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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEWS
There are reviewed related literatures under the following sections:
Physical Fitness
1. The definitions of physical fitness
2. Health-related fitness & skill-related fitness
3. Aerobic fitness and anaerobic fitness
Measurement of Maximal Oxygen Consumption
1. Aerobic testing
2. Methods of measurement of Maximal Oxygen Consumption
Physical fitness 1. The definitions of physical fitness
Physical fitness refers to “a set of attributes that related to the ability to
perform physical activity” (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services
[USDHHS], 1996). Physical fitness is the ability of the body systems to work together
efficiently to allow people to be healthy and effectively perform activities of daily
living (Corbin & Lindsey 2007). Physical fitness can be classified into health-related
and skill-related fitness. Health-related fitness consists of five components: cardio
respiratory endurance, muscular endurance, muscle strength, flexibility, and body
composition and is determined by a combination of regular activity and genetically
inherited ability. The amount of physical fitness ranges is form low to high
(Caspersen et al., 1985). On the other hand, skill-related fitness is divided into six
components: agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time, and speed. In terms
of prevention of diseases, the main emphasis of any fitness programs should be placed
on the health-related fitness as skill-related fitness is crucial for success in sports and
athletics, and it also contributes to wellness (Hoeger & Hoeger, 2005).
Physical fitness may be defined as a physiological state of well-being that
provide the foundation for the tasks of daily living, a degree of protection against
hypokinetic disease, and a basis for participation in sport (American Alliance for
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Health Physical Education, Recreation and Dance [AAHPERD], 1988). Physical
fitness includes nonperformance components of physical fitness that relate to
biological system that are influenced by one’s level of habitual physical activity
(Bouchard, 1990).
2. Health-related fitness & skill-related fitness
2.1 Health-related fitness
Health-related fitness means that portion of physical fitness which is
directed toward the prevention of or rehabilitation from disease as well as the
development of a high level of function capacity for the necessary and discretionary
tasks of life (Plowan & Smith, 2008).
Hoeger and Hoeger (2009) said that Health-related has four components:
cadiorespiratory endurance, muscular strength and endurance, muscular flexibility,
and body composition (see figure 2) defined respectively as:
a) Cadiorespiratory endurance: the ability of the heart, lungs, and blood
vessels to supply oxygen to the cells to meet the demands of prolonged physical
activity (also referred to as aerobic exercise).
b) Muscular strength and endurance: the ability of the muscles to
generate.
c) Muscular flexibility: the achievable range of motion at a joint or group
of joints without causing injury.
d) Body composition: body composition: the amount of lean body mass
and adipose tissue (fat mass) in the human body.
Figure 2 Four components of health-related physical fitness (Hoeger & Hoeger,
2009)
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USDHHS (1996) Defined of the specific components of health-related
physical fitness are follows:
a) Body composition relates of relative amounts of muscle, fat, bone, and
other vital part of the body.
b) Cardiorespiratory fitness relates to the ability of the circulatory and
respiratory systems to supply oxygen during sustained physical activity.
c) Flexibility relates to the range of motion available at the joint.
Flexibility is specific to each joint of the body.
d) Muscular endurance relates to the muscle’s ability to continue to
perform with out fatigue.
e) Muscular strength relates to the ability of the muscle to exert force.
Table 1 Components of health-related fitness (Genton, 2011).
Term Definition Examples of assessment
Body
composition
Structural components of the body Body mass index, skinfold
thickness, BIA.
Muscular
strength
Maximum force generated by a muscle One RM,a cable tensiometry,
force platforms,
dynamometry.
Muscular
endurance
Ability of a muscle to perform repeated
contractions for a prolonged period of time
Repetitions of lifts at a fixed
percentage of body weight or
RM,a of push-ups, of
abdominal curls, isokinetic
dynamometry.
Flexibility Ability to move joints and muscle freely
through their full range of motion
“sit and reach test”,
goniometry.
Cardiovascular
and
respiratory
Ability of the circulatory and respiratory
systems to supply oxygen to skeletal
muscle for energy-generating processes
Maximum oxygen
consumption (VO2 max)
Remark 1RM refers to maximum amount of weight lifted at one time.
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According to the Toronto model presented by Bouchard and Shephard
(1994), the components of health-related fitness are defined as morphological,
muscular, motor, cardiorespiratory and metabolic fitness. Morphological fitness refers
to body composition and bone strength. Body composition describes the amount of fat
mass and fat free mass and considers also whether body fat is peripherally or
abdominally distributed. Muscular or musculoskeletal fitness refers to muscular
strength, muscular endurance and flexibility, and motor fitness refers to postular
control.
Cardiorespiratory fitness reflects the ability of cardiovascular and
respiratory systems to supply oxygen to the working muscles during heavy dynamic
exercise. And direct measurement of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) during a
maximal exercise test is regarded as the gold standard for the evaluation of
cardiorespiratory fitness.
Metabolic fitness refers to carbohydrate and lipid metabolism usually
defined usually by glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, lipid profile and the ratio of
lipid to carbohydrate oxidized at rest of during steady-state exercise. Cardio
respiratory endurance is the ability of the lungs, heart, and blood vessels to deliver
adequate amounts of oxygen to the cells to meet the demands of prolonged physical
activity (Hoeger & Hoeger, 2006).
2.2 Skill-related fitness
Plowan and Smith (2008) stated that skill-related physical fitness is
portion of physical fitness which is directed toward optimizing athletic performance.
Skill-related physical fitness is less related to good health and more related to ability
to learn sport and other kinds of physical skill (Corbin & Lindscey, 2007).
Skill-related physical fitness is needed for success in athletics and lifetime sport and
activities. Fitness components important for success in skillful activities and athletic
events; encompasses agility, balance, coordination, power, reaction time, and speed
(Hoeger & Hoeger, 2010). Skill-related physical fitness components following
(Kotecki, 2010):
Agility: the ability to quickly and accurately change the direction of the
movement of the entire body in space. In game such as tennis, agility is important to
reach the ball in time.
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Balance: the ability to maintain equilibrium while moving or stationary.
Activities such as gymnastics, ballet, and skiing require balance.
Coordination: the ability to combine the senses with different body parts
to perform activities smoothly and accurately. Activities such as catching a
baseball or kicking a football require the hands and eyes or foot and eyes to work
together.
Power: the ability to transfer energy into force at a fast applies speed and
strength to produce a muscular movement. Almost all sport requires power to perform
well.
Reaction time: the amount of time it takes to respond and react to a
stimulus. Activities such as returning a serve in tennis or badminton require fast
reaction times.
Speed: the ability to move quickly from one point to another. Actives such
as the 100 or 200 meter sprint in track or running the baseball require speed.
Figure 3 Sport-specific athletic fitness built on the core of health-related
physical fitness (Plowan & Smith, 2008).
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Lavy and Hastad (2007) mentioned components of skill-related physical
fitness as following:
Agility is the ability to rapidly and accurately change the position of the
body in space.
Balance: is the maintenance of equilibrium while stationary or moving.
Coordination is the ability to simultaneously perform multiple motor
tasks smoothly and accurately.
Power is the ability to exert maximum force in a minimum length of time.
