Chapter 6Chapter 6

Motivating Effectively

The Relationship of MotivationThe Relationship of Motivationto Performanceto Performance

Motivation Performance

Ability

Situation

Fundamentals of MotivationFundamentals of Motivation

• Motivation comes from the Latin movere, “to move”

• Motivation requires:– arousal to initiate behavior toward a goal– direction to properly focus that behavior– persistence to ultimately attain the goal

• The motivation “toolkit” contains:– content or need theories to help us understand what people

want– process theories to understand the motivation process

Some Theories Of MotivationSome Theories Of Motivation

• Need (or Content) Theories– Maslow’s Need Hierarchy

– Alderfer’s ERG Theory

– McClelland’s Manifest Needs

• Process Theories– Learning Theory

– Goal Setting Theory

– Equity Theory

– Expectancy Theory

Understanding Employee NeedsUnderstanding Employee Needs

• A need is something that people require.

• Satisfaction is the condition of need fulfillment

• Motivation is the attempt to satisfy a need.

The Need Satisfaction Process The Need Satisfaction Process (Figure 6-1)(Figure 6-1)

NeedDeficiency

Search forPotential Need-

SatisfyingGoal

Perception ofPotential Need-

SatisfyingGoal

Attempt toAttain Goal

GoalAttainment or

Frustration

Maslow’s NeedsMaslow’s Needs

• Physiological: the need for food, sleep, water, air, and sex

• Security: the need for safety, family, stability, and economic security

• Social or affiliation: the need to belong, to interact with others, to have friends, and to love and be loved

• Esteem: the need for respect and recognition of others

• Self-actualization: the need to realize one’s potential, to grow, to be creative, and to accomplish

Maslow’s Need HierarchyMaslow’s Need Hierarchy

Self-Actualization

Esteem

Social

Security

Physiological

SatisfactionProgression

Maslow’s HypothesesMaslow’s Hypotheses

• Needs cluster into five sets

• Needs at the lowest unsatisfied level are most salient

• A satisfied need is not a motivator

• There is a hierarchy of successive prepotency -- once needs at a given level are satisfied, those at the next higher level become most important

Evidence Concerning Maslow’sEvidence Concerning Maslow’sNeed HierarchyNeed Hierarchy

• People do have a variety of needs which vary in levels of satisfaction and importance.

• For most needs, satisfaction is negatively related to performance.• Satisfaction of lower level needs is generally necessary before higher

level needs become more important.• Other than this, people don’t move up the hierarchy in any predictable

fashion.• It appears that people have two or three distinct sets of needs, not five.• For higher level needs, satisfaction and importance are positively

related.

Alderfer’s Sets of Needs (ERG)Alderfer’s Sets of Needs (ERG)

• Existence -- all forms of material and physical desires

• Relatedness -- all needs involving relationships with significant other persons

• Growth -- All needs involving a person making creative and productive efforts on the self and the environment

Alderfer’s ERG TheoryAlderfer’s ERG Theory

GrowthNeeds

RelatednessNeeds

ExistenceNeeds

Frustration

Regression

Satisfaction

Progression

Differences Between Maslow’s Need Differences Between Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG TheoryHierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG Theory

• Alderfer collapses Maslow’s five levels into three

• Alderfer says growth need strength is positively related to growth need satisfaction

• Alderfer sees a hierarchy only in terms of increasing abstractness

• Alderfer recognizes frustration regression as well as satisfaction progression

McClelland’s Manifest NeedsMcClelland’s Manifest Needs

• Need for Achievement: The need to do well no matter what goal is pursued.

• Need for Affiliation: The desire to establish and maintain friendly and warm relations with other people.

• Need for Power: The desire to control other people, to influence their behavior, and to be responsible for them.

Characteristics of Individuals withCharacteristics of Individuals withStrong Need for AchievementStrong Need for Achievement

• Desire to attain goals.

• Desire for personal responsibility.

• Desire for quick feedback on performance.

Implications of Need TheoriesImplications of Need Theories

• Different people have different needs structures as well as different needs that may be salient at a given time.

• While satisfaction occurs when needs are met, motivation flows from lack of satisfaction.

• A reward may satisfy multiple needs.

• Needs appear to form two or three clusters.

