Chapter 6 – Conflicts in the Colonies

-As the English colonies grew, expansion of settlements into native American lands led to conflict. -Metacomet, a native American chief in New England, opposed colonists’ efforts to settle on his people’s lands. Metacomet was known as King Philip to the colonists because he compared himself to English King Charles II. The colonists worried that Metacomet wanted to attack them. This uneasy relationship led to a conflict known as King Philip’s War, in which the citizen-soldiers of the colonial militia fought against Metacomet’s native Americans in 1675. Both the colonists and the natives attacked each other repeatedly, leading to many deaths and the worsening of relations between the two groups. -The English colonists often took advantage of their native American allies, relationships that had been established during the time of the Pilgrims. These relationships were primarily based upon trade of goods such as tools and weapons, which were in high demand among the various native tribes. The natives often sold furs to the colonists, who then exported them back to Europe for profit. -While the English were primarily allied with the Iroquois (a confederation of six different tribes) of New York and Ohio River Valley, the French were allied with the Iroquois’ enemies, the various Algonquin and Huron tribes of the region. These relationships would be significant later on during the French and Indian War, a conflict between the English and French in North America. -In general, native Americans in the region trusted the French more than the English. They saw the French as mostly wanting a healthy trade relationship, trading in furs and natural resources, whereas the English, the natives felt, only wanted to expand into native American lands.

Trouble on the Frontier

-While conflicts between the English and native Americans were becoming more common, disputes over territory and resources between England and France were also on the rise. -England and France were both competing for territories in Europe and the Americas, a conflict that existed off and on for hundreds of years. Both countries fought wars around the world, extending to conflicts in North America. -The first was King William’s War from 1689-97, which resulted in no change of territory in North America. The second was Queen Anne’s War, which lasted from 1702-13, in which England fought against rival powers France and Spain. Both sides raided each other’s settlements in North America. After this conflict, England received parts of Canada from France. The third conflict was called King George’s War, in which England and France fought off and on in the 1740’s, but resulted in few changes in territory in the Americas. During these wars, men such as Benjamin Church developed new fighting tactics to fight wars in North America, mostly based on the strategies of various native American tribes. These tactics could be described as guerilla warfare, using ambushes, scouting, etc. -These three conflicts convinced many colonists that in order to defend the English colonies properly, they must be united in some way. In 1754 prominent colonist Benjamin Franklin proposed the Albany Plan of Union, in which he suggested that the colonies must unite if they are to survive both the threat of European powers such as France and Spain, as well as hostile native Americans. He based his proposal on the model of the Iroquois League, a confederation of smaller tribes. Most colonists rejected this idea, as they had more allegiance to their particular colony than the English colonies as a whole., and did not want to give up individual power over their own territories Furthermore, Parliament rejected this plan as well. The English government did not want to see the colonies united together as it feared possible rebellion in America. -The three Anglo-French conflicts (King William’s War, Queen Anne’s War, and King George’s War) ultimately led up to a final conflict in colonial North America, the French and Indian War, which was part of a larger, global war called the Seven Years War.

Conflicts with France

-Both England and France built forts in the area of New York and the Ohio River Valley near the Great Lakes. The French mainly operated out of bases in Canada, such as Quebec and Montreal. -The British attempted to build a fort on the Ohio River near what today is the modern city of Pittsburgh. French soldiers attacked the English, forcing them from the area. The French then built Fort Duquesne at the confluence of the Ohio, Allegheny, and Monongahela Rivers (this fort would later become Pittsburgh). Its strategic location at the meeting point of these three rivers allowed the French to control traffic on these waterways. -A young militia colonel named George Washington from Virginia was tasked with building an English fort in the area to stop the French from further expansion into English territory. However, the site he chose for this fort was very poor. It was difficult to defend and located in a low mountain valley. The French attacked Washington there and defeated him easily, causing many casualties (killed, wounded, or captured soldiers). This is considered the beginning of the French and Indian War, the final conflict in North America between the English and French colonies. This conflict was considered part of a larger global conflict called the Seven Years’ War. -The English king, George II, ordered English soldiers to North America to fight the French. However, many English soldiers in the French and Indian War were made up of colonial militia, or citizen-soldiers. The English were commanded by General Edward “Mad Dog” Braddock, a tough, well-respected leader. However, Braddock was unfamiliar with North America’s rough terrain and geography, where surprise attacks and ambushes were common. In his attempt to capture Fort Duquesne, Braddock’s troops were ambushed by the French and their native American allies, and Braddock was killed while his men retreated. This was an embarrassing defeat for the English. --The English gained the upper hand in the war with the capture of the French settlement of Quebec in 1759. The war ended with the Treaty of Paris in 1763. -According to the terms of the Treaty of Paris, France would cede Canada to the British, and from Spain (which allied with France in 1762) the British would gain the territory of Florida. The treaty changed the balance of power in North America. The English and Spanish became the only major European powers with territories in North America after the French and Indian War.

