Chapter 10 Behavioral Objectives

Types of ObjectivesTypes of Objectives

Educational/Instructional Objectives:Educational/Instructional Objectives: content-oriented, teacher-centered content-oriented, teacher-centered outcomes of the education process in outcomes of the education process in reference to an aspect of a program or a reference to an aspect of a program or a total program of studytotal program of study

Behavioral/Learning Objectives:Behavioral/Learning Objectives: action-oriented, learner-centered action-oriented, learner-centered outcomes of the teaching/learning outcomes of the teaching/learning processprocess

Definition of TermsDefinition of Terms

Goals:Goals: the final outcome of what is the final outcome of what is achieved at the end of the teaching–achieved at the end of the teaching–learning processlearning process

Objective:Objective: a behavior describing the a behavior describing the performance that learners should be performance that learners should be able to exhibit to be considered able to exhibit to be considered competentcompetent

Differences between GoalsDifferences between Goals and Objectives and Objectives

Goals Objectives

global specific

broad singular

long-term short-term

multi-dimensional

unidimensional

Goals Objectives

global specific

broad singular

long-term short-term

multi-dimensional

unidimensional

Responsibility for EstablishingResponsibility for Establishing Goals and Objectives Goals and Objectives

• Setting of goals and objectives must be a mutual Setting of goals and objectives must be a mutual decision-making process between the teacher decision-making process between the teacher and the learner.and the learner.

• Both parties must “buy into” and participate in Both parties must “buy into” and participate in establishing predetermined objectives and goals establishing predetermined objectives and goals prior to initiating the teaching/learning process.prior to initiating the teaching/learning process.

• Blending what the learner wants to learn and Blending what the learner wants to learn and what the teacher has assessed the learner what the teacher has assessed the learner needs to know provides for a mutually needs to know provides for a mutually accountable, respectful, and fulfilling educational accountable, respectful, and fulfilling educational experience. experience.

The Debate about Using Behavioral The Debate about Using Behavioral ObjectivesObjectives

Arguments AgainstArguments Against• superfluoussuperfluous

• reductionisticreductionistic

• time-consumingtime-consuming

• pedagogicpedagogic

• stifles creativitystifles creativity

• interferes with freedom to learninterferes with freedom to learn

• impossible to be inclusiveimpossible to be inclusive

The Debate about Using Behavioral The Debate about Using Behavioral Objectives (cont’d)Objectives (cont’d)

Arguments forArguments for• keeps teaching learner-centeredkeeps teaching learner-centered• communicates plan to otherscommunicates plan to others• helps learners stay on trackhelps learners stay on track• organizes educational approachorganizes educational approach• ensures that process is deliberateensures that process is deliberate• tailors teaching to learner’s needstailors teaching to learner’s needs• focuses attention on learnerfocuses attention on learner• orients teacher and learner to outcomesorients teacher and learner to outcomes

Three Major Advantages Three Major Advantages to Writing Objectivesto Writing Objectives

• Provides basis for selection and design of Provides basis for selection and design of instructional content, methods, and instructional content, methods, and materialsmaterials

• Provides learner with means to organize Provides learner with means to organize efforts toward accomplishing objectivesefforts toward accomplishing objectives

• Allows for determination as to the extent Allows for determination as to the extent that objectives have been accomplishedthat objectives have been accomplished

Writing Behavioral ObjectivesWriting Behavioral Objectives

Three important characteristics:Three important characteristics:1. 1. PerformancePerformance——describes what the describes what the learner is expected to be able to dolearner is expected to be able to do2. 2. ConditionCondition——describes the situation describes the situation under which behavior will be observedunder which behavior will be observed3. 3. CriterionCriterion——describes how well or with describes how well or with what accuracy the learner must be able to what accuracy the learner must be able to performperform

The Four Step ApproachThe Four Step Approach

To link a behavioral objective together, the To link a behavioral objective together, the following three steps are recommended:following three steps are recommended:

1. Identify the testing situation (1. Identify the testing situation (conditioncondition).).2. State the learner and the learner’s 2. State the learner and the learner’s behavior (behavior (performanceperformance).).3. State the performance level (3. State the performance level (criterioncriterion).).

4. State how well the learner will perform 4. State how well the learner will perform the criterion (the criterion (percent accuracypercent accuracy).).