Reaction time is the duration between the stimulation and the response
to the stimulation.
Speed is the ability to perform a movement in a short period of time.
3. Aerobic fitness & anaerobic fitness
3.1 Aerobic fitness
Sharkey and Gaskill (2007) defined aerobic fitness as the maximal
capacity to take in, transport, and use oxygen, is best measured in a laboratory test
called the oxygen intake (or VO2 max) test. Aerobic fitness, also called
cardiorespirtory fitness or cardiovascular, is a good measure of the heart’s ability to
pump oxygen-rich blood to the muscles. Although there are technical difference in
terms using cardio (heart), vascular (blood vessels), respiratory (lung and ventilation),
and aerobic (work with oxygen), they all reflect various aspects of this component of
fitness (Franks & Howley, 1998).
Aerobic fitness has three important dimensions. The first lactate threshold
defines the level of effort that person can sustain for prolonged periods (see table 2).
Expressed as a percentage of VO2 max, it may be low or high, depending on the
person’s level of activity and training. People can increase all dimensions of aerobic
fitness by training according to the principles (Sharkey & Gaskill, 2007).
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Table 2 Dimensions of aerobic fitness.
Test Measures Best related to
VO2 max intensity Events lasting 5 to 15 min (1 to 3
mi, or 1.6 to4.8 km)
Second lactate threshold Duration 30 min to 3 hr (10k to marathon)
First lactate threshold Long duration prolonged work or sport
(up to 8 Hr)
3.2 Anaerobic fitness
Aerobic exercise is physical exercise of relatively low intensity that
depends primarily on the aerobic energy-generating process (Plowman & Smith,
2008). Anaerobic fitness is also the athlete’s body ability to deal with lactic and
recover. Better anaerobic fitness means the athletes can sprint, quickly change
direction, accelerate and jump more throughout the game (Marlow, 2003; Ostojic et
al., 2006).
Anaerobic fitness can be explained as the capability of a person to
perform maximal anaerobic exercise. In essence, the competence to generate the
highest mechanical power (peak power, PP) over a few second (an indicator of
maximal anaerobic power) and to sustain the high power output over a short period of
time (usually less than 60s) (mean power, MP, an indicate of maximal anaerobic
endurance or maximal muscular endurance) can be considered as prime indicators of
anaerobic fitness. Anaerobic fitness is lost at the rate of about 10% in both men and
women regardless of activity levels (Hawkins & Wiswell, 2003). Anaerobic fitness
declines at a faster rate than aerobic fitness. Likely due to a greater reduction in
frequency of anaerobic activities compared to aerobic activities as people age and also
to the significant losses of muscle mass (sarcopenta) assoclated with aging (Charmarl
et al., 1995; Doherty, 2003 cited in Inbar & Chia, 2008). Anaerobic fitness refers to
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the use of oxygen to adequately meet energy demands during exercise via aerobic
metabolism (McArdle et al., 2006).
Benefits of improved anaerobic fitness include increased resistance to
fatigue during high-intensity exercise and increased capacity for and performance in
high-intendsity work. The most important benefit of anaerobic training is that it bulds
muscle mass, muscle strength, and muscle power to a greater extent than aerobic
training (Taylor & Johnson, 2007).
Measurement of Maximal Oxygen Consumption It is imperative carefully screen the clients for exercise testing, classify their
disease risk, identify any contraindications to exercise testing, and obtain their
informed consent to exercise before conducting any physical fitness tests. It can use
laboratory and field tests to assess each component of physical fitness and to develop
physical fitness profiles foe the clients (Heyward, 2010).
The test environment is important for test validity and reliability. Test
anxiety, emotional problems, food in the stomach, bladder distance, room temperature,
and ventilation should be controlled as much as possible. To minimize anxiety, the
test procedures should be explained adequately, and the test environment should be
quiet and private (ACSM, 2010). Cooper and Storer (2004) explained that aerobic
performance is one of the essential elements of physical fitness, along with muscle
strength, flexibility, and body composition. Aerobic performance is defined by certain
parameters that can be measured using carefully selected exercise testing protocols.
The best known of these parameters is maximum oxygen uptake (VO2 max).
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Table 3 Physical fitness testing lists.
Types of Tests Contents of the Tests
Beep Shuttle Run Test Aerobic fitness
Sit and Reach Flexibility
Handgrip Strength Muscle Strength
Vertical Jump Muscle Power
Home Push-up Test Muscle Strength & Muscle Endurance
Sprint Test Speed Endurance
Home Sit-up Test Muscle Strength & Muscle Endurance
Bruce Test Cardiovascular Fitness
Illinois Agility Test Agility
Strength Push and Pull Tests Muscle Strength
Push Up Beep Test Muscle Strength & Muscle Endurance
Curl Up Beep Test Abdominal Strength and Endurance
Bench Press Beep Test Chest Muscle Strength and Endurance
Conconi Test Heart Rate at the Anaerobic Threshold
Single Leg Squat Muscle Strength of Low Body
Pull Up NAPA Muscle Strength and Endurance of
Upper Body
1. Aerobic testing (VO2 max testing)
Reiman and Manske (2009) stated that Aerobic testing utilizes various test
procures that determine a client’s fitness level. Fitness encompasses many variables,
including cardiorespiratory levels. One of the most common methods of determining
one’s fitness level is to measure what is know as VO2 max. Moreover, McArdle et al.
(2001) defined VO2 max as a person’s capacity for aerobic resynthesis. Aerobic
power referred to as aerobic capacity, measures a person’s capacity for aerobic
synthesis of ATP (McArdle et al., 1996) and so indicates the ability to performance
15
sustained, high-intensity exercise. During exercise of increases intensity, oxygen
consumption increases. As the workload continues to increase, oxygen uptake
plateaus and the athlete begins to utilize other energy sources (e.g., glycolytic sources)
to produce ATP. The point at which oxygen uptake plateaus with an increases in
workload is called maximal oxygen consumption, or simply VO2 max (Hoffman,
2006).
Cardiorespiratory fitness is related to the ability to perform large muscle,
dynamic, moderate-to-high intensity exercise for prolonged periods. Performance of
such exercise depends on the functional state of the respiratory, cardiovascular, and
skeletal (ACSM, 2010).
The assessments of VO2 max can be divided into laboratory/ direct test and
field/indirect test. However, using direct measurement of oxygen consumption are
always required some criteria that should be demonstrated so the variable achieved
should be considered as the Maximum Oxygen Consumption (Pomerants et al., 2004).
The precision of the VO2 max results have been discussed for many years. Therefore,
the most precise assessments of VO2 max are performed directly in the lab test setting
(Bruce 1984; Grant et al., 1999). Also Larsen et al. (2002) agreed that the lab test is
one of the most accurate for the results to measure VO2 max.
VO2 max test define the highest intensity of effort, requires a treadmill or
other exercise device, e.g., bicycle ergometer (Sharkey & Gaskill, 2007). Maximal
oxygen consumption (VO2 max) is the greatest amount of oxygen that body can take
in, transport, and utilize during heavy exercise. The body relies on the respiratory
system to bring in the oxygen from the environment, the cardiovascular system to
transport the oxygen, and the cells to extract the oxygen and use it in the production
of energy (ATP). Thus, the assessment of maximal oxygen consumption provides a
means for quantifying the functional capacity of the entire cardiovascular system
(Plowan, & Smith, 2008).