The French and Indian War

-The cost of the French and Indian war was high for the British, who spent a great deal of money both in North America and around the world fighting against the French. -Furthermore, now that the British had obtained so much territory in North America (Canada, the Great Lakes Region, etc.) a standing army was required to protect the colonists from native American attacks along the frontier. Americans were naturally distrustful of standing armies, and feared them as a threat to their freedom and liberty. -To save money and “protect” American colonists from native American attacks, King George III of Britain issued the Proclamation of 1763, which prohibited colonial settlement past the Appalachian Mountains. This greatly angered the colonists, who wished to expand into this region, and many colonists who served in various militias during the war were angered that their efforts were essentially for nothing. Many American colonists ignored this Proclamation and moved to the frontier anyway. -The British were deep in debt from the French and Indian War, and felt that since the war was fought on behalf of the colonists, that they should bear the financial burden. Thus, Parliament began to levy taxes against the colonists. -At this time, American citizens were some of the wealthiest people in the entire world per capita, and overall, the least taxed of all British citizens. It wasn’t the taxation itself that angered the colonists; rather, it was taxation without representation in the British Parliament that angered them. The first tax levied against the colonies was the Sugar Act, proposed by British Prime Minister George Greenville, which taxed molasses and sugar imported into the colonies,. This was the first of many taxes which angered the colonists.

Effects of the French and Indian War

-The Sugar Act was the first of several taxes levied against the American colonies after the French and Indian War. Again, these taxes were necessary, said the British King and Parliament, to pay for the costs of not only the war itself but the standing army in America that was required to protect the colonists from native Americans as well as other European powers. -Despite being some of the least taxed citizens of the British Empire, the colonists disagreed with these taxes because they had no representation in Parliament, something they felt was their right. -King George III had also passed the Proclamation of 1763, prohibiting colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains. His reasoning was that it was for the colonists own protection against native American attacks. Many Americans ignored the Proclamation and moved west anyway. This thinly populated area was known as the backcountry, and those who explored it were called pioneers. One such pioneer was the famous Daniel Boone. -For years, colonists moving into the Great Lakes and Ohio River Valley regions had come into conflict with the natives. These conflicts only increased after the British obtained former French lands west of the Appalachians. -One such conflict was known as Pontiac’s Rebellion, in which native American leader Pontiac united various tribes in the Ohio River Valley to fight British settlement on his people’s lands. Pontiac attempted to drive out the British, and captured and destroyed several British forts and settlements in the area. However, Pontiac could not hope to defeat the British, and was eventually forced to surrender to the British. This conflict with Pontiac finally convinced King George III to issue the Proclamation of 1763, which, again, angered many colonists.

Effects of the French and Indian War

-Again, to pay for the cost of the French and Indian War, as well as a standing army in North America, Britain began to levy taxes against the colonists, who felt the taxation was unfair because they lacked representation in Parliament. -The Sugar Act, and other taxes like it, led to many colonists turning to smuggling (bringing goods into a country or colony illegally). In turn, this smuggling led the British to “crack down” on such smugglers. In the process, Britain also made it illegal for the colonies to print their own money, angering them further. In order to prosecute smugglers, the British set up special courts that tried defendants without a jury, something the colonists felt was their right under British common law. Smuggling defendants were often treated as if guilty until proven innocent. -The colonies were used to their independence, self-government, and recognition of their rights. The various taxes levied against the colonists led to the widespread use of the term taxation without representation, an idea introduced by Boston lawyer James Otis. Without representation in Parliament, he said, the colonists rights were being violated if Parliament taxed them. -Samuel Adams, another prominent Bostonian, agreed with Otis. Adams helped organize Committees of Correspondence, groups within the colonies that shared information in order to fight these new taxes. Although the colonies were mostly independent of one another, Adams and others felt it was important to work together, and he and other colonial leaders organized boycotts, or a refusal to buy certain goods in protest, in response to these new taxes. He and others hoped that these boycotts would harm the British economy and force Parliament to repeal, or reverse these unfair taxation policies.