The ABCD RuleThe ABCD Rule• A—AudienceA—Audience

• B—BehaviorB—Behavior

• C—Condition (under what circumstances)C—Condition (under what circumstances)

• D—Degree (how much, to what extent)D—Degree (how much, to what extent)

Common MistakesCommon MistakesWhen Writing ObjectivesWhen Writing Objectives

• describing what the instructor will do rather describing what the instructor will do rather than what the learner will dothan what the learner will do

• including more than one behavior in a single including more than one behavior in a single objectiveobjective

• forgetting to include all three characteristicsforgetting to include all three characteristics• using performance terms subject to many using performance terms subject to many

interpretations and that are not action-interpretations and that are not action-orientedoriented

Common Mistakes (cont’d)Common Mistakes (cont’d)

• writing an unattainable, unrealistic writing an unattainable, unrealistic objectiveobjective

• writing objectives unrelated to stated goalwriting objectives unrelated to stated goal

• cluttering an objective with unnecessary cluttering an objective with unnecessary informationinformation

• making an objective too general so that making an objective too general so that the outcome is not clearthe outcome is not clear

Taxonomy of ObjectivesTaxonomy of Objectives

Behavior is defined according to type Behavior is defined according to type ((domain categorydomain category) and level of ) and level of complexity (complexity (simple to complexsimple to complex).).

Three Types of Learning DomainsThree Types of Learning Domains

1. 1. CognitiveCognitive—the “thinking” domain—the “thinking” domain

2. 2. AffectiveAffective—the “feeling” domain—the “feeling” domain

3. 3. PsychomotorPsychomotor—the “skills” domain—the “skills” domain

Writing SMART ObjectivesWriting SMART Objectives

• S—SpecificS—Specific

• M—MeasurableM—Measurable

• A—AchievableA—Achievable

• R—RealisticR—Realistic

• T—TimelyT—Timely

Complexity of Domain LevelsComplexity of Domain Levels

Objectives in each domain are classified in a Objectives in each domain are classified in a taxonomic form of hierarchy into low (most taxonomic form of hierarchy into low (most simple), medium (moderately difficult), and simple), medium (moderately difficult), and high (most complex) levels of behavior.high (most complex) levels of behavior.

Cognitive LevelsCognitive Levels

knowledgeknowledge evaluationevaluation

Affective LevelsAffective Levels receivingreceiving characterization characterization

PsychomotorPsychomotor perceptionperception origination origination

Teaching in the Cognitive DomainTeaching in the Cognitive Domain

Learning in this domain involves acquisition Learning in this domain involves acquisition of information based on the learner’s of information based on the learner’s intellectual abilities and thinking intellectual abilities and thinking processes.processes.

• Methods most often used to stimulate learning Methods most often used to stimulate learning in the cognitive domain include:in the cognitive domain include:- lecture- lecture- one-to-one instruction- one-to-one instruction- computer-assisted instruction- computer-assisted instruction

Teaching in the Cognitive Domain Teaching in the Cognitive Domain (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Cognitive-domain learning is the Cognitive-domain learning is the traditional focus of most teaching.traditional focus of most teaching.

• Cognitive knowledge is an essential Cognitive knowledge is an essential prerequisite for learning affective and prerequisite for learning affective and psychomotor skills.psychomotor skills.

Teaching in the Affective DomainTeaching in the Affective Domain

Learning in this domain involves an Learning in this domain involves an increasing internalization or increasing internalization or commitment to feelingscommitment to feelings;; affective affective learning involves the degree to which learning involves the degree to which feelings or attitudes are incorporated into feelings or attitudes are incorporated into one’s personality or value systemone’s personality or value system

• Methods most often used to stimulate learning Methods most often used to stimulate learning in the affective domain include:in the affective domain include:- group discussion - role-modeling- group discussion - role-modeling- simulation gaming - questioning - simulation gaming - questioning

- role-playing- role-playing

Teaching in the Affective Domain Teaching in the Affective Domain (cont’d) (cont’d)

Nurse educators are encouraged to attend Nurse educators are encouraged to attend to the needs of the whole person by to the needs of the whole person by recognizing that learning is subjective and recognizing that learning is subjective and values driven.values driven.

