche, a German philosopher of thelate 1800s. He said that reason, democracy, andprogress were empty ideas. He urged people toadopt the values of pride and strength.

Some writers, like Franz Kafka, showed the horrors of modern life. His novels put people inthreatening situations that they could not under-stand or escape.

Artists rebelled against traditional painting.They did not merely re-create realistic objects. PaulKlee used bold colors and distorted lines. PabloPicasso founded a style called Cubism that brokeobjects into geometric shapes. Painters called sur-realists showed a dreamlike existence outside ofreality.

Composers created a new style of music. Some,like Igor Stravinsky, used unusual rhythms or harsh,rather than pleasing, sounds. African-Americanmusicians in the United States developed a lively,loose form of popular music called jazz.

Society changed after World War I as well.Young people experimented with modern values.Women set aside earlier forms of dress, wearingnew styles that were looser and shorter. Manywomen also began to work in new careers.

Technology brought about changes to society aswell. Improvements to the automobile helped makecars more desirable and affordable. As a result,more and more people bought cars. They began tomove to suburbs outside cities, using their cars totravel to work. The auto boom also gave a boost tosome industries. Another change was the growth inair travel. American pilot Charles Lindbergh caughtthe world’s attention when he flew alone across theAtlantic Ocean in 1927. In 1932, Amelia Earhartbecame the first woman to make the flight alone.

The radio developed during World War I. Inthe 1920s, large radio networks were built. Theyoffered programs such as news, plays, comedies,and sports. Soon millions of people were enter-tained by radios in their homes. Millions morewent to movie theaters to watch motion pictures.Movies were produced all over the world, espe-cially in southern California.

A Worldwide DepressionKEY IDEA An economic depression in the United Statesspread to the world and lasted a decade.

After the war, European countries were in badshape. European influence in world affairs was

declining. The new republics that had formed outof the old empires of Europe often had shaky gov-ernments. Even nations that had had democracyfor many years experienced problems. They had somany political parties that no one party could rulealone. There were so many governments formedthat it was difficult to develop policies.

The situation was worst in Germany. The peo-ple felt little loyalty to the government, and theeconomy was weak. Prices rose sharply, and moneylost its value. An American drew up a plan that

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used American bank loans to help the Germaneconomy recover. By 1929, German factories pro-duced as much as they had before the war.

World nations also took steps to try to ensurepeace. France and Germany promised never toattack one another. Most countries of the worldsigned a treaty in which they pledged not to usewar to gain their goals. There was no way toenforce the treaty, however, which made it weak.

The economy of the United States enjoyed aboom in the 1920s. But this growth hid problems.Workers were unable to buy all the goods pro-duced, and when their purchases slowed, factoriesslowed production. Farmers faced falling foodprices and slow sales. They were unable to repayloans and lost their farms. In 1929, stock prices inthe United States plunged. The Great Depressionwas on.

The American Depression hit other countries.Nations raised tariffs—taxes on goods importedfrom other countries—to keep import prices high.They wanted to increase sales by local companies.But it all backfired. Trade between nations dropped,and unemployment shot up in many countries. Theworld suffered, including Latin America. As worldtrade went down, few countries bought the sugar,beef, and copper they produced.

Each country met the economic crisis in its ownway. In Britain, a new multiparty government tookover. It took steps that slowly improved the econ-omy and cut unemployment. By 1937, productionwas up again. In France, after several governmentslost support, moderates and Socialists combined toform a government. It passed laws to help workers,but companies raised prices to cover their costs. Asa result, unemployment was still high.

In Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, the govern-ments played active roles in the economy. Theytaxed people with jobs to have money to paybenefits to people without jobs. The governmentsalso created jobs by hiring out-of-work people tobuild roads and buildings.

In the United States, Franklin D. Rooseveltbecame president in 1932. He began a programthat he called the New Deal. The governmentbegan large public works projects. This effort cre-ated jobs for millions. Businesses and farmers alsogot help from the government. The Americaneconomy got better but the recovery was slow.

Fascism Rises in EuropeKEY IDEA Because of political and economic problems,Italy and Germany turned to dictators.

In other countries, the economic crisis of theGreat Depression led to the loss of democracy.

There, millions of people turned to strong rulers totry to solve their economic problems. These toughleaders followed a set of beliefs called fascism.Fascist leaders were strongly nationalist. Theybelieved in strength and power and built strongmilitary forces. Fascist governments were controlledby one party, and that party was dominated by oneleader. The leader was the nation’s dictator. Fascistgovernments did not give any rights to their people.

Fascism arose in Italy because people therewere angry that the treaty that came after WorldWar I did not give them more gains in territory.Also, people with more money feared that unrest inItaly would result in a Communist government, ashad happened in Russia. Benito Mussolini rose topower promising to revive the economy and armedforces of Italy. He used armed thugs who madethreats to political opponents. The king of Italy wasforced to let Mussolini lead the government.

Another Fascist arose in Germany. Adolf Hitlerwas the leader of the Nazi Party. He tried to takecontrol of the government of Germany in 1923, butthe attempt failed. He was sent to prison, where hewrote a book that summarized his ideas. Hitlerbelieved that Germans were superior to all otherpeople. He said that the Treaty of Versailles treatedGermany unfairly, and that a crowded Germanyneeded the lands of eastern Europe and Russia.When the Depression hit Germany, the countrywas in terrible shape. Hitler was named leader ofthe German government but soon took the powersof a dictator. All those who opposed him werearrested. His economic program gave work to mil-lions but took away their rights to organize intounions or to strike. He took control of all areas oflife. He burned books that went against Nazi ideasand forced children to join Nazi groups. Hitler alsolaunched attacks on Germany’s Jews. Laws tookaway their rights. In November 1938, mobsdestroyed thousands of Jewish-owned buildings andattacked Jewish people.

Dictators took control in other countries as well.Hungary, Poland, Yugoslavia, Albania, Bulgaria, andRomania all had dictators—or kings who ruled like

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dictators. Only Czechoslovakia remained as ademocracy in eastern Europe.

Aggressors Invade NationsKEY IDEA As Germany, Italy, and Japan conqueredother countries, the rest of the world did nothing.

In the 1930s, the major democracies—Britain,France, and the United States—still faced serious

problems at home. Dictators in Germany and Italytook advantage of this and began moving to gainterritory. So, too, did Japan, now ruled by generals.These military leaders had taken power when theDepression struck. They planned to capture Chinaas a part of a Pacific empire.

In 1931, the Japanese army captured Manchuria,a part of China. It was rich in coal and iron and as aresult provided valuable resources for the Japaneseeconomy. Other countries protested in the Leagueof Nations but did nothing else. Japan ignored theprotests and in 1933 pulled out of the League. Itstayed in Manchuria, though. Four years later,Japan invaded China. The strong Japanese armyswept Chinese fighters aside. It killed tens of thou-sands of Chinese in the city of Nanjing. Chineseforces—both the Nationalists of the governmentand Communist rebels—continued to fight Japan.

Italy’s Mussolini wanted an Italian empire inAfrica, and in 1935 he invaded Ethiopia. His troopswon easy victory. Haile Selassie, the emperor ofEthiopia, pleaded to the League of Nations forhelp. The League did nothing.

Hitler made moves also. He broke the VersaillesTreaty by rebuilding Germany’s army. In 1936, hesent troops into an area of Germany that the treatyhad forbidden them to enter. France and Britainagain refused to stand up to Germany. This movewon Hitler more support in Germany. That year, hesigned an agreement with Mussolini and also withJapan. The three nations were called the AxisPowers.

In 1936, Spain erupted in civil war as the armyrevolted against a leftist government. Hitler andMussolini sent aid to the army, which was backedby Spanish Fascists. The Soviet Union sent aid tothe government. In 1939, the army won andFrancisco Franco became Spain’s Fascist dictator.

