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8/6/2019 Chapter 1 - Thinking Critically With Psychological Science (Scientific Method)
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/chapter-1-thinking-critically-with-psychological-science-scientific-method 1/52
The ScientificMethod
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8/6/2019 Chapter 1 - Thinking Critically With Psychological Science (Scientific Method)
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Key Issues in Human
Development1- Heredity and Environment
Heredity-oriented theories assume animportant role of underlying biologicalstructures. They point out that specificgenes may underlie development andbehavior.
Environmental explanations focus on theindividual¶s experience pertaining tothinking, health, and social factors
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Key Issues in Human
Development� Heredity and environment interact, but
theorists still disagree over the relative
contributions of each and the manner of their interaction.
� The position that the theorists take on this
question determines the direction and
nature of their research
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Key Issues in Human
Development2- Maturation and Learning
Maturation refers to biological processes.
Learning refers to change over time related to
practice or experience.When development is considered in terms of
maturation and learning, the emphasis is ontime.
Example: How is the biological event of menopause affected by a woman¶s lifestyle(experience)?
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Key Issues in Human
Development3- Critical Versus Sensitive Periods
Optimal periods during which certain types of learning occur best
Readiness refers to reaching a maturational pointat which a specific behavior can be learned
Examples:
The effects of certain diseases during pregnancy
Acquiring a second language during an early ageThe critical time span several hours after birthduring which goslings become bonded to themother (imprinting)
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The Scientific Method
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What Makes Research Scientific?
1- Precision
2- Skepticism
3- Reliance on Empirical Evidence4- The Principle of Falsifiability
5- Openness? Replication
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Science becomes dangerous only
when it imagines that it has
reached its goal.
(George Bernard Shaw)
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Issues in Data Collection
1- Sampling
Random Sampling
Representative Sample
2- ReliabilityThe degree of consistency with which a
test or scale measures something.
3- Validity
The extent to which a test or scale measureswhat it is supposed to measure
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Validity
1- Internal Validity
What happened to the experimental group
actually caused the new behavior.2- External Validity
The extent to which an experiment
corresponds to what happens in the realworld
3- Construct
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How Do Psychologists Observe and
Describe Behavior?
1- Descriptive Method
2- Correlational Studies
3- Experimental Method
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Methods of Studying Behavior
1- Descriptive Methods
Approaches that primarily involve
the observation and description of
behavior
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Methods of Studying Behavior
2- Correlational Studies
Examine the relationship betweentwo variables to determine whether
they are associated or correlated
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Methods of Studying Behavior
3- Experimental Methods
Approaches that go beyonddescription and attempt to
determine what causes what in
development and behavior
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Descriptive Approaches
1- Case Studies
2- Systematic Observation
3- Questionnaires and Surveys
4- Psychological Testing
5- Developmental Research Design
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Case Study
Sometimes are called baby biographies
They involve extensive interviews with a
particular individual or a small group of individuals
Drawbacks
1- The lack of standardization2- Reliance on language
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Systematic Observation
Naturalistic Observation
Occurs in a natural setting
such as studying apes inthe wild or people in bars
Laboratory Observation
The psychologist has more
controlOne shortcoming is that
the presence of
researchers and special
equipment may cause
subjects to behave
differently
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Questionnaires and Surveys
Interview that ask people directly about their
experiences, attitudes, or opinions
DrawbacksThe difficulty of getting a representative
sample
When dealing with volunteers, we may havevolunteer bias
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Psychological Tests
Sometimes called assessment
instruments
Are procedures used for measuring andevaluating personality traits, emotional
states, aptitudes, interests, abilities, and
values
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Psychological Testing
Objective Tests
Also called Inventories
Measure beliefs,
feelings, or behaviors
of which the individual
is awareHave more reliability
and validity
Projective Tests
Designed to tap
unconscious
feelings or motives
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Projective Tests
1- Association Techniques
The Rorschach Test
TheWord Association Test2- Completion Techniques
Sentence Completion Tests
Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study