• More time in teaching needs to focus on More time in teaching needs to focus on exploring and clarifying learner feelings, exploring and clarifying learner feelings, emotions, and attitudes.emotions, and attitudes.

Teaching in the Psychomotor Teaching in the Psychomotor DomainDomain

Learning in this domain involves Learning in this domain involves acquiring fine and gross motor acquiring fine and gross motor abilities with increasing complexity of abilities with increasing complexity of neuromuscular coordination.neuromuscular coordination.

• Methods most often used to stimulate Methods most often used to stimulate learning in the psychomotor domain include:learning in the psychomotor domain include:

- - demonstration - return demonstrationdemonstration - return demonstration

- simulation - gaming- simulation - gaming- self-instruction- self-instruction

Factors Influencing Psychomotor Factors Influencing Psychomotor Skill AcquisitionSkill Acquisition

The amount of practice required to learn The amount of practice required to learn a new skill varies with the individual, a new skill varies with the individual, depending upon such things as:depending upon such things as:

- - readiness to learnreadiness to learn

- motivation to learn- motivation to learn- past experience- past experience- health status- health status

Factors Influencing Psychomotor Factors Influencing Psychomotor Skill Acquisition (cont’d)Skill Acquisition (cont’d)

- - environmental stimulienvironmental stimuli

- anxiety level- anxiety level

- developmental stage- developmental stage

- practice session length- practice session length

Development of Teaching PlansDevelopment of Teaching Plans

• Predetermined goals and objectives Predetermined goals and objectives serve as a basis for developing a serve as a basis for developing a teaching plan.teaching plan.

• Mutually agreed upon goals and Mutually agreed upon goals and objectives clarify what the learner is to objectives clarify what the learner is to learn and what the teacher is to teach.learn and what the teacher is to teach.

Reasons to Reasons to Construct Teaching Plans Construct Teaching Plans

1. Ensures a logical approach to teaching 1. Ensures a logical approach to teaching and keeps instruction on target.and keeps instruction on target.

2. Communicates in writing an action plan 2. Communicates in writing an action plan for the learner, teacher, and other providers.for the learner, teacher, and other providers.

3. Serves as a legal document that indicates 3. Serves as a legal document that indicates a plan is in place and the extent of progress a plan is in place and the extent of progress toward implementation.toward implementation.

Teaching in the Psychomotor Teaching in the Psychomotor Domain (cont’d)Domain (cont’d)

• Psychomotor skill development is very Psychomotor skill development is very egocentric and requires learner concentration.egocentric and requires learner concentration.

• Asking questions that demand a cognitive or Asking questions that demand a cognitive or affective response during psychomotor learning affective response during psychomotor learning interferes with psychomotor performance.interferes with psychomotor performance.

• The ability to perform a skill is not equivalent to The ability to perform a skill is not equivalent to learning a skill (performance is transitory; learning a skill (performance is transitory; learning is more permanent).learning is more permanent).

• ““Practice makes perfect”—repetition leads to Practice makes perfect”—repetition leads to perfection and reinforcement of behaviorperfection and reinforcement of behavior..

Basic Elements of a Teaching Basic Elements of a Teaching PlanPlan

• PurposePurpose

• Goal statementGoal statement

• Objectives (sub-objectives)Objectives (sub-objectives)

• Content outlineContent outline

• Methods of teachingMethods of teaching

• Time allotmentTime allotment

• Resources for instructionResources for instruction

• EvaluationEvaluation

The Major Criterion for Judging The Major Criterion for Judging a Teaching Plana Teaching Plan

Internal consistencyInternal consistency exists when exists when you can answer “yes” to the following you can answer “yes” to the following questions:questions:- Does the plan facilitate a relationship - Does the plan facilitate a relationship between its parts?between its parts?- Do all 8 elements of the plan “hang - Do all 8 elements of the plan “hang together”?together”?

The Major Criterion for Judging The Major Criterion for Judging a Teaching Plan (cont’d)a Teaching Plan (cont’d)

- Is the identified domain of learning in - Is the identified domain of learning in each objective reflected in the purpose each objective reflected in the purpose and goal, as well as across the plan, all and goal, as well as across the plan, all the way through to the end process of the way through to the end process of evaluation?evaluation?