In March 1938, Hitler moved his troops intoAustria. He made it part of Germany, breaking theVersailles Treaty again. France and Britain oncemore did nothing. The next year, Hitler demanded

that Czechoslovakia give up part of its land toGermany. The country refused, but Britain andFrance agreed to allow Germany to take the land.Hitler promised to respect the new borders ofCzechoslovakia, but a few months later he took theentire country.

In the summer of 1939, Hitler made a similardemand of Poland. That nation also refused to giveup land. Britain and France now said that theywould protect Poland. But Hitler guessed theywould not back this up. Meanwhile, he made anagreement with Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin inwhich the two countries promised never to attackeach other.

ReviewClarifying1. What ideas of Einstein and Freud challenged old

ways of thinking?2. How did technology change society after the

war?3. Comparing and Contrasting Compare the

French approach to the Depression with theNew Deal.

4. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing EffectsWhat European nations came to be ruled by dic-tators, and why?

5. Following Chronological Order Describe thesequence of events in the 1930s that led to war.

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF World War II, 1939–1945CHAPTER OVERVIEW Germany’s Adolf Hitler began World War II, which theUnited States entered after a Japanese attack on a U.S. naval base. Hitler’s racialhatred resulted in the deaths of millions of people, many of them Jews. Afteryears of struggle, the Allies won the war, but millions had died and large partsof Europe and Japan were destroyed.

Summary

Hitler’s Lightning WarKEY IDEA Using sudden, mass attacks, Germany over-ran much of Europe and North Africa.

In 1939, having conquered Austria andCzechoslovakia, Adolf Hitler decided to move on

Poland. He had signed an agreement with Stalin ofthe Soviet Union. In it, they agreed to split Polandbetween them. This deal removed the threat of theSoviets attacking Germany from the east.

So, on September 1, the German army invadedPoland. Using planes, tanks, and troops, it movedsuddenly in a technique called blitzkrieg—“light-ning war.” Britain and France declared war, butPoland fell before they could help. On September17, Stalin invaded Finland and eastern Poland.

In April 1940, Hitler’s armies conqueredDenmark and Norway. Within two months, they alsocaptured Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg,and France. Some French, led by Charles de Gaulle,escaped to Britain to continue fighting. By then,Italy’s Benito Mussolini had joined Hitler’s side.

Great Britain—now led by Winston Churchill—stood alone. To prepare for an invasion of Britain,the German air force launched bombing attacks toweaken the country. The British air force foughtback. It was helped by the newly developed radarthat warned of coming attacks. Also, the British hadbroken the German army’s secret code. The air warover Britain lasted many months. Unable to breakBritish defenses, Hitler called off the attacks.

He next turned to the Mediterranean and the east.Germany sent troops to North Africa, where its ally,Italy, was losing to British forces. German troopsjoined the battle and fought a seesaw struggle with theBritish. Hitler forced Bulgaria, Romania, and Hungaryto join Germany in the war. In April 1941, Germanarmies quickly took control of Yugoslavia and Greece.In June, Hitler turned on his one-time ally andlaunched a surprise invasion of the Soviet Union. TheRed Army, though the largest in the world, was notwell-equipped or well-trained. The Germans quickly

pushed deep into Soviet land. As the Red Army wasforced to retreat, it destroyed everything left behindto keep supplies out of German hands. Stopped fromtaking Leningrad in the north, the Germans turnedon Moscow, the Soviet capital. A strong Soviet coun-terattack, combined with fierce Russian winterweather, forced the Germans back.

The United States watched these events. ManyAmericans did not want to join in the war. PresidentRoosevelt wanted to help the Allies, however. Hepersuaded Congress to allow Britain and France tobuy American weapons. Soon American ships wereescorting British cargo ships carrying guns. By thefall of 1941, U.S. ships had orders to fire on Germansubmarines. The United States and Germany had anundeclared naval war.

Roosevelt met with Churchill in August of 1941.Although the United States was not officially in the war, the two leaders issued a statement called theAtlantic Charter. It supported free trade and theright of people to form their own national government.

Japan’s Pacific CampaignKEY IDEA Japan attacked Pearl Harbor in Hawaii andbrought the United States into World War II.

The military leaders who ran the Japanese gov-ernment also had plans to build an empire.

They captured part of China in 1931. In 1937, theyinvaded the center of China but met strong resis-tance. Needing resources for this war, they decidedto move into Southeast Asia. The United Statesfeared that Japanese control of this area wouldthreaten U.S. holdings in the Pacific. Rooseveltgave military aid to China and cut off oil shipmentsto Japan. The Japanese decided to attack theUnited States.

On December 7, 1941, the Japanese navy began asurprise attack on the U.S. Navy base at PearlHarbor in Hawaii. In just two hours, Japanese planessank a major part of the U.S. Pacific Fleet. The next

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day, Congress declared war on Japan. The attack onPearl Harbor was just one of many sudden strikes.Japan also captured Guam and Wake Islands, and thePhilippines. It took Indonesia from the Dutch andHong Kong, Malaya, and Singapore from the British.

In April 1942, the United States sent planes todrop bombs on Tokyo. The attack raised the moraleof Americans. In May 1942, at the Battle of theCoral Sea, the Allies suffered heavy losses but wereable to stop the Japanese advance and saveAustralia. The next month, the U.S. Navy scored animportant victory near Midway Island in the centralPacific. In this battle, Japan lost four aircraft carri-ers, the most important naval weapon in the war.The victory turned the tide of war against Japan.

The United States now went on the attack.General Douglas MacArthur proposed hoppingpast the strongly defended Japanese-held islands.He wanted to attack weaker ones. The first attackcame at Guadalcanal, in the Solomon Islands,where the Japanese were building an air base.However, it took six months for U.S. and Australiantroops to clear Japanese soldiers off the island.

The HolocaustKEY IDEA During the Holocaust, Hitler’s Nazis killed sixmillion Jews and millions of other “non-Aryans.”

Part of Hitler’s new order for Europe includedgetting rid of “inferior” people. Hitler believed

in a German “master race.” He had a deep-seatedhatred of people who were not German and espe-cially of Jews. He and his Nazis made persecutionof Jews government policy.

During the 1930s, Hitler passed laws that tookaway the rights of German Jews. One night inNovember 1938, Nazi mobs attacked Jews through-out Germany. They destroyed homes and busi-nesses and killed or beat many people. Thousandsof Jews tried to leave Germany. Other countriesaccepted a large number but were unwilling to takeall those who wished to leave. Hitler ordered allJews in Germany and his conquered lands to live incertain parts of cities called ghettos.

Hitler took steps to kill as many Jews as possi-ble. The plan was the “Final Solution” to what theNazis called the “Jewish problem.” Germans alsoturned on many other people—Roma (gypsies),Poles, Russians, and those who were mentally orphysically disabled. The Germans put the mostattention on Jews, however.

Thousands of Jews were shot to death by “killingsquads.” Millions were gathered and placed in con-centration camps. These prisons used the inmatesas slave workers. Many in the camps died of starva-tion or disease. Starting in 1942, the Nazis built“death camps.” At these camps, thousands of Jewswere gassed to death in huge gas chambers. In theend, six million Jews were killed by the Nazis.Fewer than four million European Jews survived.

The Allied VictoryKEY IDEA The United States, Great Britain, and theSoviet Union scored key victories and won the war.

In 1942, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin plannedthe Allies’ strategy. Stalin wanted Britain and the

United States to attack Germany to relieve thepressure on his armies. They agreed but chose toattack in North Africa. In late 1942, the Britisharmy drove the Germans out of Egypt and back tothe west. Meanwhile, American troops landedbehind the Germans and began moving east. TheGermans were finally forced to abandon Africa inMay 1943.

At the same time, the Soviets enjoyed a majorvictory. German troops had invaded the Soviet cityof Stalingrad in 1942. The Red Army forced theGermans to surrender in February 1943.