Implications of Need Theories Implications of Need Theories (Continued)(Continued)

• While most people first focus on existence needs when those needs are not satisfied, it is not possible to say which needs will next become most important.

• Both satisfaction progression and frustration regression are important.

• The top cluster of needs, sometimes called growth needs, behave differently from others.

• It may be possible to develop people’s needs.

The Bottom Line: Need TheoriesThe Bottom Line: Need Theories

AssessEmployeeNeeds

AssessEmployeeNeeds

Identify the MostActive Needsof Employees

Identify the MostActive Needsof Employees

Develop SpecificStrategies toSatisfy ActiveEmployee Needs

Develop SpecificStrategies toSatisfy ActiveEmployee Needs

ImplementStrategies

ImplementStrategies

Evaluatethe Plan

Evaluatethe Plan

Learning TheoriesLearning Theories

• Learning is any relatively permanent change in behavior produced by experience.

• Three types of learning:– classical conditioning– operant conditioning– social learning

Classical Conditioning (Figure 6-4)Classical Conditioning (Figure 6-4)

Step 1: Before Conditioning

Bell No Responseand

Food Response (Salivation)Step 2: During Conditioning

Bell Followed byFood Response (Salivation)Step 3: After Conditioning

Food Response (Salivation)

Operant Conditioning (Figure 6-5)Operant Conditioning (Figure 6-5)

Stimulus Response Consequence

Arranging Contingencies to Increase Arranging Contingencies to Increase Desired Behaviors (Figure 6-6)Desired Behaviors (Figure 6-6)

StimulusDesired

ResponsePositive

Consequence

Positive Reinforcement

StimulusDesired

Response

Removal ofNoxious

Consequence

Escape Learning (Negative Reinforcement)

DesiredResponse

Avoidance ofNoxious

Consequence

Avoidance Learning

Arranging Contingencies to Reduce Arranging Contingencies to Reduce Undesired Behaviors (Figure 6-7)Undesired Behaviors (Figure 6-7)

StimulusUndesiredResponse

Withholdingof Positive

Consequence

StimulusDesired

Response

StimulusUndesiredResponse

PositiveConsequence

Nonreinforcement (Extinction)

Arranging Contingencies to Reduce Arranging Contingencies to Reduce Undesired Behaviors (Fig. 6-7) ContinuedUndesired Behaviors (Fig. 6-7) Continued

StimulusUndesiredResponse

NoxiousConsequence

or Withholdingof Positive

Consequence

StimulusUndesiredResponse

Punishment

Problems with Use of PunishmentProblems with Use of Punishment

• Managers don’t like to punish others.• Managers may feel constrained from using punishment

because of company policy or threat of reprisal.• Punishment may engender resentment.• Punishment may lead to revenge and retaliation.• Punishment leads to adherence only when the person

administering the punishment is present or monitoring• Others may misinterpret the reasons for punishment.• Punishment may reduce the undesired behavior, but it

doesn’t directly teach a desired behavior.

Desired Properties ofDesired Properties ofReinforcement SchedulesReinforcement Schedules

• Rapid Learning. The schedule should quickly teach desired behaviors.

• High Response Rate. The schedule should have high “bang for the buck” (that is, high levels of motivation at a relatively low cost).

• High Response Stability. The schedule should encourage engaging in desired behaviors on a regular basis.

• Low Extinction Rate. The schedule should ensure that, once a behavior is learned, it will be maintained even if reinforcement is temporarily stopped.

Reinforcement SchedulesReinforcement Schedules

• Continuous reinforcement: every instance of the target behavior is reinforced

• Fixed-interval: a reinforcer is provided at fixed time intervals (e.g., weekly paycheck)

• Variable-interval: a reinforcer is administered randomly around some average interval (e.g., four pop quizzes during semester)

• Fixed-ratio: A reinforcer is provided after every n responses (e.g., bonus for every ten units sold)

• Variable-ratio: A reinforcer is administered on average every n responses (e.g., payoff on slot machine on average of once every ten pulls of handle)

Comparing the Schedules of Comparing the Schedules of Reinforcement (Figure 6-8)Reinforcement (Figure 6-8)

Schedule of Reinforcement

Measure Continuous FixedRatio

VariableRatio

FixedInterval

VariableInterval

LearningRate

Very Fast Fast Slow Very Slow Moderate

ResponseRate

Very Low VeryHigh

Very High Low Moderate

ResponseStability

Very High High High Very Low Low toModerate

ExtinctionRate

Very Fast Fast Very Slow ModeratelyFast

Slow

Some Guidelines for Effectively Using Some Guidelines for Effectively Using Learning Techniques in OrganizationsLearning Techniques in Organizations

• Don’t give the same reward to all.• Recognize that failure to respond has reinforcing

consequences.• Tell a person what behavior gets reinforced.• Tell a person what he or she is doing wrong.• Don’t punish in front of others.• Make the consequences equal to the behavior.• Reinforce behaviors as soon as possible.