Tensions in the Colonies

-The tax placed on sugar and molasses was the first of many taxes levied against the colonies. Despite the unpopularity of British taxation in the colonies, and suggestions that the colonies be able to tax themselves, Parliament passed further taxes such as a tax on paper and printed goods called the Stamp Act in 1765. It was known as the Stamp Act because it required an official stamp on all paper goods to indicate the tax had been paid. This stamp was required to be placed on all printed goods such as newspapers, pamphlets, books, etc. This tax further enraged the colonists, who felt it was more taxation without representation. -In response to the Stamp Act, colonists urged further boycotts of British goods and began to form secret societies such as the sons of Liberty. The Sons of Liberty organized protests and boycotts against the British in secret. Samuel Adams was one of the most important leaders of the Sons of Liberty in Massachusetts. The Sons of Liberty would sometimes try to intimidate British tax collectors and customs agents with threats of violence as well. -Although the colonies were not united in their protests, these taxes were opposed in both New England as well as the South. A member of the Virginia House of Burgesses named Patrick Henry presented a series of resolutions, or official statements by a legislature. These resolutions stated that these taxes were unfair violations of the colonies’ rights as taxation without representation, and they also protested the trial of certain criminals without juries. Not everyone agreed with Henry, and some accused him of being a traitor to Britain. -With the colonies somewhat united in their protests of British taxation, Massachusetts held the Stamp Act Congress in which nine colonies sent delegates to Boston in order to ask Parliament to repeal, or end, taxes like the Stamp Act and Sugar Act. -Merchants in London were also beginning to pressure Parliament as well. The colonial boycotts were hurting their businesses and the British economy. Benjamin Franklin even travelled to London to speak in front of Parliament, and was able to help convince British lawmakers to repeal the Stamp Act in 1766, a year after the law was originally passed. However, Parliament then passed the Declaratory Act, which stated Parliament had the ability to pass laws for the colonies in all cases, regardless of representation or not.

Taxes and Tensions

-Despite the repeal of the Stamp Act, the colonists would face future “taxation without representation”. In 1767, Parliament passed the Townshend Acts, which placed duties on items in everyday use such as glass, paper, and tea. These taxes were intended to pay for the costs of an English standing army in America. -In order to combat smuggling intended to avoid having to pay these taxes, British officials in America began to use writs of assistance, or special forms that allowed tax collectors to search for smuggled goods. Colonists were angered by this as they saw these searches as violations of their rights. Some people believed that one must have a good reason or a warrant in order to search a person’s belongings for illegal activity. -Groups such as the Sons of Liberty and the newly formed Daughters of Liberty, a “female” version of the Sons of Liberty, organized protests and boycotts against these policies. Colonial legislatures began to pass resolutions in protest of these acts. Attacks on tax collectors and customs officials increased, and the British decided to send troops to restore order in cities like Boston. -Many colonists in New England believed the soldiers were there to keep the colonists “under control” and silence their protests. This led to a great deal of tension between the colonists and the British soldiers. On March 5, 1770, tensions reached a breaking point when a group of British soldiers fired their muskets into a crowd of angry colonial protesters. Five colonists were killed in what quickly became known as the Boston Massacre. The soldiers claim they acted in self-defense, but local leaders such as Samuel Adams accused the soldiers of murder, and used the incident as propaganda, or information intended to present one side of story, to show how tyrannical the British were. Boston lawyer John Adams, Samuel Adam’s Harvard educated cousin, was one of the few attorneys in the colonies willing to defend the soldiers. He asked a New England jury to put aside their prejudices against the British and judge the soldiers solely on the facts. In the end, the soldiers were found not guilty.

More Taxes, More Tensions

Even More Taxes, More Tensions -Relations between Britain and its American colonies were rapidly deteriorating. Some Americans felt that an irreparable separation was coming, and that the only way to secure their rights was to rebel. Colonial leaders, however, had not yet reached that point. -To reduce tensions, Parliament repealed the hated Townshend Acts, but kept the tax on one of the most consumed goods in the colonies: tea. Tea was one of the most in-demand products in the colonies, and the British wanted to tax it specifically and cut down on smuggling at the same time. Parliament passed the Tea Act in 1773, placing customs on colonial tea imports. They also granted a monopoly on the colonial tea trade to the British East India Company. The colonists saw this another violation, this time of their right to trade freely. With this monopoly, the East India Company would be free to import whatever quality tea it wanted and sell it for whatever prices it wanted. -In protest, the Sons of Liberty organized the Boston Tea Party. When British tea ships docked in Boston and refused to leave, hundreds of colonists, dressed in disguise as native Americans, snuck aboard British tea vessels in Boston Harbor, where they proceeded to dump tons of tea into the water, destroying millions of dollars worth of property. -To punish the colonies, Parliament the Coercive Acts, which were known as the Intolerable Acts in the colonies. They had five main provisions: 1) Boston Harbor would be closed until the lost tea was paid for, 2) the Charter of Massachusetts was cancelled and its assembly was disbanded, 3) Royal officials accused of crimes were sent to England for trial, 4) The Quartering Act would force American colonists to house British soldiers in their homes without their consent, and 5) Massachusetts was placed under military rule and martial law, with British general Thomas Gage as its new governor. -The colonists realized that further action was needed, possibly beyond the boycotts and protests that had already taken place.