American and British soldiers next invaded Italyand captured Sicily. Mussolini was forced frompower and the new Italian government surren-dered. Hitler was unwilling to give up Italy. Hisarmy fought fiercely there until 1945.

While the Allied armies fought, people at homesuffered. Some British and Soviet citizens died. Inthe United States, citizens faced shortages. Goodssuch as food, tires, gasoline, and clothing were inshort supply. The government rationed theseitems—limiting how much a person could have—tomake sure that there were enough for the armies.

Some Americans were even imprisoned. Sincebitter feelings against the Japanese became wide-spread, mistrust of Americans of Japanese heritagegrew. The U.S. government gathered thousands ofJapanese Americans who lived on the West Coastand forced them to move to concentration camps inthe western United States. Two-thirds of themwere American citizens.

In early 1944, the Allies built a massive force toretake France. In June, an invasion of thousands ofships, planes, and soldiers was launched. The Allies

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suffered heavy losses but gained control of north-ern France. A month later, Allied forces broke out and began to pour through German lines. BySeptember, the Allies had forced the Germans outof France, Belgium, Luxembourg, and much of theNetherlands.

At the same time, the Soviets were pushing theGermans back in eastern Europe. In late 1944,Hitler ordered his army to make one final, large-scale attack in the west. In the Battle of the Bulge,it punched through Allied lines until an Allied coun-terattack forced it back to Germany. By late April1945, Soviet troops surrounded Berlin, Hitler’sheadquarters. Hitler killed himself, and a weeklater, the Germans surrendered. Roosevelt had notlived to see this victory, however. He had died inearly April. Harry Truman was now president.

In the Pacific, the Allies advanced on Japaneseterritory starting in 1943. By the fall of 1944, theyhad landed troops in the Philippines. The Japanesesent their remaining ships to try to destroy the U.S.Navy near the Philippines. In the Battle of LeyteGulf, in October 1944, the Japanese lost badly, andtheir navy was crushed. American troops began tomove closer to Japan. In March 1945, they cap-tured an island called Iwo Jima. By June, they hadwon control of Okinawa, an island just 350 milesfrom Japan.

Japan was the next stop. But the U.S. militaryfeared that an invasion of Japan would cost half amillion Allied lives. In August, President Trumanordered an experimental atomic bomb dropped onthe city of Hiroshima to try to quickly end the war.Three days later, a second bomb was dropped onNagasaki. Tens of thousands of Japanese died. InSeptember, Japan surrendered.

Europe and Japan in RuinsKEY IDEA World War II cost millions of lives and billionsof dollars in damage. It left Europe and Japan in ruins.

The war had left Europe in ruins, with about 60million dead and hundreds of cities destroyed.

Suffering continued for many years in Europe.The old Fascist governments had disappeared.

At first, the Communist parties grew strong inFrance and Italy. People who opposed communismgrew alarmed. They voted leaders from other partiesinto power. When the economies of these landsimproved, communism lost appeal. During efforts

to rebuild Europe, the Allies held trials in the cityof Nuremberg, Germany. There, captured Nazileaders were charged with crimes against humanity.They were found guilty, and some were executed.

The U.S. Army occupied Japan under the com-mand of General MacArthur. He disbanded theJapanese army and took steps to give farmers andworkers more power in the economy. He led theeffort to write a new constitution for Japan, whichchanged how the Japanese viewed the world. Theemperor was forced to declare that he was not agod. The new constitution gave all power to theJapanese people, who voted for members of a par-liament that would rule the land. All Japanese overage 20—including women—were given the right tovote. In 1951, other nations finally signed a formalpeace with Japan. A few months later, U.S. militaryoccupation ended.

Review1. Summarizing What was the first stop to Hitler?

How did it affect later events?2. Analyzing Causes What led to tensions

between the United States and Japan before warbroke out?

3. Recognizing Effects How did the Americanoccupation change Japan?

4. Following Chronological Order Outline thefate of European Jews from the early 1930s tothe Holocaust.

5. Forming and Supporting Opinions Do youthink it was justified to drop the atomic bomb onJapanese cities? Explain your answer.

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Restructuring the Postwar World,1945–Present

CHAPTER OVERVIEW The United States and Soviet Union opposed each other asthey tried to achieve different goals. Communists won a civil war in China, mak-ing it the world’s second Communist nation. The United States fought two warsin Asia trying to contain communism. The Cold War also spread to Latin Americaand elsewhere. The superpowers later began to enjoy better relations.

Summary

Cold War: Superpowers Face Off

KEY IDEA The conflicting aims of the United States andthe Soviet Union led to global competition.

The United States and the Soviet Union wereallies during World War II. In February 1945,

they agreed that Germany would be divided intoseparate zones. Each zone would be occupied bythe soldiers of one of the main Allied powers. Theyalso agreed that Germany would have to repay theSoviet Union for damage and loss of life. Sovietleader Joseph Stalin, in turn, promised free electionsin Eastern Europe and to declare war on Japan.These allies also were among 50 countries thatformed the United Nations in 1945. This new worldbody was pledged to save the world from war.

Still, the two superpowers had sharp politicaland economic differences. They also had differentgoals after the war. The United States wanted toencourage democracy and trade. It wanted to putthe different zones of Germany back together tomake one nation. The Soviet Union had these goals:to promote communism, to take advantage of rawmaterials in Eastern Europe and rebuild its owneconomy, and to keep Germany divided and weak.

After the war, Stalin made sure Communist gov-ernments were in place in Eastern Europe. Thisdivided Europe between the Communist East andthe democratic West. This division was called the“iron curtain.” U.S. President Harry Truman thenbegan a policy of containment to block furtherSoviet expansion. As part of this policy, the UnitedStates adopted the Marshall Plan in 1947. The plandonated food and materials such as machines toEuropean countries, helping them rebuild from war.

In 1948, the Soviets and Americans clashed overGermany. France, Britain, and the United Statesagreed to pull their troops out of Germany and letthe three zones that they occupied unite. TheSoviets refused to leave their zone, however. Then

they cut off all highway and train traffic into Berlin,which was deep within the Soviet zone. The UnitedStates and British responded with the Berlin Airlift.They flew food and supplies into the city for 11months. Finally, the Soviets lifted the blockade.

The growing struggle between Americans andSoviets came to be called the Cold War. Manyother countries allied with one superpower oranother. The United States, Canada, and severalcountries in Western Europe formed the NorthAtlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In this mili-tary alliance, each nation promised to defend anyother member that was attacked. The Soviets andthe countries of Eastern Europe made a similaragreement. It was called the Warsaw Pact.

In 1949, the Soviet Union announced that it,like the United States, had developed an atomicbomb. Three years later, both superpowers had anewer, even more deadly weapon—the hydrogenbomb. Soon both nations were involved in an armsrace, as they produced growing numbers of nuclearweapons and developed new ways to deliver them.

In 1957, Soviet scientists shocked the world bylaunching Sputnik, the world’s first human-madesatellite. Many Americans felt that the Soviets werefar ahead in science and technology. The UnitedStates then began spending huge amounts ofmoney to improve science education.

Communists Take Power in China

KEY IDEA Chinese Communists defeated Nationalistforces, and two separate Chinas emerged.

Nationalists and Communists fought for controlof China in the 1930s. When Japan invaded

China, the two sides joined to fight the commonenemy. After World War II, they began fightingeach other again. Their renewed war lasted from1946 to 1949. The Communists won because their

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troops were well-trained in guerrilla war. They alsoenjoyed the backing of the peasants to whom theyhad promised land. In 1949, Jiang Jieshi and otherNationalist leaders fled to the island of Taiwan. TheUnited States helped Jiang set up a new govern-ment there. The Nationalists called their land theRepublic of China. The Soviets helped MaoZedong and his government, the People’s Republicof China.