Use of Learning ContractsUse of Learning Contracts

Learning ContractLearning Contract:: A written (formal) or A written (formal) or verbal (informal) agreement between the verbal (informal) agreement between the teacher and the learner that delineates teacher and the learner that delineates specific teaching and learning activities specific teaching and learning activities that are to occur within a certain time frame.that are to occur within a certain time frame.

Purpose of a Learning Contract Purpose of a Learning Contract • to encourage learner’s active participationto encourage learner’s active participation

• to improve teacher–client communicationto improve teacher–client communication

Use of Learning Contracts Use of Learning Contracts (cont’d)(cont’d)

Learning contracts:Learning contracts:• are an increasingly popular approach to are an increasingly popular approach to

teaching and learning.teaching and learning.

• serve as an alternative and innovative serve as an alternative and innovative technique that embodies the principles technique that embodies the principles of adult learning.of adult learning.

• can be used with any audience of adult can be used with any audience of adult learners.learners.

Use of Learning Contracts Use of Learning Contracts (cont’d)(cont’d)

• empower the learner by emphasizing empower the learner by emphasizing self-direction, mutual negotiation, and self-direction, mutual negotiation, and mutual evaluation of competency.mutual evaluation of competency.

• stress shared accountability between stress shared accountability between the teacher and the learner.the teacher and the learner.

Components of the Learning Components of the Learning ContractContract

Four major componentsFour major components

1.1. Content—specifies precise behavioral Content—specifies precise behavioral objectives.objectives.

2. Evaluation—specifies criteria by which 2. Evaluation—specifies criteria by which competencies will be judged.competencies will be judged.

Components of Learning Contract Components of Learning Contract (cont’d)(cont’d)

3. Performance expectations—specify 3. Performance expectations—specify conditions by which learning will be conditions by which learning will be achieved.achieved.

4. Time frame—specifies length of time 4. Time frame—specifies length of time needed for successful achievement of needed for successful achievement of objectives.objectives.

The Concept of Learning CurveThe Concept of Learning Curve

Learning Curve:Learning Curve: A graphic depiction ofA graphic depiction of

changes in psychomotor performance atchanges in psychomotor performance at

different stages of practice during adifferent stages of practice during a

specified time periodspecified time period

• Six stages of the theoretical learning Six stages of the theoretical learning curvecurve

• The irregularity of individual learning The irregularity of individual learning curvescurves

State of the EvidenceState of the Evidence• Educational literature has plenty of evidence Educational literature has plenty of evidence

establishing the value and utility of behavioral establishing the value and utility of behavioral objectives.objectives.

• Taxonomic hierarchy for categorizing behaviors Taxonomic hierarchy for categorizing behaviors has also been established.has also been established.

• Body of evidence on teaching plans is available.Body of evidence on teaching plans is available.

• Educational literature has new research on Educational literature has new research on learning contracts, psychomotor skill acquisition, learning contracts, psychomotor skill acquisition, learning curve concept.learning curve concept.

SummarySummary• Assessment of the learner is a prerequisite to Assessment of the learner is a prerequisite to

formulating objectives.formulating objectives.

• Writing clear and concise behavioral Writing clear and concise behavioral objectives is fundamental to the education objectives is fundamental to the education process.process.

• Goals and objectives serve as a guide to Goals and objectives serve as a guide to planning, implementation, and evaluation of planning, implementation, and evaluation of teaching and learning.teaching and learning.

Chapter 11

Instructional Methods

Instructional Methods

• Definition– Techniques or approaches that

the teacher uses to bring the learner in contact with the content to be learned

Instructional Methods

• Lecture• Group Discussion• One-to-One Instruction• Role-playing• Self-instruction

• Demonstration• Return Demonstration• Gaming• Simulation• Role-modeling

Lecture

• Definition– An instructional method in

which the teacher verbally transmits information directly to groups of learners for the purpose of education. It is highly structured.