The Bottom Line: Organizational The Bottom Line: Organizational Behavior Modification (OBM)Behavior Modification (OBM)

IdentifyTargetBehavior

IdentifyTargetBehavior

ObtainBaselineMeasure of Target Behavior

ObtainBaselineMeasure of Target Behavior

IdentifyAppropriateReinforcer(s)

IdentifyAppropriateReinforcer(s)

Define CriterionLevel of TargetBehavior

Define CriterionLevel of TargetBehavior

Identify anAppropriateSchedule ofReinforcement

Identify anAppropriateSchedule ofReinforcement

Implementthe Plan

Implementthe Plan

Evaluate the Plan(Assess Levels ofTarget BehaviorAgainst Criterion)

Evaluate the Plan(Assess Levels ofTarget BehaviorAgainst Criterion)

Functions of GoalsFunctions of Goals

• Goals let employees know what they are expected to do.• Goals relieve boredom.• Reaching goals and getting positive feedback leads to

increased liking for the task and satisfaction with job performance.

• Attaining goals leads to recognition by peers, supervisors, and others.

• Attaining goals leads to feelings of increased self-confidence, pride in achievement, and willingness to accept future challenges.

Important Goal CharacteristicsImportant Goal Characteristics(Figure 6-9)(Figure 6-9)

SPECIFIC GOALS

DIFFICULT GOALS

FEEDBACK ONPROGRESS

COMPETITION

PARTICIPATIONIN GOAL SETTING

MOTIVATION

GOALACCEPTANCE

GOALCOMMITMENT

Management by ObjectivesManagement by Objectives

• Management by objectives (MBO) is a motivational technique in which the manager and employee work together to set employee goals.

• MBO combines many key goal setting principles, including setting of specific goals, participation in goal setting, and feedback on performance.

• MBO may be difficult and time consuming to implement, and may encourage focus on easily-quantifiable goals.

• 68 of 70 major studies showed MBO to result in productivity gains.

The Bottom Line: Goal Setting The Bottom Line: Goal Setting TheoryTheory

Use EmployeeParticipation toSet Difficult andSpecific Goals

Use EmployeeParticipation toSet Difficult andSpecific Goals

Ensure That theEmployee Under-Stands the Goalsand is Committedto Achieving Them

Ensure That theEmployee Under-Stands the Goalsand is Committedto Achieving Them

ProvideManagement Support(Including Feedback)for Achievement ofEmployee Goals

ProvideManagement Support(Including Feedback)for Achievement ofEmployee Goals

Link AppropriateConsequences toGoal Achievement

Link AppropriateConsequences toGoal Achievement

Assess EmployeeJob PerformanceAgainst Goals

Assess EmployeeJob PerformanceAgainst Goals

The Components of ExpectancyThe Components of ExpectancyTheory (Figure 6-10)Theory (Figure 6-10)

Effort to Perform at a Certain Level

Second-Order Outcome 2 (e.g.,Pay) with Valence V2

Second-Order Outcome 1 (e.g.,Approval of Supervisor)

with Valence V1

Second-Order Outcome 3 (e.g.,Esteem of Coworkers)

with Valence V3

Second-Order Outcome 4 (e.g.,Promotion Opportunities)

with Valence V4

Second-Order Outcomes 5 to n(e.g., Job Security, Better WorkHours) with Valences V5 to Vn

First-OrderOutcome

(e.g., Performance)

EX

PE

CT

AN

CY

INS

TR

UM

EN

TA

LIT

IES

The Linkage of Effort to a First-The Linkage of Effort to a First-Order Outcome (Figure 6-11)Order Outcome (Figure 6-11)

EffortFirst-OrderOutcome

RolePerceptions

Ability

SituationalConstraints

Implications of Expectancy TheoryImplications of Expectancy Theory

• Recognize that three conditions are necessary for motivation to perform.