Mao began to rebuild China. He seized landand gave it to the peasants. But he also forced thepeasants—in groups of 200 to 300 households—tojoin collective farms. The people on each of thesefarms were given the land as a group. He also tookcontrol of China’s industries. Under Mao’s plan,production of industrial products went up.

With this success, Mao launched the “GreatLeap Forward.” He wanted to make the collectivefarms larger and more productive. The plan failed.People did not like strong government control.Planning by the government was not good. Poorweather produced a famine that killed millions.

After this failure, Mao played a smaller role inthe government. He grew unhappy with the direc-tion the country was taking, however. In 1966, helaunched the Cultural Revolution. Using young stu-dents formed into groups called Red Guards, Maotried to revive the revolutionary spirit in China.The Red Guards struck at teachers, scientists, andartists. They shut down schools and sent intellectu-als to the country to work on farms. They killedthousands of people who resisted. China was inchaos, with factories shut down and farm produc-tion dropping. Eventually, Mao finally put an endto the Cultural Revolution.

Wars in Korea and VietnamKEY IDEA In Asia, the Cold War flared into actual warssupported mainly by the superpowers.

After World War II, Korea was divided into aSoviet-backed north and an American-sup-

ported south. On June 25, 1950, North Koreainvaded the South. President Truman fought thismove with United Nations help. The United Statesand other countries sent troops to assist SouthKorea. At first, the North Korean army capturedalmost all of South Korea. Then the UN armybegan a bold counterattack. In just two months, ithad pushed the North Koreans far back, nearly to

China. The Chinese then entered the war and drovethe UN forces back. Bitter fighting continued until1953. That year, the two Koreas agreed to a cease-fire. The earlier boundary splitting North and SouthKorea at the 38th parallel remained the same.

North Korea developed as a Communist countryfollowing the war. It had a strong army and tightgovernment control, but it also had many economicproblems. South Korea’s economy grew, in partbecause it received U.S. aid. However, for morethan 30 years, dictators ruled the country. Freeelections were held only after a new constitutionwas accepted in 1987.

The United States faced another war againstCommunists, this time in Vietnam. That area hadbeen a French colony until Japan invaded it earlyin World War II. When Japan lost, the Frenchreturned. A Vietnamese nationalist named Ho ChiMinh wanted to win independence. First, he drovethe French out of Vietnam. A peace conferencesplit Vietnam in two, with Ho taking charge inNorth Vietnam. He made it a Communist state.Communist rebels—the Vietcong—stayed active inthe South.

Seeing that the government of South Vietnamwas threatened by Communists, the United Statesbegan to send large numbers of soldiers. First itsent advisers, later combat troops. By 1968, morethan 500,000 U.S. troops were there. They couldnot win the war on the ground. The United Statesalso tried bombing or burning forests in the Southto drive the Vietcong from their hiding places.These actions made peasants in the South morelikely to support the North. Many in the UnitedStates came to oppose the war.

In the late 1960s, President Richard Nixonbegan to cut the number of U.S. troops in Vietnamin order to turn the fighting over to the SouthVietnamese. The last American troops left in 1973.Two years later, North Vietnam overran the Southand made Vietnam one country again. About 1.5million people fled Vietnam. Today, Vietnamremains Communist but is looking for other nationsto invest in its economy.

Fighting in Vietnam spilled over into its neighborCambodia. Rebels there set up a brutal Communistgovernment. It killed 2 million people and imposedits will. In 1978, the Vietnamese invaded the coun-try, overthrowing the rebels. Vietnam withdrew in1989. In 1993, Cambodia held free elections.

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The Cold War Divides the World

KEY IDEA The superpowers supported opposing sides inLatin American and Middle Eastern conflicts.

After World War II, many nations in Africa, Asia,and Latin America had serious problems. They

were plagued by ethnic conflict, lack of educationand technology, poverty, and political unrest. Someof these countries tried to stay neutral in the ColdWar. Others actively sought American or Soviet aid.

In Cuba, the United States supported a dictatorin the 1950s. In 1959, a young lawyer, Fidel Castro,led a successful revolt. Castro then turned to theSoviets for aid. In 1962, the Soviets and Americansalmost went to war over Soviet nuclear missilesplaced in Cuba. The Soviets finally pulled the mis-siles out. Over time, the Cuban economy becamemore dependent on Soviet aid. When the SovietUnion dropped communism in 1991, this aidstopped. It was a serious blow to Cuba’s economy.

The United States had also backed a dictator inNicaragua. He fell in 1979 to Communist rebels.When the new government began helping leftistrebels in nearby El Salvador, the United Statesstruck back. It began to support forces in Nicaraguathat wanted to overthrow the Communists. The civilwar lasted more than a decade. Finally, the differentsides agreed to hold free elections.

The Middle East often saw conflict betweenthose who wanted a modern, more Western-stylesociety and those who wanted to follow traditionalIslam. Such a struggle took place in Iran. In the1950s, a group tried to take control of the govern-ment from the shah, or ruler, who was pro-West.The United States helped the Shah defeat them.

Over time, the Shah tried to weaken theinfluence of the Islamic religion in Iran. A Muslimleader, the Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini, led a suc-cessful revolt. In 1979, the Shah was forced toleave the country. Khomeini made Islamic law thelaw of the land and followed a foreign policy thatwas strongly against the United States. He also ledhis country to a long war with Iraq, its neighbor.

The Soviets gained influence in Afghanistanafter 1950. In the 1970s, Islamic rebels threatenedthe country’s Communist government. The Sovietssent in support troops. The United States felt itsMiddle East oil supplies were in danger and sup-ported the rebels. In 1989, after a costly occupa-tion, Soviet troops left Afghanistan.

The Cold War ThawsKEY IDEA The Cold War began to thaw as the super-powers entered an era of uneasy diplomacy.

When Stalin died in 1953, Nikita Khrushchevbecame the Soviet leader. Soon protest move-

ments in Eastern Europe challenged the Soviets’hold there. In 1956, protesters and the army toppledthe Communist government of Hungary. Khrushchevsent Soviet tanks to put the Communists back inpower. Similar events took place in Czechoslovakia in1968. That time it was new Soviet leader LeonidBrezhnev who sent the tanks.

The Soviets did not have the same control overtheir larger neighbor, China. Although the SovietUnion and China enjoyed friendly relations at first,they gradually grew apart.

In the early 1970s, President Richard Nixonbegan following a policy called détente. This was alessening of tensions between the superpowers. Hebecame the U.S. first president to visit CommunistChina and the Soviet Union. In 1972, Nixon andBrezhnev signed a treaty to limit the number ofnuclear missiles each country could have.

The U.S. retreated from détente after theSoviet Union invaded Afghanistan in 1979. In 1981,Ronald Reagan, a fierce anti-Communist, becamepresident. Then the Soviets grew angry over U.S.support for the rebels fighting Communists inNicaragua. Tensions increased until 1985 when theSoviet Union got a new leader.

ReviewDetermining Main Ideas1. What factors divided the United States and the

Soviet Union?2. How did the two superpowers tangle in the

Americas?3. Summarizing Describe the Great Leap Forward

and the Cultural Revolution.4. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

Why did the United States fight in Korea andVietnam? What were the outcomes of thesewars?

5. Making Inferences How did the Soviet Unionact toward Eastern Europe?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF The Colonies Become NewNations, 1945–Present

CHAPTER OVERVIEW India and its neighbors won independence from GreatBritain, but their histories have been spoiled by conflict. Many new nations arosein Southeast Asia and in Africa after World War II as colonial empires collapsed.In the late 1940s, Jewish people were given their own country in the MiddleEast, where fighting between Jews and Arabs has erupted many times.

Summary

The Indian SubcontinentAchieves Freedom

KEY IDEA A number of new nations emerged from theBritish colony of India.