Brook and Fahey (1987) explained that maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max)
is accepted as the criterion measure of CR fitness. Significant variation in VO2 max
across populations and fitness levels results primarily from differences in maximal
cardiac output; therefore, VO2 max is closely related to the functional capacity of the
heart (ACSM, 2006). VO2 max is an important determinant of the peak power output
16
and the maximal sustained power output or physical work capacity of which an
individual is capable. However, the most widely accepted criterion for achievement of
VO2 max during graded exercise test is plateau in values of VO2 max as the work rate
continues to increase (Pettersen, 2001).
Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) maximum amount of oxygen the body
is able to unitize per minute for physical activity, commonly expressed in ml/kg/min.
the best indicator of cardiorespiratory or aerobic fitness (Hoeger & Hoeger, 2006).
VO2 max is considered to be single best measure of cadiorespiratory fitness. It can be
assessed using maximal or submaximal exercise tests. Maximal tests in which oxygen
uptake is measured directly require expensive equipment and trained personnel, and
are therefore most commonly preformed in research and clinical settings. VO2 max
can also be predicted from a maximal exercise test by using the maximal exercise
time achieved on a maximal treadmill test (Heyward, 1998), or maximal power output
achieved on a cycle ergometer. Beashel and Taylor (1996) stated that bicycle
ergometer tests were found on the principle of extrapolating heart rate to maximum.
Factors limiting VO2 max
The factors limit VO2 max related to many factors.
Howley et al. (1995) argued that most of the descriptive variable which are
statue, body mass and age effect on the VO2 max measurements results. However,
Plowan & Smith (2008) stated three main systems are related to limiting VO2 max ,
which are the respiratory system, the cardiovascular system, and the metabolic
functions within skeletal muscle.
As many potential factor limiting VO2 max have been discussed for many
years, Bassett (2000) stated that affecting VO2 are often divided into supply and
demand factors, such as diffusion, stroke volume, blood volume during oxygen from
the lungs to the mitochondria .however, many previous researches have been
disscused the different factors limiting VO2 max. Howley et al. (1995) argued that
most of the descriptive variable which are statue, body mass and age effect on the
VO2 measurements results. The deliver of oxygen to active tissues that is the major
limiting factor to VO2 max (Saltin & Rowell, 1980) concluded. In addition, Gollnick
et al. (1972) studied that a weak relationship between the body's ability to utilize the
available oxygen and VO2 max.
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Moreover, the different gender also related to the VO2 max output. The
highest level of VO2 max in females appears after menarche (Malina & Bouchard,
1991). In addition, Jensen et al. (2001) reported that boys exhibit higher values than
girls throughout childhood and adolescence, the VO2 max of adult females is about
80% of the value achieved by the males.
As some the physical factors limiting the VO2 max, the mental factors is no
exception. Shephard (1984) mentioned that the importance of the willingness of
participation and appropriate pace of exercise can effect on the VO2 max. In addition,
the limitations raised with subjects` inability to achieve a true VO2 max based on
established criteria of the willingness (Greenhalgh et al., 2001).
However, the movement patterns and condition such as temperatures may
also effect on the VO2 max measurement. Larsen et al. (2002) studied young subjects
used running or walking to different methods for measurement VO2 max, the results
suggested that the common opinion seems to be that running testing is more
appropriate for younger subjects. Ketsingha (n.d.) concluded that temperature should
be controlled under 35 Celsius (℃), otherwise, it would affect on VO2 max values.
2. Methods of Measurement of Maximal Oxygen Consumption
2.1 Atrand-Rhyming Test (Astrand & Rhyming, 1954)
Equipment need: cycle ergometer, metronome, stopwatch, blood
pressure apparatus, and RPE chart.
Test area: areas suitable to accommodate a cycle ergometer and two
tests.
Procedures: the bicycle seat should be set at a comfortable height. The
metronome should be set at 100 bpm so that the pedal rate is maintained at 50 rpm. A
2-3 minute warm-up with a work rate less than the chosen testing work rate is
appropriate. The suggested work rate is based on gender and fitness status as follows:
Males (conditioned): 600 or 900 kpm/min (2 or 3 kp)
Females (conditioned): 450 or 600 kpm/min (1.5 or 2 kp)
The goal is to obtain HR values between 125 and 170 bpm. Participants
perform at the selected work rate for six minutes, and HR is measured during the fifth
and six minutes of work. Blood pressure and RPE should be measured in the sixth
minute.
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Prediction procedures: VO2 max is estimated from the Astrand-Rhyming
nomogram using work rate and average heart rate from minute 5 and 6. Count the
heart rate at the end of minute 5 and the end of minute 6, take the average. Using the
nomogram, place a straight edge (ruler) on the calculated average heart rate and the
preset workload. To check where the straight edge crosses the VO2 max scale for
predicted value.