Lecture

• Advantages

– Cost effective– Targets large groups– Useful for cognitive

domain learning

• Limitations

– Not individualized– Passive learners

Group Discussion

• Definition– An instructional method in

which learners are together to exchange information, feelings, and opinions with each other and the teacher to achieve educational objectives

Group Discussion

• Advantages

– Stimulates sharing of ideas and emotions

– Active learners– Useful for cognitive

and affective domains of learning

• Limitations

– Shy member does not participate

– Dominant member overwhelms the group

– Highly diverse groups may have difficulty interacting

One-to-One Instruction

• Definition– An instructional method

in which the teacher delivers personally designed instruction to a learner.

One-to-One Instruction

• Advantages

– Active learner– Tailored to

individual’s needs and goals

– Useful for all three learning domains

• Limitations

– Can be expensive because it is labor intensive

– Isolates learner

Demonstration

• Definition– An instructional method

in which the learner is shown by the teacher how to perform a particular skill

Demonstration

• Advantages

– Previews exact skill for the learner

– Useful for psychomotor domain learning

• Limitations

– May be expensive because all learners need to easily visualize skill. This requires use of technology or small groups.

Return Demonstration

• Definition– An instructional

method in which the learner attempts to perform a skill with cues from the teacher as needed

Return Demonstration

• Advantages

– Active learner– Individual guidance– Useful for

psychomotor domain learning

• Limitations

– Viewing individual performance is labor intensive

Gaming

• Definition– An instructional

method requiring the learner to participate in a competitive activity with preset rules to achieve an educational objective

Gaming

• Advantages

– Active learner– Perceived as “fun”

by many learners– Useful for all three

domains of learning

• Limitations

– Too competitive for some learners

Simulation

• Definition– An instructional method requiring

creation of a hypothetical or artificial experience to engage the learner in an activity that reflects real-life conditions without the risk-taking consequences of an actual experience

Simulation

• Advantages

– Active learners– Practice “reality” in a

safe setting– Useful for cognitive

and psychomotor domains of learning

• Limitations

– Labor intensive– Costs of equipment

Role-Playing

• Definition– An instructional

method where learners participate in an unrehearsed dramatization to elicit their feelings to achieve affective domain objectives

Role-Playing

• Advantages

– Active learner– Develops

“understanding” of others

– Useful for affective domain learning

• Limitations

– Learner can exaggerate or under-develop the role

Role-Modeling

• Definition– An instructional method in which the

teacher “models” or exhibits behaviors that the learner may imitate or adopt as he or she is socialized into a role. Learning from role-modeling is called identification and emanates from socialization theories.

Role-Modeling

• Advantages

– Helps with socialization into role

– Useful for affective domain learning

• Limitations

– Requires rapport between teacher and learner

Self-Instruction

• Definition– An instructional method

to provide activities that guide the learner in independently achieving the educational objectives

Self-Instruction

• Advantages

– Self-paced– Cost-effective– Consistent– Useful for cognitive

domain learning

• Limitations

– Learner may procrastinate

– Requires literacy

Factors in Selection ofInstructional Methods

• What are the predetermined objectives?

• What are the characteristics of the targeted audience?

• What resources are available?

• What are the teacher’s strengths and limitations?

Evaluation of Instructional Methods

• Did learners achieve their objectives?

• Was the activity accessible to targeted learners?

• Were available resources used efficiently?

• Did the method accommodate the learner’s needs, abilities, and style?

• Was the approach cost-effective?

Creative Techniques to Enhance Verbal Presentations

• Enthusiasm

• Humor

• Risk-taking

• Drama

• Problem-solving

• Role-modeling

• Anecdotes

• Technology

General Principles for All Teachers

• Give positive reinforcement.

• Project acceptance/sensitivity.

• Be organized, give direction.

• Elicit and provide feedback.

• Use questioning.

• Know your audience.

• Use repetition.

• Summarize key points.

Instructional Settings

• Healthcare setting

• Health-related setting

• Nonhealthcare setting

Sharing Resources

Nurses in each of the setting types can establish a health education committee to coordinate health education programming, ensure effective use of resources, and avoid duplication of efforts.