Many Asians served in the armies of the colonialpowers during World War II. The fight for

freedom from Nazi tyranny deepened their desirefor independence from colonial control. Also, theJapanese victories over European powers madeAsian nationalists realize that the colonial rulerscould be defeated. At the same time, people inEurope began to wonder if it was right for onenation to have another as a colony.

After World War II, Britain was prepared togrant independence to India—home to a largeHindu and smaller Muslim population. The BritishParliament passed a law granting independence inJuly 1947. It created the separate Hindu andMuslim nations of India and Pakistan. The law gavepeople only one month to decide which countrythey wanted to live in and to move there. As mil-lions of people began to move, violence broke out.Muslims, Hindus, and Sikhs—another religiousgroup—killed each other. Leader Mohandas Gandhipleaded to end all violence. A Hindu extremistassassinated him for protecting Muslims.

Jawaharlal Nehru became the first prime minis-ter of India, and he led the country for 17 years.His new nation and Pakistan, however, quickly fellto war over the state of Kashmir. It bordered bothcountries, with a Hindu ruler and large Muslimpopulation. Conflict over this state continues today.

Nehru tried to reform Indian society. He hopedto improve the status of the lower castes and ofwomen. Shortly after he died in 1964, his daughter,Indira Gandhi, became prime minister. She tooksteps to increase food production. In 1984, sheordered an attack on Sikh rebels. A few monthslater, she was killed by Sikhs. She was followed byher son Rajiv Gandhi, but he, too, was assassinated

as a political protest. Separatist movements con-tinue to disrupt Indian society.

Pakistan, too, has been marked by violence.When first formed, the nation had east and westparts that were separated by India. In a bloody fightin 1971, the eastern part won independence as thenew nation of Bangladesh. Power struggles havecaused turmoil in the western part since then.

Ceylon, an island on the southeastern coast ofIndia, won its independence in 1947 as well. In1972 it was renamed Sri Lanka. Since 1983, aHindu minority on the island—the Tamils—haveled a bloody fight to form a separate nation.

Southeast Asian NationsGain Independence

KEY IDEA The European colonies in Southeast Asiabecame independent countries in the postwar period.

In 1946, the United States gave the Philippinesindependence. From 1966 to 1986, Ferdinand

Marcos led the country. He was elected presidentbut after a few years ruled as a dictator. He thenharshly put down dissent and stole millions of dol-lars from the country. When he lost an election in1986, he refused to leave office. A large public out-cry forced him to step down.

Burma was the first British colony in SoutheastAsia to become independent. It changed its name toMyanmar in 1989. Since 1962, generals have ruledthe country, which has often been torn by conflict.

After World War II, the British moved back intothe Malay peninsula. They tried to form a country,but ethnic conflict between Malays and Chinesewho lived in the area doomed the effort. In 1957,independence was given to Malaya, Singapore, andparts of two distant islands. Some years later,Singapore declared independence as a city-state.

After World War II, Indonesia became inde-pendent. The nation is spread out. It has 13,600

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islands and includes people from 300 differentgroups speaking 250 different languages. Bringingthese different people into one unified country hasbeen difficult. In 1967, a general named Suhartotook control. Many criticized him for taking overthe island of East Timor and for corruption in hisgovernment. He resigned in 1998 under intensepublic pressure.

New Nations in AfricaKEY IDEA After World War II, African leaders threw offcolonial rule and created independent countries.

During World War II, Africans fought as sol-diers along with Europeans. As a result,

Africans were unwilling to suffer further domina-tion by colonial European powers after the war.

Soon the British began letting Africans take agreater part in the colonial government of its GoldCoast colony. Kwame Nkrumah headed a move-ment to push for Britain to act more quickly. Theeffort succeeded, and in 1957 the colony becameindependent—the first former colony in sub-SaharanAfrica. The new nation took the name Ghana.

Nkrumah had ambitious plans for building theeconomy of Ghana. These plans were very expen-sive, though, and opposition grew. Some people inGhana criticized him, too, for the time he spenttrying to form a group of African leaders. Thoughthe Organization of African Unity was formed in1963, Nkrumah remained in trouble at home.Finally, the army seized power in 1966 and ruledfor many years.

The strong leadership of nationalist JomoKenyatta helped Kenya achieve independence in1963. So, too, did an uprising of Africans calledMau Mau. This protest aimed at frightening theBritish settlers to leave. Kenyatta became presidentof the new nation. He tried to unite the many dif-ferent peoples in his country. His successor, DanielArap Moi, had little success in governing the coun-try. He stepped down in 2002, and a new partygained power through free elections.

Belgium granted independence to the Congo in1960. In 1965, Mobutu Sese Seko took control. Herenamed the country Zaire and ruled until 1997.Though Zaire had rich mineral resources, Mobutu’sharsh and corrupt rule made it a poor country. Hewas overthrown in a coup in 1997, when the coun-try’s name was changed to the Democratic Republicof the Congo.

A bloody conflict for independence took placein Algeria. About 1 million French settlers livedthere. They were unwilling to give up their controlof the colonial government. Violence broke out in1945 and continued for many years. In 1962, theFrench finally granted independence to Algeria.From 1965 until 1988, Algerians tried to modernizetheir country and give it an industrial economy.These efforts failed, and an Islamic party won elec-tions in 1991. However, the government rejectedthe vote. Today, a deadly civil war between Islamicmilitants and the government rages on.

The colonies of Portugal were the last to gaintheir independence. In the 1970s, Portuguesetroops left Angola—without putting any group incharge. Rebel groups fought a long civil war. Thewar stopped in 1989, but soon started again. A peaceagreement in 2002 finally ended the conflict.

Conflicts in the Middle EastKEY IDEA Postwar division of Palestine made theMiddle East a hotbed of nationalist movements.

The movement to settle Jews in Palestine beganin the late 1800s. These Jews believed that

Palestine belonged to them because it was theirhome 5,000 years ago. Muslims had lived there for1,300 years, however.

At the end of World War II, the United Nationsdivided Palestine in two. It left part for thePalestinian people and set aside part for Jews.Islamic countries voted against the plan, and thePalestinians opposed it. Many countries, seeing thesuffering Jews had experienced in World War II,backed the idea of a separate Jewish state. On May14, 1948, Jews declared the existence of the Jewishnation of Israel.

The next day, six Islamic neighbors invadedIsrael. With strong support from the United States,Israel won the war in a few months. It also wonthree later wars and seized much Palestinian land.

In 1977, Egyptian leader Anwar Sadat signed a peace agreement with Israeli prime ministerMenachem Begin. Egypt thus became the firstIslamic country to recognize Israel. This enragedmany Arabs, and Sadat was assassinated in 1981.His successor, though, kept peace with Israel.

Despite many efforts, though, Israel and thePalestinian people have not made peace. Palestiniansliving in Israel dislike Israeli rule. They want anation of their own. The Palestinian Liberation

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Organization (PLO), led by Yasir Arafat, became aleading group in the struggle for self-rule. Duringthe 1970s and 1980s, the military arm of the PLOmade many attacks on Israel. That nationresponded by invading Lebanon to attack bases of the PLO. In the late 1980s, many Palestinianpeople in Israel began a revolt called the intifada,or “uprising.” It lasted for years.

In the early 1990s, the two sides made someprogress toward peace. Israel agreed to givePalestinians control of an area called the Gaza Stripand of the town of Jericho. The Israeli leader whosigned this agreement, Yitzhak Rabin, was assassi-nated by a Jewish extremist who opposed giving into Palestinians. In 2003, the two sides renewedtheir peace efforts with a commitment to a U.S.sponsored plan known as the “road map.”

Central Asia StrugglesKEY IDEA The former lands of the Soviet Union inCentral Asia struggled to become thriving nations.

In 1991 the Soviet Union broke apart. As a result,the republics that it had conquered became

fifteen independent states. These states includenine countries in Central Asia. Geographers oftengroup these nations into two geographic areas.Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia make up theTranscaucasian Republics. Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan,Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan comprisethe Central Asian Republics.