This value must then be adjusted for age by multiplying the VO2 max
value by the following correction factors:
Figure 4 Modified Astrand-Rhyming nomogram
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Table 4 Oxygen Uptake (VO2) estimates in liters per minute for the Astrand-Rhyming
Test (Astrand, 1960)
Men Women Workload Workload
HR 300 600 900 1200 1500 300 450 600 750 900 1 20 2.2 3.4 4.8 2.6 3.4 4.1 4.8 1 21 2.2 3.4 4.7 2.5 3.3 4.0 4.8 122 2.2 3.4 4.6 2.5 3.2 3.9 4.7 123 2.1 3.4 4.6 2.4 3.1 3.9 4.6 124 2.1 3.3 4.5 6.0 2.4 3.1 3.8 4.5 125 2.0 3.2 4.4 5.9 2.3 3.0 3.7 4.4 126 2.0 3.2 4.4 5.8 2.3 3.0 3.6 4.3 127 2.0 3.1 4.3 5.7 2.2 2.9 3.5 4.2 128 2.0 3.1 4.2 5.6 2.2 2.8 3.5 4.2 4.8 129 1.9 3.0 4.2 5.6 2.2 2.8 3.4 4.1 4.8 130 1.9 3.0 4.1 5.5 2.1 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.7 131 1.9 2.9 4.0 5.4 2.1 2.7 3.4 4.0 4.6 132 1.8 2.9 4.0 5.3 2.0 2.7 3.3 3.9 4.5 133 1.8 2.8 3.9 5.3 2.0 2.6 3.2 3.8 4.4 134 1.8 2.8 3.9 5.2 2.0 2.6 3.2 3.8 4.4 135 1.7 2.8 3.8 5.1 2.0 2.6 3.1 3.7 4.3 136 1.7 2.7 3.8 5.0 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.6 4.2 137 1.7 2.7 3.7 5.0 1.9 2.5 3.0 3.6 4.2 138 1.6 2.7 3.7 4.9 1.8 2.4 3.0 3.5 4.1 139 1.6 2.6 3.6 4.8 1.8 2.4 2.9 3.5 4.0 140 1.6 2.6 3.6 4.8 6.0 1.8 2.4 2.8 3.4 4.0 141 2.6 3.5 4.7 5.9 1.8 2.3 2.8 3.4 3.9 142 2.5 3.5 4.6 5.8 1.7 2.3 2.8 3.3 3.9 143 2.5 3.4 4.6 5.7 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.3 3.8 144 2.5 3.4 4.5 5.7 1.7 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.8 145 2.4 3.4 4.5 5.6 1.6 2.2 2.7 3.2 3.7 146 2.4 3.3 4.4 5.6 1.6 2.2 2.6 3.2 3.7 147 2.4 3.3 4.4 5.5 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 148 2.4 3.2 4.3 5.4 1.6 2.1 2.6 3.1 3.6 149 2.3 3.2 4.3 5.4 2.1 2.6 3.0 3.5 150 2.3 3.2 4.2 5.3 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 151 2.3 3.1 4.2 5.2 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.4 152 2.3 3.1 4.1 5.2 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.4 153 2.2 3.0 4.1 5.1 2.0 2.4 2.9 3.3 154 2.2 3.0 4.0 5.1 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.3 155 2.2 3.0 4.0 5.0 1.9 2.4 2.8 3.2 156 2.2 2.9 4.0 5.0 1.9 2.3 2.8 3.2 157 2.1 2.9 3.9 4.9 1.9 2.3 2.7 3.2 158 2.1 2.9 3.9 4.9 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.1 159 2.1 2.8 3.8 4.8 1.8 2.2 2.7 3.1 160 2.1 2.8 3.8 4.8 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 161 2.0 2.8 3.7 4.7 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 162 2.0 2.8 3.7 4.6 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 163 2.0 2.8 3.7 4.6 1.7 2.2 2.6 2.9
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Table 4 (Continued)
Men Women Workload Workload
HR 300 600 900 1200 1500 300 450 600 750 900 164 2.0 2.7 3.6 4.5 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.9 165 2.0 2.7 3.6 4.5 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.9 166 1.9 2.7 3.6 4.5 1.7 2.1 2.5 2.8 167 1.9 2.6 3.5 4.4 1.6 2.1 2.4 2.8 168 1.9 2.6 3.5 4.4 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 169 1.9 2.6 3.5 4.3 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 170 1.8 2.6 3.4 4.3 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.7
Table 5 Age-based correction factors for Maximal Oxygen Uptake for the
Astrand- Rhyming Test (Astrand, 1960)
Correction Correction Correction Age Factor Age Factor Age Factor 14 1.11 32 0.909 50 0.750 15 1.10 33 0.896 51 0.742 16 1.09 34 0.883 52 0.734 17 1.08 35 0.870 53 0.726 18 1.07 36 0.862 54 0.718 19 1.06 37 0.854 55 0.710 20 1.05 38 0.846 56 0.704 21 1.04 39 0.838 57 0.698 22 1.03 40 0.830 58 0.692 23 1.02 41 0.820 59 0.686 24 1.01 42 0.810 60 0.680 25 1.00 43 0.800 61 0.674 26 0.987 44 0.790 62 0.668 27 0.974 45 0.780 63 0.662 28 0.961 46 0.774 64 0.656 29 0.943 47 0.768 65 0.650 30 0.935 48 0.762 31 0.922 49 0.756
VO2 max calculation:
Predicted VO2 max (ml/kg /min) = {[VO2 (L/min) x 1000] / weight
(kg)}x age factor
To convert to ml/kg/min, multiply the above number by 1000 to obtain
ml·min-1, and then divide by the participant’s body weight in kilograms.
21
2.2 YMCA Cycle Ergometer Test (Golding et al., 1989)
Purpose: to predict maximal physical working capacity and maximal
oxygen uptake.
Equipment needed: cycle ergometer, metronome, stopwatch, blood
pressure apparatus, RPE chart, and coring graph.
Test area: area suitable to accommodate a cycle ergometer and two
testers.
Procedures: determine and record the participant’s age-predicted
maximal heart rate (APMHR) and 85 percent of the APMHR. The bicycle seat should
be set a comfortable height. The metronome should be set at 100 bpm so that pedal
rate is maintained at 50 rpm. Workload should be set according to the guidelines
found in (Figure 5). The participant should work at each workload for at least 3
minutes. Heart rate should be determined during the second and third minutes in each
stage, and blood pressure and RPE should be assessed near the end of the stage. If the
final two heart rate differ by more than 6 bpm, the participant should continue at that
work rate until heart rate stabilizes. Heart rate and work rate recorded. The goal is to
obtain heart rates from at least two consecutive stage that fall between 110 bpm and
85 percent of the APMHR. The heart rates from these stages are then used to predict
maximal work rate from the scoring graph.
Figure 5 YMCA workload guidelines for man and women (Golding et al., 1989)
22
Prediction procedures: the result of the test should be plotted on the
scoring graph (Figure 6) according to the directions in the rectangular box.
Figure 6 Maximum physical working capacity prediction (Goolding et al., 1989)
VO2 max calculation:
a) For each of the last two workloads, calculate the oxygen cost (VO2) in
ml/kg/min using the following equation:
VO2 = [workload (W) / body weight (kg) × 10.8] + 3.5 + 3.5
b) From these two oxygen cost (VO2) values estimate the VO2 max in
mL/kg/min using the equations for the multistage model to calculate the slope of the
line based on the HR response to the last two workloads.
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Slope (b) = SM2-SM1 / HR2-HR1
VO2 max = SM2 + [b x (HRmax - HR2)]
SM1 = VO2 at Second-Last Workload
SM2 = VO2 at Last Workload
Example:
A 20 year old female who weighed 62 kg completed the YMCA Cycle
Ergometer Test. (Age-predicted HRmax = 200 bpm; 85 % of HRmax = 170 bpm).
The test results are as follows:
Table 6 A YMCA Cycle Ergometer Test result for a 20 years old female
Workload Time HR
amount (mins) (bpm)
1 150 kpm/min
25w
0-1 86
1-2 90
2-3 92
2 450 kpm/min
75w
3-4 120
4-5 135
5-6 139
3 600 kpm/min
100w
6-7 151
7-8 159
8-9 163
HR1 = (135 + 139)/2 = 137 bpm
HR2 = (159 + 163)/2 = 161 bpm
SM1 = [(75/62) x 10.8] + 3.5 + 3.5 = 20.06 mL/kg/min
SM2 = [(100/62) x 10.8] + 3.5 + 3.5 = 24.42 mL/kg/min.
Slope (b) = SM2-SM1 / HR2-HR1
= (24.42- 20.06) / (161- 137)
= 0.182
Estimated VO2 max
VO2 max (ml/kg/min.)= SM2 + [b x (HRmax - HR2)]
24
= 24.42 + [0.182 x (200 - 161)]
2.3 Rockport Fitness Walking Test (Mackenzie, 2005)
The objective of this test is to monitor the development of the athlete's
VO2 max.
Required resources: 400 metre track, Stop watch and assistant.