• Assess perceptions of each of these conditions.• Identify gaps between employee and management perceptions.• Make sure you are giving employees what they want.• Ask what factors may be weakening expectancy perceptions.• Ask what factors may be weakening instrumentality perceptions.• If employees appear to be poorly motivated, work backwards.

The Bottom Line: Expectancy TheoryThe Bottom Line: Expectancy Theory

Identify DesiredLevel of EmployeeMotivation

Identify DesiredLevel of EmployeeMotivation

Provide Training,Direction, andOpportunities toSucceed to Enhance Employee’s Belief thatHe/She Can AchieveHigh Job Performance

Provide Training,Direction, andOpportunities toSucceed to Enhance Employee’s Belief thatHe/She Can AchieveHigh Job Performance

Promote Employee’sBelief that JobPerformance Mattersby Using AppropriateReward Policies andPractices

Promote Employee’sBelief that JobPerformance Mattersby Using AppropriateReward Policies andPractices

Use Organizational RewardSystems and Job Design toLink Positively ValuedConsequences to EmployeeJob Performance in an Equitable Manner

Use Organizational RewardSystems and Job Design toLink Positively ValuedConsequences to EmployeeJob Performance in an Equitable Manner

Promote ManagerialSupport to EnsureThat EmployeeMotivation Results inHigh Job Performance

Promote ManagerialSupport to EnsureThat EmployeeMotivation Results inHigh Job Performance

Why Be Fair? General ReasonsWhy Be Fair? General Reasons

• When people experience a situation they feel is not fair, they experience an unpleasant state of tension.

• Some people try to be fair because they think others will reward them for being fair.

• Behaving fairly may bolster a person’s self-esteem.

• Most people find it comforting to believe that life is fair.

Why Be Fair? Employers’ ReasonsWhy Be Fair? Employers’ Reasons

• To conform to business norms.

• To attract superior workers to their company and weed out inferior workers.

• To motivate employees to produce.

• To develop trust.

Equity Theory EquationEquity Theory Equation

Op

Ip

Oo

IO=

Restoring Equity (Underpaid Case)Restoring Equity (Underpaid Case)

• Raise actual outcomes

• Lower inputs

• Perceptually distort inputs and/or outcomes

• Perceptually distort comparison other’s inputs and/or outcomes

• Leave the situation

• Act to change the comparison other’s inputs and/or outcomes

• Change the comparison other

How People Choose From Among Ways How People Choose From Among Ways to Reduce Inequityto Reduce Inequity

• People will first try to maximize valued outcomes.• People will be reluctant to increase inputs that are difficult or costly to change.• People will resist actual or perceived changes in inputs or outcomes that are

central to their self-concept and self-esteem.• People will be more resistant to changing perceptions of their own inputs and

outcomes than to changing perceptions of their comparison other’s inputs and outcomes.

• People will leave the situation only when inequity is great and other means of reducing it are not available.

• People will be reluctant to change their comparison others.

The Bottom Line: Equity TheoryThe Bottom Line: Equity Theory

AssessEmployeePerceptionsof Equity inTheir WorkSituations

AssessEmployeePerceptionsof Equity inTheir WorkSituations

IdentifyEmployeesWhoPerceiveInequities

IdentifyEmployeesWhoPerceiveInequities

Identify theBasis forEmployeePerceptionsof Inequity

Identify theBasis forEmployeePerceptionsof Inequity

EvaluateManagementPolicies and Practicesto Determine theValidity of EmployeePerceptions

EvaluateManagementPolicies and Practicesto Determine theValidity of EmployeePerceptions

Identify SpecificChanges That Can Be Made to AddressEmployee EquityConcerns

Identify SpecificChanges That Can Be Made to AddressEmployee EquityConcerns

Implement Changes andCommunicateThem toEmployees

Implement Changes andCommunicateThem toEmployees

Rules for Determining Distributive Rules for Determining Distributive FairnessFairness

• Contributions Rule: Give people outcomes in proportion to their contributions (inputs).

• Needs Rule: Give people outcomes according to their needs.

• Equality Rule: Give people outcomes on an equal basis.