Since independence, the countries of CentralAsia have faced a number of challenges. Many ofthese countries were economically dependent onthe Soviet Union. Thus, they have had a hard timestanding on their own. In addition, hostility hasarisen among some of the different ethnic groupsthat inhabit the area. This in turn has led to theoutbreak of several regional wars.

Located just below the countries that compriseCentral Asia is Afghanistan. This nation endured along history of struggle for independence.However, it is the nation’s more recent battles thathave brought it much international attention.

During the 1970s, a Communist group sup-ported by the Soviet Union sought to take controlof Afghanistan. A rebel group known as the mujahi-deen fought the communists. The Soviets sooninvaded and attempted to make Afghanistan part oftheir empire. Despite their superior military might,

Soviet forces could not defeat the determinedAfghan guerrilla fighters. After nearly 10 years ofbloody fighting, the Soviet Union withdrew.

After the Soviets left, various Afghan rebeltroops fought each other for control of the country.By 1998, an Islamic group known as the Talibancontrolled most of Afghanistan. The Taliban prac-ticed an extreme version of the Islamic religion—one that many other Muslims opposed. Talibanleaders forbade women to attend school or holdjobs. They also prohibited citizens from watchingtelevision and movies or listening to modern music.Punishment for disobeying their rules includedbeatings and even execution.

What’s more, the Taliban allowed terroristgroups to train in Afghanistan. One such group wasal-Qaeda, whose leader was Osama bin Laden.Many believe this group to be responsible for theattacks on New York and Washington, D.C. onSeptember 11, 2001.

In the wake of those attacks, the U.S. govern-ment demanded that the Taliban turn over binLaden. The Taliban refused. Beginning in October2001, the United States took military action againstAfghanistan. By December, the United States haddriven the Taliban from power. In the months thatfollowed, Afghanis created a new government andbegan working to rebuild their country afterdecades of war.

ReviewAnalyzing Issues1. What difficulties face anyone trying to make a

unified country out of Indonesia?2. Which change to self-rule do you think went the

smoothest in Africa? Why?3. Determining Main Ideas What type of struggle

dominates the history of independence inSoutheast Asia?

4. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing EffectsWhy were Sadat and Rabin assassinated?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Struggles for Democracy,1945–Present

CHAPTER OVERVIEW The history of Latin America revealed how difficult it is toset up a democracy. In Africa, ethnic conflicts worked against democracy. In theearly 1990s, communism fell in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union. But long-hidden ethnic tensions broke the regions into smaller countries. In China, com-munist leaders made economic changes but kept tight political control.

Summary

Democracy–Case Study:Latin American Democracies

KEY IDEA In Latin America, economic problems andauthoritarian rule delayed democracy.

For democracy to work, there must be free andfair elections. There must be more than one

political party. The people of the country shouldhave a good education so that they can makeinformed choices. They should share a commonculture. All must accept the idea that everyone hasequal rights. Finally, there must be rule by law, notby power. Many nations in Latin America have haddifficulty achieving democracy because all thesefactors are not present.

In 1822, newly independent Brazil began life asa monarchy. After 1930, a dictator ruled. But, in1956, an elected leader tried to make the economybetter. He broke up large estates and gave land tothe peasants. Landowners opposed the plan. Theybacked a group of army leaders who took power in1964. The military ruled Brazil for 20 years. Thecountry’s economy grew, but the people had fewrights. When the economy soured in the 1980s, thearmy gave up power to an elected president. In2002, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, a leftist candidate,was elected president.

Mexico has had stable government for almost allof the 1900s. Since the 1920s, one political party—now called the Institutional Revolutionary Party(PRI)—has been in power. The PRI has controlledthe local, state, and national governments. At times,the party acted harshly to stop any dissent. Inrecent years, though, the party has opened up thepolitical system to candidates from other parties. In1997, two opposition parties won enough seats tothe national legislature to deny the PRI control ofthat congress. In 2002, Mexican voters ended PRIrule by electing Vicente Fox as president.

Argentina has struggled toward democracy, too.In the 1940s and 1950s, Juan Perón was a popular

dictator. He put in place many programs to benefitthe masses. In 1952, though, the army overthrewhim and kept control of the government for thenext 30 years. Army leaders ruled harshly, killingmany who opposed them. In 1982, the army suf-fered a stinging defeat in a war with Britain. Thegenerals agreed to step down. Since 1983,Argentina has been led by freely elected leaders.However, it faces severe economic problems. In2003, Nestor Kirchner became president.

The Challenge of Democracy in Africa

KEY IDEA Recent histories of Nigeria and South Africashow ethnic and racial conflict hindering democracy.

Nations have had a hard time setting up democ-racy in Africa because of colonial rule.

European powers drew up borders in Africa thatpaid no attention to ethnic groupings. They putpeople who disliked each other in the same area,causing conflict. Also, they never developed theeconomies of their colonies. Most of the colonieslacked a middle class or skilled workers. Both areneeded for a strong democracy. When Britain andFrance gave their African colonies independence,they gave them democratic governments. Soon,though, problems arose between rival groups.

Nigeria is an example of this. In 1960, it becameindependent from Britain. But conflict broke out injust a few years. The people of one ethnic group triedto break away from Nigeria but lost in a three-yearcivil war. After a period of military rule, Nigeriafinally got an elected government. Army officers saidthe government was corrupt, though, and overthrewit. Once in power, they treated the people from otherethnic groups harshly. They allowed elections in 1993but did not accept the results. In 1999, Nigerianselected their first civilian president in 20 years,Olusegun Obasanjo. He was re-elected in 2003.

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In South Africa, the conflict was between races.A white minority ruled a black majority. In 1948,they put in place a policy called apartheid—the strictseparation of blacks and whites. Black South Africanswere denied many basic rights. Some joined togetherin a group called the African National Congress(ANC) to fight for their rights. The governmentcracked down, putting many ANC leaders in prison.

By the late 1980s, several riots had taken place,as blacks angrily struck back at the system. Also,many nations would not buy goods produced inSouth Africa. They hoped to persuade the govern-ment to end apartheid. In 1990, new President F.W. de Klerk took that step. He made the ANC legaland released ANC leader Nelson Mandela fromprison. Parliament passed a law ending apartheid. InApril 1994, all South Africans—even blacks—wereable to vote in an election for a new leader. TheANC and Mandela won easily. In 1996, the newgovernment approved a new constitution. It gaveequal rights to all South Africans. In 1999, ANCofficial Thabo Mbeki won election as president.

The Collapse of the Soviet Union

KEY IDEA Soviet leaders Mikhail Gorbachev, BorisYeltsin, and Vladimir Putin promoted democratic reformsand economic restructuring.

During the 1960s and 1970s, the leaders of theSoviet Union kept tight control on society. In

1985, Communist Party leaders named MikhailGorbachev as the leader of the Soviet Union. Hewas the youngest Soviet leader since Joseph Stalin.He was expected to make minor reforms. Instead,he launched a revolution.

Gorbachev felt that Soviet society could notimprove without the free flow of ideas and informa-tion. He started a policy called glasnost, or open-ness. He opened churches and released dissentersfrom prison. He allowed books to be published thatin the past had been banned. Then he began a newpolicy called perestroika, or restructuring. It aimedat making the Soviet economy perform better bylifting the tight control on all managers and work-ers. In 1987, he opened up the political system byallowing the Soviet people to elect representativesto a legislature. Finally, Gorbachev changed Sovietforeign policy. He moved to end the arms race.

People from many different ethnic groups inthe Soviet Union began calling for the right to have

their own nation. In 1990, Lithuania declared itselfindependent. Gorbachev sent troops, and they firedon a civilian crowd, killing a few people. This actionand lack of reform cost Gorbachev support amongthe Soviet people.