To conduct the test
a) Choose a windless day to conduct the test. b) Record your weight. c)
Walk one mile (1609 meters) as fast as possible. d) Record the time to complete the
one mile walk. e) Immediately on finishing the walk record your heart rate (beats per
minute). f) Determine you VO2 max.
Analysis
Analysis of the result is by comparing it with the results of previous tests.
It is expected that, with appropriate training between each test, the analysis would
indicate an improvement.
The formula used to calculate VO2 max (ml/kg/min.) is:
132.853 – (0.0769 x Weight) – (0.3877 x Age) + (6.315 x Gender) –
(3.2649 x Time) – (0.1565 x Heart rate).
a) Weight is in pounds (lbs)
b) Gender Male = 1 and Female = 0
c) Time is expressed in minutes and 100ths of minutes
d) Heart rate is in beats/minute
e) Age is in years.
2.4 Cooper 12 Min. Run-Walk -Test (Mackenzie, 2005)
The objective of the Cooper test is to predict an athlete’s VO2 max
Required resources: 400 metre track – marked every 50m, Stop watch
and the assistant.
To conduct the test
The test comprises of seeing how far an athlete can run/walk in 12
minutes.
Performance assessment
Based on the distance covered an estimate of the athlete’s VO2 max can
be calculated as follows:
25
VO2 max = (Distance covered in meters – 504.9) / 44.73
Example: the athlete, a male football player, completes a total distance of
3400m in the 12 minutes.
VO2 max = (3400 – 504.9) / 44.73 = 64.72 ml/kg/min.
Analysis
Analysis of the result is by comparing it with the results of previous tests.
It is expected that, with appropriate training between each test, the analysis would
indicate an improvement.
The result from the Cooper test can be used to:
a) Predict future performance. b) Indicate weaknesses. c) Measure
improvement. d) Enable the coach to assess the success of his training programme. e)
Place the athlete in appropriate training group. f) Motivate the athlete
2.5 Step Test (Hoeger & Hoeger, 2002)
The Step Test requires little time and equipment and can be administered
to almost anyone, as submaximal workload is used to estimate maximal oxygen
uptake.
Procedure for the Step Test:
a) Conduct the test with a bench or gymnasium bleacher 161/4 inches
high. b) Performance the stepping cycle to a four-step cadence (up-up-down-down).
Men should perform 24 complete step-ups per minute, regulated with a metronome
set at 96 beats per minute. Women perform 22 step-ups per min, or 88 beats per
minute on the metronome. c) Allow a brief practice period of 5 to 10 seconds to
familiarize player with the stepping cadence. d) Begin the test and perform the
step-ups for exactly 3 minutes. e) Upon completing the 3minutes, remain standing and
take the heart rate for a 15-second interval from 5 to 20seconds into recovery. Convert
recovery heart rate to beats per minute (multiply 15-second heart rate by d). f)
Maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max) in ml/kg/min is estimated according to the
following equations:
Men: VO2 max = 111.3 – (0.42×recovery heart rate in bpm)
Women: VO2 max = 65.81 – (0.1847 ×recovery heart rate in bpm
26
Table 7 VO2 max obtained from the recovery Heart Rates (McArdle et al., 1986)
15-Sec Heart Rate VO2 max (ml/kg/min)
Heart Rate (bpm) Men Women
30 120 60.9 43.6
31 124 59.3 42.9
32 128 57.6 42.2
33 132 55.9 41.4
34 136 54.2 40.7
35 140 52.5 40.0
36 144 50.9 39.2
37 148 49.2 38.5
38 152 47.5 37.7
39 156 45.8 37.0
40 160 44.1 36.3
41 164 42.5 35.5
42 168 40.8 34.8
43 172 39.1 34.0
44 176 37.4 33.3
45 180 35.7 32.6
46 184 34.1 31.8
47 188 32.4 31.1
48 192 30.7 30.3
49 196 29.0 29.6
50 200 27.3 28.9
27
2.6 Maximal Oxygen Consumption Test (VO2 max)
According to the adapted source, the Maximal Oxygen Consumption Test
is from http: // www. topendsports.com/testing/ VO2 max.htm, the testing is
conducted as followed.
Equipment required: oxygen and carbon dioxide analyzers, ergometer
on which workload may be modified, heart rate monitor (optional) and a stopwatch.
Expired air may be collected and volume measured via Douglas bags or a Tissot tank,
or measured by a pnuemotach or turbine ventilometer.
Procedure: exercise is performed on an appropriate ergometer (treadmill,
cycle, swim bench etc.). The exercise workloads are selected to gradually progress in
increments from moderate to maximal intensity. Oxygen uptake is calculated from
measures of ventilation and the oxygen and carbon dioxide in the expired air, and the
maximal level is determined at or near test completion.
Scoring: results are presented as either l/min (liters per minute) or
ml/kg/min (ml of oxygen per kilogram of body weight per minute). The athlete is
considered to have reached their VO2 max if several of the following occurred: a
plateau or 'peaking over' in oxygen uptake, maximal heart rate was reached,
attainment of a respiratory exchange ratio of 1.15 or greater, and volitional
exhaustion.
Table 8 Maximal Oxygen Uptake norms for men (ml/kg/min).
Age (years)
Rating 18-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 65+
Excellent >60 >56 >51 >45 >41 >37
Good 52-60 49-56 43-51 39-45 36-41 33-37
Above average 47-51 43-48 39-42 36-38 32-35 29-32
Average 42-46 40-42 35-38 32-35 30-31 26-28
Below average 37-41 35-39 31-34 29-31 26-29 22-25
Poor 30-36 30-34 26-30 25-28 22-25 20-21
Very poor <30 <30 <26 <25 <22 <20
28
Table 9 Maximal Oxygen Uptake norms for women (ml/kg/min).
Age (years)
Rating 18-25 26-35 36-45 46-55 56-65 65+
Excellent >56 >52 >45 >40 >37 >32
Good 47-56 45-52 38-45 34-40 32-37 28-32
Above average 42-46 39-44 34-37 31-33 28-31 25-27
Average 38-41 35-38 31-33 28-30 25-27 22-24
Below average 33-37 31-34 27-30 25-27 22-24 19-21
Poor 28-32 26-30 22-26 20-24 18-21 17-18
Very poor <28 <26 <22 <20 <18 <17
2.7 Balke Test – Treadmill (Hanson, 1984)
Equipment required: treadmill, stopwatch, electrocardiograph
(optional)
Procedure: (note: there is also the different Balke 15 minute run test) the
athlete walks on a treadmill to exhaustion, at a constant walking speed while gradient/
slope is increased every one or two minutes. The assistant starts the stopwatch at the
beginning of the test and stops it when the subject is unable to continue. There are
several modifications or variation of the Balke Test that are used, with variations in
the treadmill speed, time at each level and or increase in gradient. There are examples
of test protocols that have been used.
a) For men the treadmill speed is set at 3.3 mph, with the gradient starting
at 0%. After 1 minute it is raised to 2%, then 1% each minute thereafter.
b) For women the treadmill speed is set at 3.0 mph, with the gradient
starting at 0%, and increased by 2.5% every three minutes.
c) Walking speed constant at 3 km/hr whilst the grade was increased by
2.5 percent every two minutes.