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The Rorschach Projective Test
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Projective Tests
3- Construction Techniques
The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
The Picture Projective Test (PPT)
4- Expression Techniques
The Draw-a-person Test
The House-tree-person Test
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Developmental Research
1- The Longitudinal Design
2- The Cross-Sectional Design
3- The Sequential-Cohort Design
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1- The Longitudinal Design
A group of individuals is studied repeatedlyat different points in the lifespan
Drawbacks:
a. Large investments in time and money
b. Some subjects drop out or die
c. Some subjects become testwise
d. Changes in individuals may be due tothe time of measurement rather thandevelopment
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2- The Cross-Sectional Design
Compares individuals of different ages at
one point of time
Drawbacks:a. It tells us more about age groups than
about development within the individuals
b. The cohorts differ not only inchronological age but also in the time
period in which they were born
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3- The Sequential-Cohort Design
A mix of the two types of research
Example:
Studying a group of 4-year-olds, a group of 8-year-olds, and a group of 12-year-olds
each 2 years comparing them
longitudinally and cross-sectionally
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The Experimental Method
in Psychology
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Defining Psychology
Psychology is the scientific
study of behavior and mental
processes and how they areaffected by an organism¶s
physical state, mental state,and external environment.
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Correlational Study by
Craig Anderson & Karen Dill
(2000)
The Effects of playing violentvideo games on behavior,
especially aggressive
behavior
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Correlational Study by
Anderson and Dill (2000)
Method
A correlational study basedon questionnaires andpersonality measures
administered to a largenumber of college students
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Correlational Study by
Anderson and Dill (2000)
Results
Analysis of data indicated that
playing violent video gameswas strongly and positivelycorrelated with two factors:
a. Aggressive delinquentbehavior in real life
b. Aggressive personalitycharacteristics
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Plausible Causes for Aggressive
Behavior
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Plausible Causes for Aggressive
Behavior
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Plausible Causes for Aggressive
Behavior
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Correlational Studies
Examine the relationship between two
variables to determine whether they are
associated or correlated
Establishing a correlation between 2
variables does not indicate causality
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Experimental Methods
Anderson and Dill (2000)
The Effects of playing violent
video games on behavior,especially aggressive
behavior
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Hypothesis
Playing violent video games
would increase aggressive
behavior
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The Outcome of the Experiment
The results confirmed that
participants who played a
violent video game behavedmore aggressively than
participants who played a
nonviolent video game.
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Experimental Methods
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Experimental Methods
They tell us about cause and effect
The investigator manipulates one set of
variables (independent variables) andobserves their influence on another set of
variables (dependent variables)
To establish causality, experimenters
compare different groups, experimental
groups and control groups.
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Experimental Design
Questions:
Who are the subjects?
What is the independent variable?
What is the variable that is going to changebecause of manipulation?
What is the dependent variable?
If there were changes in behavior, what was the
causative agent?What was the outcome of the experiment in one
sentence?
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Ethics in Research
1- Freedom from Harm
2- Informed Consent
3- Use of Deception
4- Maintenance of Privacy
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Understand these Terms
Hypothesis
Correlational studies
Experimental methodIndependent variable
Dependent variable
Experimental group
Control Group
Validity
Construct
Reliability
Representativesampling
Causality
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Design Your Own Research
1- You want to examine the effect of watching
violent movies on the behavior of children, what
design are you going to use, cross-sectional,
longitudinal, or sequential-cohort design?2- What is your hypothesis?
3- How many groups are you going to have? Why?
4
- What is the population you are going toexperiment on? How are you going to select
your sample?
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5- If you want to establish causality, whattechnique are you going to use,correlational, observational, casestudies, or experimental?
6- What is the methodology?
7- Where are you going to conduct theexperiment?
8- What are the dependent variables?
9- What are the independent variables?
10-Do you think your experiment hasinternal and external validity? Why?
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