Many people began to support Boris Yeltsin.Old-time communists, at the same time, werebecoming angrier at Gorbachev’s changes. Theythought the changes made the Soviet Unionweaker. In August 1991, they tried to take controlof the government. Thousands rallied in the streets.When the army refused to back the coup leaders,they gave up.

To strike back the parliament voted to ban theparty from any political activity. Meanwhile, moreand more republics in the Soviet Union declaredtheir independence. By the end of 1991,Gorbachev announced that the Soviet Union wouldno longer exist. Russia and the other 14 republicswere each becoming independent states.

Gorbachev lost all power, and Yeltsin becamepresident of Russia. He faced many problems.Efforts to move the Russian economy toward capi-talism caused suffering. In addition, rebels in thesmall republic of Chechnya declared their independ-ence from Russia. Yeltsin refused to allow it. Hesent thousands of troops, who were caught in abloody war for two years. In 2000, Vladimir Putinwas elected president of Russia and dealt forcefullywith the rebellion in Chechnya, but the fightingdragged on. Putin also dealt with economic, politi-cal, and social problems in Russia.

Changes in Central andEastern Europe

Key Idea Soviet Reforms of the late 1980s brought bigchanges to Central and Eastern Europe.

Gorbachev urged leaders in Central and EasternEurope to change their policies. They resisted,

but the people of their countries wanted reform.Protest movements began to build. In Poland,many years of economic problems led the govern-ment to lift a ban on a workers’ movement calledSolidarity. Facing growing unrest, the governmentwas forced to allow elections. The Polish peoplevoted overwhelmingly against the communists andfor Solidarity. However, the Polish people becamefrustrated with how long and painful the processwas to achieve democracy and capitalism. In elec-tions in 1995, they voted the former leader of

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Solidarity out as president of Poland and electedAleksander Kwasniewski in his place. In Hungary,reformers took over the communist party. Then itvoted itself out of existence.

Change soon came to East Germany. Its leadersresisted at first. Then thousands of people acrossthe country demanded free elections. Soon theBerlin Wall, which divided East and West Berlin,was down. By the end of 1989, the communistparty was out of power. The next year the two partsof Germany, East and West, were united onceagain. The new nation had many problems, though.It had to fix the problems in the old East Germaneconomy.

In Czechoslovakia, similar calls for reform tookplace. When the government cracked down on pro-testers, thousands of Czechs poured into thestreets. One day hundreds of thousands of peoplegathered to protest in the nation’s capital. The com-munists agreed to give up power. Democracy led toa breakup. In 1993, the country split into two sepa-rate nations: the Czech Republic and Slovakia.

In Romania, a tough dictator used the army toshoot at protestors. The incident enragedRomanians. Massive protests forced him out. Hewas captured and executed in 1989. General elec-tions followed.

Yugoslavia was made up of many different eth-nic groups, and in the early 1990s they began fight-ing. When Serbia tried to control the government,two other areas declared independence. Sloveniabeat back a Serbian invasion, but Serbia andCroatia fought a bloody civil war. In 1992, Bosnia-Herzegovina also declared independence. Serbswho lived in that region opposed the move. Usingaid from Serbia, they fought a brutal civil war withMuslims, the largest group in Bosnia. The UnitedNations was able to stop the fighting, but peaceremained uncertain. The change to democracy andcapitalism in Central and Eastern Europe was notsmooth.

China: Reform and ReactionKEY IDEA China’s government has experimented withcapitalism but has rejected calls for democracy.

Mao Zedong had tried to build a China on theideas of equality, revolutionary spirit, and

hard work. But his policies kept the economy fromgrowing very quickly. Other leaders tried to mod-ernize the economy. This caused Mao to launch the

Cultural Revolution of the 1960s. The result waschaos, and it was followed by a period of moremoderate government action.

During this time, China had little role in worldaffairs. Zhou Enlai, another Chinese leader, wor-ried about this. He worked with U.S. PresidentRichard Nixon to improve U.S.–Chinese relations.

After Mao and Zhou died in 1976, moderatestook control of the government. The chief leaderwas Deng Xiaoping. He tried to modernize theeconomy. He ended farming communes andallowed farmers more freedom. He made similarchanges to industry. Suddenly, people had moreincome. They began to purchase appliances andother goods that had been scarce before.

Deng’s new plan caused problems. The gapbetween rich and poor grew wider, which causedunrest. Western political ideas entered the country.In 1989, thousands of Chinese students gathered ina public square in the capital of Beijing. Theycalled for democracy and freedom. Dengresponded by sending army troops and tanks to put down the rally. Hundreds were killed and thousands wounded. China has continued to stamp out protest to this day. Deng died in 1997,and was replaced as president by Jiang Zemin.Eventually Jiang retired and was replaced by HuJintao.

Another major issue for China was the status ofHong Kong. The island became part of China againin 1997 when the British gave it back after 155 yearsof colonial rule. China promised to respect HongKong’s freedom for 50 years, but many worried.

Review1. Determining Main Ideas In what ways do

Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina show how difficultit is to establish democracy?

Identifying Problems and Solutions2. What problems in establishing democracy

occurred in Nigeria and South Africa?3. What reforms did Gorbachev put in place?4. Analyzing Causes and Recognizing Effects

Why did the Soviet Union break apart?5. Drawing Conclusions What path did China

take, and what difficulties did it meet?

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CHAPTERS IN BRIEF Global Interdependence,1960–Present

CHAPTER OVERVIEW New technologies have brought people around the worldcloser to one another and improved their lives. The world’s economies have alsogrown closer to one another. Nations around the world have worked together totry to bring peace and end terrorism. Because of technology, the world’s cultureshave more influence on one another now.

Summary

The Impact of Science andTechnology

KEY IDEA Advances in technology after 1945 led toincreased global interaction and improved quality of life.

From the 1950s to the 1970s, the United Statesand Soviet Union took their Cold War rivalry to

space. This space race also led to more global coop-eration. In 1975, U.S. and Soviet spacecraft docked,or joined together, in space. Later, American andSoviet space missions included scientists from othercountries. In the late 1990s, the United States,Russia, and 14 other nations worked together tobuild the International Space Station (ISS).

Some space missions did not include humancrew members. Unmanned flights sent back pic-tures and information about other planets. In 1990,the United States and European countries sent theHubble Space Telescope into orbit around theearth. This satellite continues to send back stun-ning images of objects in space.

Another advance in technology has been thecomputer. Computers have shrunk in size andgrown in power since they were first invented.Consumer goods such as microwave ovens, tele-phones, and cars often include computer chips tokeep them running. Millions of people around theworld use personal computers at work or at home.Many of these people are connected through theInternet, a worldwide network of computers. TheInternet allows people to access information orcommunicate with one another.

New technology has changed medicine as well.Surgery using lasers allows doctors to fix problemsin the eye or the brain. New methods for makingimages of the body help doctors locate problems.Research into genes has helped unlock the secretsof some diseases.

In the 1960s, agricultural scientists started thegreen revolution, an attempt to increase food produc-tion worldwide. This involved the use of fertilizers,pesticides, and high-yield, disease-resistant strains of

crops. The green revolution did increase crop yields.However, it had its negative side, too. Fertilizers andpesticides can pollute the environment.

Advances in genetics research seem to be help-ing to fulfill some of the goals of the green revolu-tion. Resistance to pests and tolerance to poor soilare bred into plant strains, reducing the need forpesticides and fertilizers. This holds great promisefor increasing food production in a world with anexpanding population.

Global EconomicDevelopment

KEY IDEA The economies of nations are so tightly linkedthat the actions of one nation affects others.

Technology has also changed the world’seconomies. In the 1950s, scientists found a new

way to make plastics, which came to be widely used.In recent years, industries have begun using robots tomake products. These changes have required work-ers to have more and different skills than before. Theindustrialized nations changed the focus of theireconomies. They came to have more jobs in serviceand information industries. Manufacturing jobs weremore often found in the emerging nations wherelabor costs less.