Results: the test score is the time taken on the test, in minutes. Ideally
this should be between 9-15 minutes. The test time can also be converted to an
estimated VO2 max score using the following formulas where the value "T" is the
total time completed (expressed in minutes and fractions of a minute e.g. 9 minutes 15
29
seconds = 9.25 minutes) (note: this is only applicable if the same protocol is used as
when these formula were developed):
For men: VO2 max = 1.444 (T) + 14.99 (Pollock et al., 1976)
For women: VO2 max = 1.38 (T) + 5.22 (Pollock et al., 1982)
2.8 Bruce Protocol Stress Test
The adapted source of using the Bruce Protocol Stress Test is from
http://www.topendsports.com/testing/tests/bruce.htm, the test details are as followed.
Equipment required: treadmill, stopwatch, a 12-lead electrocardiograph
(ECG) machine and leads, sticking tape, clips.
Procedure: exercise is performed on a treadmill. If required, the leads of
the ECG are placed on the chest wall. The treadmill is started at 2.74 km/hr (1.7 mph)
and at a gradient (or incline) of 10%. At three minute intervals the incline of the
treadmill increases by 2%.
Table 10 The treadmill speed increases index.
Stage Speed (km/hr) Speed (mph) Gradient
1 2.74 1.7 10
2 4.02 2.5 12
3 5.47 3.4 14
4 6.76 4.2 16
5 8.05 5.0 18
6 8.85 5.5 20
7 9.65 6.0 22
8 10.46 6.5 24
9 11.26 7.0 26
10 12.07 7.5 28
Modifications: there is a commonly used modified Bruce protocol,
which starts at a lower workload than the standard test, and is typically used for
elderly or sedentary patients. The fist two stages of the Modified Bruce Test are
30
performed at a 1.7 mph and 0% grade and 1.7 mph and 5% grade, and the third stage
corresponds to the first stage of the Standard Bruce Test protocol as listed above.
Results: the test score is the time taken on the test, in minutes. This can
also be converted to an estimated VO2 max score using the calculator below and the
following formulas, where the value "T" is the total time completed (expressed in
minutes and fractions of a minute e.g. 9 minutes 15 seconds = 9.25 minutes). As with
many exercise test equations, there have been many regression equations developed
that may give varying results. If possible, use the one derived from a similar
population and which best suits your needs.
VO2 max (ml/kg/min) = 14.76 - (1.379 × T) + (0.451 × T²) - (0.012 × T³)
(this formula is the one used for the calculator below)
Women: VO2 max (ml/kg/min) = 2.94 x T + 3.74
Young women: VO2 max (ml/kg/min) = 4.38 × T - 3.9
Men: VO2 max (ml/kg/min) = 2.94 x T + 7.65
Young men: VO2 max (ml/kg/min) = 3.62 x T + 3.91
2.9 Bruce Treadmill Test (Mackenzie, 2005)
The objective of the Bruce Treadmill Test is to monitor the development
of the athlete’s general endurance (VO2 max).
Required resource: treadmill where speed and grade of slope can be
adjusted, the stop watch and Assistant.
Table 11 The timed stages with the speed and grade of slope of the treadmill
Stage Time (min.) Km/hr Slope 1 0 2.74 10% 2 3 4.02 12% 3 6 5.47 14% 4 9 6.76 16% 5 12 8.05 18% 6 15 8.85 20% 7 18 9.65 22% 8 21 10.46 24% 9 24 11.26 26% 10 27 12.07 28%
31
The treadmill is set up with the stage 1 speed (2.74 km/hr) and grade of
slope (10%) and the athlete commences the test. At the appropriate times during the
test the speed and slope of the treadmill are adjusted. So after 3 minutes into the test
the speed is adjusted to 4.02 km/hr and the slope to 12%, after 6 minutes into the test
the speed is adjusted to 5.47 km/hr and the slope to 14%, and so on. The assistant
starts the stop watch at the start of the test and stops it when the athlete is unable to
continue – this ideally should be between 9 and 15 minutes.
Analysis: analysis of the result is by comparing it with the results of
previous tests. It is expected that, with appropriate training between each test, the
analysis would indicate an improvement.
Active and sedentary men (Foster et al., 1984)
From the total walk/ run time an estimate of the athlete's VO2 max can be
calculated as follows:
VO2 max = 14.8 – (1.379 x T) + (0.451 x T2) – (0.012 x T3)
"T" is the total time of the test expressed in minutes and fractions of a
minute e.g. 13 minutes 15 seconds = 13.25 minutes.
Active and sedentary women (Pollock et al., 1982)
From the total walk/ run time an estimate of the athlete's VO2 max can be
calculated as follows:
VO2 max = 4.38 x T – 3.9
"T" is the total time of the test expressed in minutes and fractions of a
minute.
2.10 12Min Run Test
Purpose: to estimate an individual’s VO2 max for the 12 min run.
Equipment: measured track or course (treadmill is a possible alternative),
stopwatch.
Procedure (Hoffman, 2006):
a) Review testing procedures with the client before beginning the test.
Inform the client that he or she is allowed to walk or test during the test if necessary,
but that this will affect the score on the assessment. b) Instruct the client to run
continuously for a 12 min period over a set course marked for standard distance (e.g.,
32
track). Advice the client to cover as much distance as possible over this 12 min period.
c) Start the stopwatch as soon as the client begins the test and stop it at 12 min mark.
Analysis and interpretation of data: the distance covered from the start
of the assessment to where the client stops at the 12 min mark is measured for the
client’s score.
To estimate the VO2 max, use the following formula:
VO2 max = 0.0268 (Distance cover) – 11.3
Where VO2 max is in ml/kg/min. distance covered is in m.
Table 12 Percentile ranks for distance during 12 Min Run for men and women.
(ACSM, 1995)
Age (y) Percentile 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+
mi km mi km mi km mi km mi km Men N=1,675 N=7,7095 N=6,837 N=3,808 N=1,005 90 1.74 2.78 1.71 2.74 1.65 2.64 1.57 2.51 1.49 1.38 80 1.65 2.64 1.61 2.58 1.54 2.46 1.45 2.32 1.37 1.19 70 1.61 2.58 1.55 2.48 1.47 2.35 1.38 2.21 1.29 1.06 60 1.54 2.46 1.49 2..38 1.42 2.27 1.33 2.13 1.24 1.98 50 1.50 2.40 1.45 2.32 1.37 2.19 1.29 2.06 1.19 1.90 40 1.45 2.32 1.39 2.22 1.33 2.13 1.25 2.00 1.15 1.84 30 1.41 2.26 1.35 2.16 1.29 2.06 1.21 1.94 1.11 1.78 20 1.34 2.14 1.29 2.06 1.23 1.97 1.15 1.84 1.05 1.68 10 1.27 2.03 1.21 1.94 1.17 1.87 1.09 1.74 0.95 1.52
Women N=764 N=2,049 N=1,630 N=878 N=202 90 1.54 2.46 1.45 2.32 1.41 2.26 1.29 2.06 1.29 2.06 80 1.45 2.32 1.38 2.21 1.32 2.11 1.21 1.94 1.18 1.89 70 1.37 2.19 1.33 2.13 1.25 2.00 1.17 1.87 1.13 1.81 60 1.33 2.13 1.27 2.03 1.21 1.94 1.13 1.81 1.07 1.71 50 1.29 2.06 1.25 2.00 1.17 1.87 1.10 1.76 1.03 1.65 40 1.25 2.00 1.21 1.94 1.13 1.81 1.06 1.70 0.99 1.58 30 1.21 1.94 1.16 1.86 1.10 1.76 1.02 1.63 0.97 1.55 20 1.16 1.86 1.11 1.78 1.05 1.68 0.98 1.57 0.94 1.50 10 1.10 1.76 1.05 1.68 1.01 1.62 0.93 1.49 0.89 1.42
33
2.11 1.5-Mile (2.4km) Test
Purpose: to estimate an individual’s VO2 max for the 1.5mi (2.41km)
Equipment: measured track or course and stopwatch.