Factors Influencing WeightsFactors Influencing WeightsGiven to Distributive Fairness RulesGiven to Distributive Fairness Rules

• Self-interest: People tend to assign higher weights to rules that favor them.

• Conformity: People tend to conform to the rules favored by others with whom they interact.

• Availability of Relevant Information: People are reluctant to use a rule for which they don’t have sufficient information.

Implications of Fairness TheoriesImplications of Fairness Theories

• Fairness is absolutely critical to employees.

• Perceptions play a central role in determinations of fairness.

• Fairness involves a comparison process.

• Both distributive fairness and procedural fairness are important.

• Both overreward and underreward may cause problems.

Implications of Fairness Theories Implications of Fairness Theories (Continued)(Continued)

• Employees may consider inputs and outcomes that are different than those we may expect.

• We need to find what people really value and what they think they are contributing.

• Employees may find many ways to reduce perceived inequity.

• While the exact means employees will use to reduce inequity may be difficult to predict, almost all are harmful to organizations and perhaps to the individuals themselves.

The Case for SpecializationThe Case for Specialization

• The worker should be better able to perform the task and should find it to be easier.

• Time is not lost moving from one piece of machinery to another.

• The use of specialized machinery is encouraged.• Replacement of employees who are absent or who leave the

organization is easier, since the job is simpler to learn.• Especially when assembly lines are used, the worker may

adjust to the required pace and be drawn along by “traction.”

Potential Reactions to Specialized Jobs Potential Reactions to Specialized Jobs (Figure 6-13)(Figure 6-13)

Simplified,Low Skill

Level, ShortCycle Jobs

StimulusCondition

Monotony

Perception

Boredom,Job

Dissatis-faction

AffectiveResponse

Absenteeism,Turnover,

Restriction ofOutput

BehavioralResponse

The Argyris Maturity Drive The Argyris Maturity Drive Frustration Cycle (Figure 6-14)Frustration Cycle (Figure 6-14)

Individual’s DrivesToward Maturity,Including Desires for:• Activity• Independence•Diverse Behavior•Deep Interests•Long Time Perspective•Superordinate Position

Frustration ofMaturityDrives

Defense Mechanisms,Including:• Apathy• Daydreaming• Negativism• Rate Restriction• Absenteeism

Organization’s Rules, Formal Hierarchy,Emphasis on Authority, and SpecializedWork, Resulting in Employee:• Passivity • Shallow Interests• Dependence • Short Time Perspective• Few Ways of Behaving • Subordinate Position

The Job Characteristics ModelThe Job Characteristics Model(Figure 6-15)(Figure 6-15)

Core JobDimensions

CriticalPsychological

States

Personal andWork Outcomes

Skill VarietyTask Identity

Task Significance

ExperiencedMeaningfulness

of Work

AutonomyExperienced

Responsibility forWork Outcomes

FeedbackKnowledge ofthe Results of

Work Outcomes

High InternalWork Motivation

High-QualityWork Performance

High Satisfactionwith Work

Low Absenteeismand Turnover

Employee Growth-Need Strength

Implementing Principles for Job Implementing Principles for Job Redesign (Figure 6-17)Redesign (Figure 6-17)

CombiningTasks

Forming NaturalWork Units

Establishing ClientRelationships

Vertically Loadingthe Job

Opening FeedbackChannels

ImplementingPrinciples

Skill Variety

Task Identity

Task Significance

Autonomy

Feedback fromthe Task Itself

Core JobCharacteristics

The Bottom Line: Job Characteristics TheoryThe Bottom Line: Job Characteristics Theory

Design Jobs toReflect HighLevels of theFive CoreJob Dimensions

Design Jobs toReflect HighLevels of theFive CoreJob Dimensions

Ensure That EmployeesPossessHigh Growth-Need Strength

Ensure That EmployeesPossessHigh Growth-Need Strength

Assess EmployeePerceptions of theFive Core Dimensionsand Personal andWork Outcomes

Assess EmployeePerceptions of theFive Core Dimensionsand Personal andWork Outcomes

Identify Opportunitiesto Redesign the Jobto Increase Core JobDimensions

Identify Opportunitiesto Redesign the Jobto Increase Core JobDimensions

Implement theJob Redesign

Implement theJob Redesign

Evaluate theEffectiveness ofthe Job Redesign

Evaluate theEffectiveness ofthe Job Redesign