Chapter 12

Instructional Materials

Instructional MaterialsInstructional MaterialsPrint and Nonprint MediaPrint and Nonprint Media

• Definition: the tangible substances and Definition: the tangible substances and real objects used to help communicate real objects used to help communicate information necessary for learninginformation necessary for learning

• Purposes: to help the nurse educator Purposes: to help the nurse educator deliver a message creatively and clearlydeliver a message creatively and clearly

General Principles of General Principles of EffectivenessEffectiveness

Media should:Media should:• Change behavior by influencing a gain in Change behavior by influencing a gain in

cognitive, affective, and/or psychomotor cognitive, affective, and/or psychomotor skillsskills

• Enhance learning—no one tool is better Enhance learning—no one tool is better than another than another

• Complement the instructional methodsComplement the instructional methods

Media should (cont’d):Media should (cont’d):• Match available financial resourcesMatch available financial resources• Be appropriate for physical environmentBe appropriate for physical environment• Complement learners’ sensory abilities, Complement learners’ sensory abilities,

developmental stage, and educational level developmental stage, and educational level • Impart accurate, current, valid and Impart accurate, current, valid and

appropriate messagesappropriate messages• Add diversity and information to learningAdd diversity and information to learning

General Principles (cont’d)

Choosing Instructional MaterialsChoosing Instructional Materials

Major Variables to ConsiderMajor Variables to Consider

• Characteristics of the LearnerCharacteristics of the Learner– Physical abilitiesPhysical abilities– Perceptual abilitiesPerceptual abilities– LiteracyLiteracy– Motivational levelMotivational level– Developmental stageDevelopmental stage– Learning styleLearning style

Major Variables to Consider Major Variables to Consider (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Characteristics of the MediaCharacteristics of the Media

– PrintPrint

– NonprintNonprint

• Characteristics of the TaskCharacteristics of the Task

– Learning domainLearning domain

– Complexity of behaviorComplexity of behavior

Three Major Components of Three Major Components of Instructional MaterialsInstructional Materials

• Delivery SystemDelivery System– Definition: both the physical form and the Definition: both the physical form and the

hardware used to present materials hardware used to present materials

– Examples of physical form and hardwareExamples of physical form and hardware• Slides with projector Slides with projector • Videotapes with VCRsVideotapes with VCRs• Computer software with computerComputer software with computer

Components (cont’d)Components (cont’d)

• ContentContent– Definition: actual information imparted to Definition: actual information imparted to

the learnerthe learner

– Selection criteriaSelection criteria• AccuracyAccuracy• Appropriateness for skill determinationAppropriateness for skill determination• ReadabilityReadability

Components (cont’d)Components (cont’d)

• PresentationPresentation– Definition: the form most important for Definition: the form most important for

selecting/developing instructional materialsselecting/developing instructional materials

– Concrete to abstract continuumConcrete to abstract continuum• RealiaRealia• Illusionary representationsIllusionary representations• Symbolic representationsSymbolic representations

Types of Instructional MaterialsTypes of Instructional Materials

Written MaterialsWritten Materials• AdvantagesAdvantages

• Available to learner in absence of teacherAvailable to learner in absence of teacher• Widely acceptable, familiarWidely acceptable, familiar• Readily available, relatively cheapReadily available, relatively cheap• Convenient formConvenient form• Learner controls rate of readingLearner controls rate of reading• Content easily altered to target specific Content easily altered to target specific

audiencesaudiences

Written Materials (cont’d)Written Materials (cont’d)

• DisadvantagesDisadvantages– Most abstract form of realityMost abstract form of reality– Immediate feedback limitedImmediate feedback limited– Proper reading level essential for full usefulnessProper reading level essential for full usefulness– Less useful with low literate learners or visually or Less useful with low literate learners or visually or

cognitively impaired learnerscognitively impaired learners– Inappropriate for illiterate learnersInappropriate for illiterate learners

Written Materials—Written Materials—Commercially PreparedCommercially Prepared

• Factors to be consideredFactors to be considered– Who produced the item? Was there any Who produced the item? Was there any

input by healthcare professionals?input by healthcare professionals?– Can the item be previewed?Can the item be previewed?– The price must be consistent with its The price must be consistent with its

educational value.educational value.

Written Materials—Instructor Written Materials—Instructor ComposedComposed

Guidelines for Effective WritingGuidelines for Effective Writing• Fit your own institution’s policies, procedures and Fit your own institution’s policies, procedures and

equipment.equipment.• Build in answers to those questions asked most Build in answers to those questions asked most

frequently by your patients.frequently by your patients.• Highlight points considered especially important Highlight points considered especially important

by your healthcare team.by your healthcare team.• Reinforce specific oral instructions and clarify Reinforce specific oral instructions and clarify

difficult concepts.difficult concepts.