Procedure: a) Instruct the client to run the 1.5-mile (2.41 km) course as
fast as he or she is capable of running. b) Record the time in minutes and to the
nearest tenth of a second from the initiation of the test until the 1.5-mile distance is
completed (Reiman & Manske, 2009).
Analysis and interpretation of data: to estimate the VO2 max, use the
following formula:
VO2mx = 3.5 + 483/ (time to run 1.5 mi or 2.41km)
VO2 max is in ml/kg/mi and time is in min.
Table 13 Percentile rank for 1.5 mi (2.41 km) run time (min: s) men and
women (ACSM, 1995)
Age (y) Percentile 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59 60+
Men N=1,675 N=7,7095 N=6,837 N=3,808 N=1,005 90 9:09 9:30 10:16 11:18 12:20 80 10:16 10:47 11:44 12:51 13:53 70 10:47 11:34 12:34 13:45 14:53 60 11:41 12:20 13:14 14:24 15:29 50 12:18 12:51 13:53 14:55 16:07 40 12:51 13:36 14:29 15:26 16:43 30 13:22 14:08 14:56 15:57 17:14 20 14:13 14:52 15:41 16:43 18:00 10 15:10 15:52 16:28 17:29 19:15
Women N=764 N=2,049 N=1,630 N=878 N=202 90 11:43 12:51 13:22 14:55 14:55 80 12:51 13:43 14:31 15:57 16:20 70 13:53 14:24 15:16 16:27 16:58 60 14:24 15:08 15:57 16:58 17:46 50 14:55 15:26 16:27 17:24 18:16 40 15:26 15:57 16:58 17:55 18:44 30 15:57 16:35 17:24 18:23 18:59 20 16:33 17:14 18:00 18:49 19:21 10 17:21 18:00 18:31 19:30 20:04
34
2.12 Rockport Walking Test (Kline et al., 1987)
To estimate VO2 max, the individual’s time for walking 1mi (1.6 km) and
the ending heart rate are entered into following formula:
VO2 man (ml/kg/min.) = 132.853 – (0.0769×BW) – (0.03877×age) +
[6.315 × gender (1 for males, 0 for females)] – 3.2649 × time in minutes walk 1.0
miles – (0.1565×heart rate).
Table 14 Normative values for the Rockport Walking Test (Morrow et al., 2005)
Rating Males Females
Ages 30-69 y (min : s)
Excellent <10:12 <11:40
Good 10:13-11:42 11:41-13:08
High average 11:43-13:13 13:09-14:36
Low average 13:14-14:44 14:37-16:04
Fair 14:45-16:23 16:05-17:31
Poor >16:24 >17:32
18-30 y (min : s)
90% 11:08 11:45
75% 11:42 12:49
50% 12:38 13:15
25% 13:38 14:12
10% 14:37 15:03
2.13 20-Meters Shuttle Running Test (Cooper & Storer, 2004)
The multistage 20-meter shuttle run test was originally developed to
assess VO2 max in healthy adults tested either individually or in groups. The protocol
requires the following conditions:
a) The 20-m course should be dry, firm, and flat and allow 5–10m extra
length for deceleration at each end. b) Subjects run back and forth on the 20-m course
35
marked at each end with a line. c) Subjects must touch the line at the same time a
sound cue is emitted from a prerecorded audiotape. d) The frequency of the cues is
increased 0.5km·h-1 (8.33m·min-1) every 2 min from a starting speed of 8.0km·h-1
(133.3m·min-1 or 5.0 m.p.h.). e) Cues are provided so that an audible tone is sounded
as a pacing mechanism. The pace time for each shuttle during each 2-min stage. f)
When the subject is no longer able to reach the 20-m distance on cue (defined as more
than 3m away), the last fully completed stage number is recorded and used to predict
maximal oxygen uptake corresponding to the final stage.
VO2 max = (5.857×S) − 19.458
Where VO2 max is expressed in ml/kg/min., and S is the speed
corresponding to the last completed stage expressed in km·h-1. Speed can be
obtained calculated in km·h-1 using the formula 8 + [0.5(completed stages -1)].
2.14 Balke VO2 max Test (Mackenzie, 2005)
The objective of this test is to monitor the development of the athlete's
general endurance (VO2 max).
Required resources: 400m track, stop watch and assistant.
To conduct the test
The Balke Test is conducted as follows:
a) Choose a windless day and run around a track for 15 minutes – the aim
is to run as far as possible. b) The assistant notes the total distance achieved in the 15
minutes to the nearest 25 metres.
Analysis
Analysis of the result is by comparing it with the results of previous tests.
It is expected that, with appropriate training between each test, the analysis would
indicate an improvement. The distance achieved can also be used to predict the
athlete’s VO2 max.
Performance assessment
The formula used to calculate VO2 max is:
VO2 max = (((Total distance covered / 15) – 133) x 0.172) + 33.3
Example: an athletes completes 5200 metres in 15 minutes
VO2 max = (((5200/15) – 133) x 0.172) + 33.3
36
VO2 max = 70 ml/kg/min.
2.15 Queen’s College Step Test (Mackenzie, 2005)
The objective of the Queen’s College Step Test is to predict an athlete’s VO2 max
Required resources: a) Step 16.25 inches or 41.3 cm high; b) Stop watch;
c) Metronome or cadence tape; d) Heart Rate monitor (optional); e) Assistant.
To conduct the test:
a) Step up and down on the step for 3 minutes at the following rate: Male
– 24 steps per minute; Female – 22 steps per minute. b) Use a metronome or have
someone to help you keep to the required pace. c) 5 seconds after finishing the test –
count the heart beats for 15 seconds (PR).
Analysis
Analysis of the result is by comparing it with the results of previous tests.
It is expected that, with appropriate training between each test, the analysis would
indicate an improvement. To calculate your VO2 max as follows:
a) Male = 111.33 – (1.68 x PR)
b) Female = 65.81– (0.7388 x PR)
2.16 Test for VO2 max from a One Mile Jog (Mackenzie, 2005)
Required resources: 400 meter track, Stop watch and Heart Rate
monitor.