A global economy linking the economies of different nations developed in the 1980s. In recentyears, this process of globalization has speeded up.Telephone and computer links connect banks andother financial companies around the world. Multi-national corporations have offices and factories inmany countries. Their decisions affect workers allover the world.

An important aspect of globalization is freetrade—no barriers to block goods from one countryfrom entering another country. Many steps havebeen taken to put free trade in practice. In 1951,some nations in Europe joined together to createfree trade among their people. That group, nowcalled the European Union (EU), has grown to

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become a powerful trading block. To compete, theUnited States, Canada, and Mexico agreed to theNorth American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)in 1994. Organizations in Asia, Africa, LatinAmerica, and the South Pacific have also createdregional trade policies.

In recent years, there has been considerabledisagreement on the impact of economic globaliza-tion. Supporters suggest that open, competitivemarkets and the free flow of goods, services, tech-nology, and investments benefit all nations.Opponents charge that globalization has been a dis-aster for the poorest countries. Many, they suggest,are worse off today than they were in the past.

The development of the global economy hashad a major impact on the use of energy and otherresources. Manufacturing and trade both use hugeamounts of energy. Oil has been a major source ofthis energy. Whenever the flow of oil has beenthreatened, the world’s economies have sufferedsevere shocks.

Growth has also caused problems for the envi-ronment. Burning coal and oil has polluted the air.It has caused acid rain and brought about a generalrising of temperatures on Earth. Release of somechemicals into the air has weakened the earth’sozone layer. This layer of air blocks out dangerousrays from the sun.

Many scientists understand the need to con-tinue to let economies grow. They urge, though,that this growth take place without using up theworld’s resources too quickly. This movement cen-ters on an idea called “sustainable growth.”

Global Security IssuesKEY IDEA Since 1945, nations have used collective security efforts to solve problems.

After World War II, the Cold War created newtensions among the world’s nations. This uneasy

situation threatened world security. So, nationsbegan to work together to find peaceful solutions.

The United Nations (UN) was formed at the endof World War II to promote world peace. The UNprovides a place for countries—or groups withincountries—to speak their views. When groups at warrequest it, the UN can send troops as a peacekeepingforce. These soldiers—who come from membernations—help stop violence from breaking out. As of2002, the UN had 40,000 soldiers and police in 13peacekeeping forces around the world.

Another approach to greater peace and security

has been the attempt to limit weapons of massdestruction. These include nuclear missiles, chemi-cal weapons, and biological weapons. In 1968,many nations signed a treaty agreeing not todevelop nuclear weapons. In the 1990s, the UnitedStates and Russia have made agreements to destroymany of their nuclear weapons. In another treaty,many nations promised not to develop chemicalor biological weapons. Threats to safety remain,however. Some nations have tried to develop anduse these weapons. As a result, weapons of massdestruction continue to be a global security problem.

Another source of world conflict has been thestruggle between different ethnic and religiousgroups. Violence has killed thousands. One effort tosolve this problem has been the movement forhuman rights. In 1948, the UN approved theUniversal Declaration of Human Rights. This state-ment lists specific rights that all people shouldhave. Later, the Helsinki Accords, signed by manynations in 1975, included such rights as the free-dom to exchange information. Many groupsthroughout the world keep a close eye on how wellnations do in providing these rights for their people.

Recently, the enjoyment of a decent standard ofhealth has become recognized as a basic humanright. However, for many people across the world,poor health is still the norm. Perhaps the greatestglobal challenge to the attainment of good health isAIDS, or acquired immune deficiency syndrome.AIDS is a worldwide problem. However, Sub-Saharan Africa has suffered most from the epi-demic. The disease has had devastating impact onthe populations and economies of many countriesin this region.

In recent years, millions of people have movedfrom one country to another. Some seek better jobs.Others hope to escape harsh treatment at home.Immigrants can bring many benefits to their newhome. While people have a right to leave, everycountry does not have to accept them. Sometimesthese people have to live in crowded refugee camps.They suffer hunger and disease and can cause politi-cal problems for the country where they are held.

Terrorism Case Study:September 11, 2001

KEY IDEA Terrorism threatens the safety of peoplearound the world.

Terrorism is the use of violence against peopleor property to force changes in societies or

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governments. People resort to terrorism to gainindependence, to rid their country of foreigners, orto change their society. Recently, another motivefor terrorism has emerged. Some people, driven byradical religious and cultural ideals, have tried todestroy what they consider the forces of evil.

The most common weapons used by terroristsare bombs and bullets. Terrorist attacks involvingthese weapons usually target crowded places. Someterrorist groups have used biological and chemicalweapons. Others have employed cyberterrorism—attacks on information systems such as computernetworks. Governments take various actions tocombat terrorism. These include conducting mili-tary operations against terrorist training camps, cut-ting off terrorists’ sources of funds, and tighteningsecurity measures at vulnerable targets.

Few areas of the world have escaped incidents ofterrorism. In the Middle East, Palestinians andIsraelis have argued for decades about land owner-ship. This argument has resulted in many terroristacts. In Northern Ireland, the Irish Republican Army(IRA) has done terrorist acts for many years. TheIRA wants the British to give up control overNorthern Ireland. Terrorist groups have also beenactive in Asia, Africa, and Latin America.

The United States also has been the target ofinternational terrorism. On the morning ofSeptember 11, 2001, 19 Arab terrorists hijackedfour airliners, crashing them into the World TradeCenter in New York City and the Pentagon inWashington, D.C. The United States responded bylaunching a military attack on Afghanistan, wherethe hijackers were trained. In addition, the UnitedStates Congress passed the USA Patriot Act, whichgave the government several powers to help chaseand capture of terrorists. The Congress also createdthe Department of Homeland Security to organizethe fight against terrorism in the United States.

4 Cultures Blend in a Global Age

KEY IDEA Technology has increased contact among the world’s people, changing their cultures.

Changes in technology have made it possible forpeople to share their cultures with one

another. Television is one of the main forces in thistrend. Movies and radio also have had an impact inbringing the world’s people together.

As a result of these mass media, the world’spopular culture now includes elements from many

different cultures. Popular culture includes music,sports, clothing styles, food, and hobbies. Americantelevision shows have become popular around theworld. So, too, have athletes from many countries.Broadcasts of the sports events can reach millionsof people in all corners of the globe.

When elements of different cultures are com-bined, it is called cultural blending. In recenttimes, ideas from the United States and Europehave been a major force in this blending. One rea-son is that Western nations dominate the massmedia. This trend also results from the influencethat the West has had in recent centuries. As aresult, English is now a major world language.About 500 million people speak English as theirfirst or second language. More people speakMandarin Chinese. However, English speakers aremore widely spread throughout the world. Westernclothes can be seen throughout the world. Westernfoods—such as hamburgers and soft drinks—areenjoyed everywhere. Some ideas have also traveledfrom East to West.

Some see this growing international culture as aproblem. They worry that their own culture will bedrowned in a sea of influences from other lands.Some countries limit the amount of broadcast timegiven to foreign television programs. Others usecensorship to keep unwanted ideas from enteringthe land. In some areas, people have revived oldtraditions in order to keep them alive.

Despite these difficulties, it is clear that thepeople of the world are more dependent on oneanother. All through human history, people havefaced many challenges to their survival. In the 21stcentury, those challenges will be faced by differentpeople around the world. They are people who arein increasing contact with others. They are peoplewith a greater stake in living in harmony.

Review1. Recognizing Effects How have computers

affected the way people gather information andcommunicate with one another?

2. Drawing Conclusions How have economieschanged since World War II?

3. Identifying Problems What problems comewith economic growth?

4. Summarizing What efforts have countries madeto increase peace and security in the world?

5. Clarifying Give two examples of cultural blending.

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