Guidelines for Effective Writing Guidelines for Effective Writing (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Keep words and sentences short. Use Keep words and sentences short. Use conversational style. Use active voice. conversational style. Use active voice.

• Use second person “you.”Use second person “you.”• Most important information goes first.Most important information goes first.• Do not use all-capital letters.Do not use all-capital letters.• Use advance organizers.Use advance organizers.• Emphasize key points with end review.Emphasize key points with end review.

Evaluating Printed MaterialsEvaluating Printed Materials

Consider:Consider:• Nature of the audienceNature of the audience• Literacy level requiredLiteracy level required• Linguistic variety availableLinguistic variety available• Brevity and clarityBrevity and clarity• Layout and appearanceLayout and appearance• Opportunity for repetitionOpportunity for repetition• Concreteness and familiarityConcreteness and familiarity

Demonstration Materials Demonstration Materials DisplaysDisplays

• AdvantagesAdvantages– Fast way to attract attention, make a pointFast way to attract attention, make a point– FlexibleFlexible– PortablePortable– ReusableReusable– Stimulate interest or ideas in observerStimulate interest or ideas in observer– Can change or influence attitudesCan change or influence attitudes– Purchasable and/or can be madePurchasable and/or can be made

Demonstration MaterialsDemonstration MaterialsDisplays (cont’d)Displays (cont’d)

• DisadvantagesDisadvantages– Take up a lot of spaceTake up a lot of space– Time-consuming to prepare—often reused, Time-consuming to prepare—often reused,

outdatedoutdated– May be overusedMay be overused– Unsuitable for large audiencesUnsuitable for large audiences

Demonstration MaterialsDemonstration MaterialsPosters as Popular Display ToolsPosters as Popular Display Tools

Consider:Consider:• ColorColor• White spaceWhite space• GraphicsGraphics• KISS principleKISS principle• Titles/ScriptTitles/Script• Balance of contentBalance of content

Demonstration Materials ModelsDemonstration Materials Models

• AdvantagesAdvantages– Useful when real object is too small, too Useful when real object is too small, too

large, too expensive, unavailable, or too large, too expensive, unavailable, or too complexcomplex

– Allows safe, hands-on practiceAllows safe, hands-on practice– More active involvement by the learner More active involvement by the learner

with immediate feedback availablewith immediate feedback available– Readily availableReadily available

Demonstration MaterialsDemonstration MaterialsModels (cont’d)Models (cont’d)

• DisadvantagesDisadvantages– May not be suitable for learner with poor May not be suitable for learner with poor

abstraction abilities or for visually impairedabstraction abilities or for visually impaired– Some models fragile, expensive, bulky, or Some models fragile, expensive, bulky, or

difficult to transportdifficult to transport– Cannot be observed or manipulated by Cannot be observed or manipulated by

more than a few learners at a timemore than a few learners at a time

Demonstration MaterialsDemonstration MaterialsThree Specific Types of ModelsThree Specific Types of Models

• ReplicasReplicas– Examples: anatomical models, resuscitation Examples: anatomical models, resuscitation

dollsdolls

• AnaloguesAnalogues– Examples: dialysis machines, computer Examples: dialysis machines, computer

modelsmodels

• SymbolsSymbols– Examples: words, cartoons, formulas, signsExamples: words, cartoons, formulas, signs

Audiovisual MaterialsAudiovisual Materials

• Factors in selectionFactors in selection– Technical feasibilityTechnical feasibility– Economic feasibilityEconomic feasibility– Social/political acceptabilitySocial/political acceptability– Instructor familiarityInstructor familiarity

Audiovisual Materials (cont’d)Audiovisual Materials (cont’d)

• Projected Learning ResourcesProjected Learning Resources– Movies and filmstripsMovies and filmstrips– Power PointsPower Points– Overhead transparenciesOverhead transparencies

Projected Learning ResourcesProjected Learning Resources

• AdvantagesAdvantages– Most effectively used with groupsMost effectively used with groups– Especially beneficial with hearing-impaired, Especially beneficial with hearing-impaired,

low-literate learnerslow-literate learners– Excellent media for use in teaching Excellent media for use in teaching

psychomotor skillspsychomotor skills

Projected Learning Resources Projected Learning Resources (cont’d)(cont’d)