To conduct the test:
a) Warm up by jogging for a couple of minutes. b) Jog one mile at an
easy, steady pace, making sure that you take longer (yes longer) than eight minutes
(males), or more than nine minutes (females). c) Record how long it actually takes
you to jog one mile. d) Record your heart rate immediately on completing the mile.
Analysis
The algorithms to calculate your VO2 max are:
Male Athletes VO2 max = 108.844 – 0.1636W – 1.438T – 0.1928H
Female Athletes VO2 max = 100.5 – 0.1636W – 1.438T – 0.1928H
Where W = Weight in kg, T = Time for the one mile run and H = Heart
Rate at the end of the run.
2.17 One-mile Walk Test
Purpose: to determine the subject’s level of cardiorespiratory fitness
37
(VO2 max). This test utilize an alternate method (other than using respirators or
expiratory devices) to determine VO2 max, which oxygen is consumed during a given
activity.
Equipment: Measured track or course or treadmill, stopwatch; heart rate
(HR) monitor is optional.
Procedure: (American Heart Association [AHA], 1990)
a) Instruct the subject to walk along the measured testing surface as fast
as ha or she can without running. b) If monitor is not available, measure the subject’s
pulse rate manually and record HR in beats per minute immediately upon completion
of the test. c) Record the elapsed time to complete the walk to the nearest second.
Analysis and interpretation of data
Calculation of the estimated VO2 max is as follows:
VO2 max (ml/kg/min.) = 132.85-(0.007×body weight in pounds) –
(0.39×Age in year) + [6.32×gender (0=F; 1=M)]-(3.26×elapsed time in
minutes)-(0.16×HR in beats per minute).
2.18 Multistage Fitness Test (20-Meter Shuttle Run, YO-YO Test)
Purpose: to determine the client’s level of cardiorespiratory.
Equipment: calibrated cassette tape drive or CD version of the 20 m
Shuttle Run Test (CD version is preferable due to tape stretch with cassette tape;
available for purchase from Australian Sports Commission), flat nonslip testing
surface, two cones to mark distances, stopwatch.
Procedure (Leger & Gadoury, 1989; Ramsbottom et al., 1988; Shvartz &
Reibold, 1990)
a) Mark a 20 m distance with one cone at each end. b) Instruct the client
to carefully listen to the tape or CD and advise the client of the testing criterion of
always placing a foot on or behind the 20 m mark. c) The tape or CD will emit a beep
at the time the client is required to be at the 20 m mark. d) The client must try to be at
the opposite end of the 20m track by the time the next beep sounds. e) The client’s
running speed will have to gradually increase because the time interval between beeps
decreases after approximately each minute. f) Start the tape or CD and instruct the
client to begin the test. g) Warn the client if he or she is unable to reach the 20m mark
38
in time for the beep; terminate the test when the client is unable to reach 20 m mark
twice in succession.
Analysis and interpretation of data
a) The subject’s score is the level and number of shuttles immediately
previous to the beep on which he or she was eliminated. b) More detailed instructions
for calculations of VO2 max according to the subject’s score on the test are given on
the tape or CD, but scores can generally be calculated from the following formula:
VO2 max = 3.46 x [1x level + (shuttles/ [level x 0.4325+7.0048])] +12.2
Normative values can be estimated from the following table.
Table 15 Maximal Oxygen Uptake (ml/kg/min) classifications (men and women).
(Cooper Institute for Aerobic Research, 2002)
Age Poor Fair Good Excellent Superior
Women
20-29 ≤31 32-34 35-37 38-41 42+
39-30 ≤29 30-32 33-35 36-39 40+
40-49 ≤27 28-30 31-32 33-36 37+
50-59 ≤24 25-27 28-29 30-32 33+
60-69 ≤23 24-25 26-27 28-31 32+
Men
20-29 ≤37 38-41 42-44 45-48 49+
39-30 ≤35 36-39 40-42 43-47 48+
40-49 ≤33 34-37 38-40 41-44 45+
50-59 ≤30 31-34 35-37 38-41 42+
60-69 ≤26 27-30 31-34 35-38 39+
Rough estimates of percentages of category of fitness are given in the
following table. VO2 max for athletes in various sports are as following:
39
a) Average: females ranged from 35 to 43 and males ranged from 44 to
51 ml/kg/min.
b) Above average: females ranged from 44 to 48 and males ranged from
52 to 56 ml/kg/min.
Table 16 Fitness categories according to percentages (Reiman & Manske, 2009)
Category Percent (%) of population
Excellent 3
Very good 8
Good 22
Average 34
Fair 22
Poor 8
Very poor 3
2.19 Ramp Test
The Ramp Test requires the use of ergometer, metronome. The
metronome should be set at 100bpm in order to maintain the pedals` speed at 50
rounds per minute (rpm).the subject works at each workload for 3 minutes. The heart
rate is measured during the 3rd, the 6th, and the 9th minutes. The results of the heart
rates predict maximum oxygen consumption (VO2 max) is referenced the scoring
graph by Golding et al. (1989).
The procedure o f the test is followed:
a) To set the first workload at 300 Kpm (1 KP);
b) If the HR in the 3rd minute is:
+ Greater than (>) 105, it should be set workload at 600 Kpm (2KP);
+ 90 to 105, it should be set workload at 750 Kpm (2KP—1/2 KP);
+ Less than (<) 90, it should be set workload at 900 Kpm (3KP);
40
c) set the 7th minute load (the last load) according to the loads in the
following graft (figure 7, 8).
Figure 7 Cycle ergometer protocol used for Ramp Test (men) (Golding, et al, 1989).
300kgm 1kp
750kgm 2-1/2kp
1200kgm 4kp
900kgm 3kp
1050kgm 3-1/2kp
1050kgm 3-1/2kp
1050kgm 3-1/2kp
1350kgm 4-1/2kp
750kgm 2-1/2kp
900kgm 3kp
200kgm 2kp
1200kgm 4kp
900kgm 3kp
HR>105
HR<120
HR=90-105 HR<90
HR>135 HR=120-135
HR<120HR=120-135
HR>135 HR<120 HR>135
HR=120-135
41
Figure 8 Cycle ergometer protocol used for Ramp Test (women) (Golding et al.,
1989).
Summary After an overview of the previous related literatures and theories, the main
concepts were focused on the physical fitness and measurement of maximal oxygen
consumption (VO2 max). There were several definitions of the physical fitness and
methods of measurements of the maximal oxygen consumption. However, as a
number of simple and feasible developed tests of maximal oxygen consumption (VO2
max). There is still a lack of specific data of the results from the different evaluation
to compare it with one of standard of evaluation considered. As a result, this study
compared four of tests with the standard result considered. Therefore, the next chapter
presented the research design, methodology, data collection and data analysis.
150kgm 1/2kp
450kgm 1-1/2kp
750kgm 2-1/2kp
750kgm 2-1/2kp
750kgm 2-1/2kp
1050kgm 3-1/2kp
450kgm 1-1/2kp
600kgm 2kp
300kgm 1kp
900kgm 3kp
600kgm 2kp
HR<90 HR>105
HR=90-105
HR<120 HR>135 HR=120-135
HR<120 HR>135 HR=120-135
HR<120 HR>135
HR=120-135
900kgm 3kp
600kgm 2kp