• DisadvantagesDisadvantages– Lack of flexibility due to static content of Lack of flexibility due to static content of

some formssome forms– Some forms may be expensiveSome forms may be expensive– Requires darkened room for some formsRequires darkened room for some forms– Requires special equipment for useRequires special equipment for use

Audio Learning ResourcesAudio Learning Resources

• Audiotapes, Radio, CDAudiotapes, Radio, CD

• AdvantagesAdvantages– Widely availableWidely available– May be especially beneficial to visually-May be especially beneficial to visually-

impaired, low literate learnersimpaired, low literate learners– May be listened to repeatedlyMay be listened to repeatedly– Most forms practical, cheap, small, Most forms practical, cheap, small,

portableportable

Audio Learning Resources Audio Learning Resources (cont’d)(cont’d)

• DisadvantagesDisadvantages– Relies only on sense of hearingRelies only on sense of hearing– Some forms may be expensiveSome forms may be expensive– Lack of opportunity for interaction between Lack of opportunity for interaction between

instructor and learnerinstructor and learner

Video Learning ResourcesVideo Learning Resources

• Purchased or self-made tapesPurchased or self-made tapes

• AdvantagesAdvantages– Widely used educational toolWidely used educational tool– Inexpensive; uses visual, auditory sensesInexpensive; uses visual, auditory senses– Flexible for use with different audiencesFlexible for use with different audiences– Powerful tool for role-modeling and Powerful tool for role-modeling and

demonstrationdemonstration– Effective for teaching psychomotor skills Effective for teaching psychomotor skills

Video Learning Resources Video Learning Resources (cont’d)(cont’d)

• DisadvantagesDisadvantages– Quality of videotapes can deteriorate over Quality of videotapes can deteriorate over

timetime– Some commercial products may be Some commercial products may be

expensiveexpensive– Some purchased materials may be too Some purchased materials may be too

long or inappropriate for audiencelong or inappropriate for audience

Telecommunications Learning Telecommunications Learning ResourcesResources

Telephones, TelevisionsTelephones, Televisions

• AdvantagesAdvantages– Relatively inexpensive, widely availableRelatively inexpensive, widely available

• DisadvantagesDisadvantages– Complicated to set up interactive capabilityComplicated to set up interactive capability– Expensive to broadcast via satelliteExpensive to broadcast via satellite

Computer Learning ResourcesComputer Learning Resources

• AdvantagesAdvantages– Interactive potential: quick feedback, Interactive potential: quick feedback,

retentionretention– Potential database is enormousPotential database is enormous– Can individualize to suit different types of Can individualize to suit different types of

learners, different pace of learninglearners, different pace of learning– Time efficientTime efficient

Computer Learning ResourcesComputer Learning Resources(cont’d)(cont’d)

• DisadvantagesDisadvantages– Primary learning efficacy: cognitive domain Primary learning efficacy: cognitive domain

less useful for attitude/behavior change or less useful for attitude/behavior change or psychomotor skill developmentpsychomotor skill development

– Software and hardware expensiveSoftware and hardware expensive– Must be purchasedMust be purchased– Limited use for most older adults, low Limited use for most older adults, low

literate learners, those with physical literate learners, those with physical limitationslimitations

Evaluation Criteria forEvaluation Criteria forSelecting MaterialsSelecting Materials

• ConsiderationsConsiderations– Learner characteristicsLearner characteristics– Task(s) to be achievedTask(s) to be achieved– Media availableMedia available

• Evaluation ChecklistEvaluation Checklist– ContentContent– Instructional designInstructional design– Technical productionTechnical production– PackagingPackaging

State of the EvidenceState of the Evidence

• Performance is improved and Performance is improved and learner satisfaction increased with learner satisfaction increased with visual reinforcement.visual reinforcement.

• Distance learning is an increasingly Distance learning is an increasingly viable option for learners.viable option for learners.

SummarySummary

Instructional materials should be Instructional materials should be used to support learning by used to support learning by complementing and supplementing complementing and supplementing your teaching, not by substituting your teaching, not by substituting for it.for it.