Can Public Policy Break the Glass Ceiling? Lessons from Abroad

8/10/2019 Can Public Policy Break the Glass Ceiling? Lessons from Abroad

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Can Public PolicyBreak the Glass Ceiling?Lessons from Abroad

By Dalia Ben-Galim and Amna Silim December 2014


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Can Public PolicyBreak the Glass Ceiling?Lessons from Abroad

By Dalia Ben-Galim and Amna Silim December 2014


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1 Introduction and summary

3 The employment gap

8 The role of family-friendly policy

14 Gender quotas: The case of Norway

18 Conclusion

20 Endnotes

Contents


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1 Center for American Progress | Can Public Policy Break the Glass Ceiling?

Introduction and summary

Te problem is all oo amiliar: Despi e womens increased ra es o employmen ,rising levels o educa ional developmen , and growing place as primary breadwin-ners, gender inequali y remains pervasive. Women con inue o be underrepre-sen ed in key decision-making posi ions in poli ics, business, and public li e.

In he Uni ed S a es, he discussion o his conundrum ends o ocus on personalimprovemen and he no ion o leaning in popularized by Facebook COO

Sheryl Sandberg. However, a number o developed na ions, par icularly hose inEurope, have sough o remedy gender inequali y primarily hrough public policy.

Tis repor aims o analyze and unders and he bene s and limi a ions o suchpolicies by exploring he direc and indirec roles ha hey play in suppor ing womens progress in he work orce and, specically, in helping boos heir advance-men in o leadership posi ions. I looks a policies ha ackle he leadership issue via quo as which aim o have a direc impac on womens represen a ion andalso examines policies such as affordable child care, paid paren al leave, and exible work arrangemen s ha help lay he groundwork or womens leadership indirec ly by enabling women o s ay in he work orce afer becoming mo hers.

Examining he differences in employmen ra es be ween mo hers and nonmo h-ers is one way o clearly see how well a coun ry does or does no suppor womens abili ies o remain ac ive in he work orce hroughou heir adul lives.Trough a de ailed discussion o policies abroad, his repor will show ha coun-

ries ha have affordable and high-quali y child care sys ems or example, heScandinavian na ions end o have higher ma ernal employmen ra es, paving

he way or womens advancemen . Paid paren al leave and exible work policies

wi h genuine choices or bo h paren s can also be a re en ion ool ha , by offeringmo hers and a hers he abili y o work and o care, aid womens long- erm pros-pec s and advance he goals o gender equali y more generally.


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Trough an in-dep h analysis o he resul s o Norways 2003 law imposing genderquo as on corpora e boards, his repor will show ha quo as numerical arge s

or womens represen a ion are an effec ive way o achieve specic, iden iedgoals. However, i will argue ha , o da e, he ambi ion o quo a policies has been

o suppor pro essional women who already are close o he op. I policymakers

wan o enable women o all income levels and educa ional backgrounds o en erhe workplace and advance hereby developing a pipeline or u ure leadersaffordable and universal child care, progressive paren al leave, and oppor uni ies

o work exibly mus orm he core o a wide-reaching policy agenda.


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The employment gap

In mos coun ries, including he Uni ed S a es, women are underrepresen ed onalmos every measure o leadership in poli ics, he media, and business.1 Tesegaps mater because hey ransla e in o a lack o economic power. Having a well-paid job and keeping i is an essen ial building block o womens economic inde-pendence. Policies ha keep women in he work orce crea ing he condi ionsunder which hey can rise, hrive, and enjoy he same oppor uni ies or earningand advancemen as heir male coun erpar s are cri ical means or enhancing

womens s a us in our socie y and, ul ima ely, boos ing womens leadership.

Te gaps be ween emale and ma ernal employmen ra es across Organisa ion orEconomic Co-Opera ion and Developmen , or OECD, coun ries are shown inFigure 1. Wi h he excep ions o Slovenia, Denmark, and Por ugal, coun ries havehigher emale employmen ra es han ma ernal employmen ra es. Te gap variesacross coun ries. I amoun s o only a ew percen age poin s in Scandinavia, where

here is a universal child care provision, rises o 7 percen age poin s in he Uni edS a es, and reaches 10 percen age poin s in he Uni ed Kingdom. Al hough hereare a range o ac ors ha inuence ma ernal employmen decisions such aspersonal pre erences, he s ruc ure o he labor marke , and he prevalence o ex-ible work he affordabili y and availabili y o child care has been proven o be apar icularly impor an variable.2


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FIGURE 1

Female and maternal employment rates, 2011

Iceland

Slovenia

Denmark

Sweden

NetherlandsFinland

Portugal

Lithuania

Austria

Canada

Cyprus

France

Belgium

Latvia

Switzerland

LuxembourgGermany

Romania

Bulgaria

Chile

Israel

Poland

United Kingdom

Estonia

United States

New Zealand

Australia

Spain

Ireland

Czech Republic

Slovak Republic

Greece

Italy

Japan

Hungary

Malta

Mexico

Turkey0 20 40 60 80 100

Note: Countries are ranked by decreasing maternal employment rates. The base year used for all country data was 2011, with theexceptions of data for Australia, Finland, Malta, Mexico, New Zealand, Sweden, and Turkey (2009); Chile and Denmark (2010); Switzerland(2006); Japan (2005); Iceland (2002); and Canada (2001). The employment rate was calculated for mothers with children under age 15,with the exceptions of Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Japan, Switzerland, and the United States where it was calculated for children underage 16; and Denmark, Finland, Sweden, and Turkey, where it was calculated for dependent children under age 25. The data for Cyprusrelate to the southern part of the island, which is under the effective control of the government of the Republic of Cyprus. OECD data forIsrael are supplied by and under the responsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities.Source: Adapted from chart LMF 12.A 1 OECD Family database http://www.oecd.org/social/soc/oecdfamilydatabase.htm//

10 30 50 70 90

Employment rate forwomen between ages25 and 54

Employment rate formothers with childrenunder age 15

OECD average maternalemployment rate


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Figure 2 provides more-de ailed da a on he employmen ra e o mo hers by age oheir younges child. Te da a show ha employmen ra es or mo hers wi h school-

age children end o be high bu ha here is signican varia ion in he employmenra es o mo hers wi h preschool-age children. In Iceland, Slovenia, Sweden, andDemark, ma ernal employmen ra es are above 80 percen . Tis is in con ras o

coun ries such as he Uni ed Kingdom, I aly, and Ireland, where ma ernal employ-men ra es are be ween 50 percen and 60 percen . Te ma ernal employmen ra e inhe Uni ed S a es is jus below he OECD average a 62 percen .


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FIGURE 2

Maternal employment rates by age of youngest child, 2011

Note: Countries are ranked in descending order of maternal employment rates with the youngest child between ages 3 and 5. The baseyear used for all country data is 2011, with the exceptions of Chile (2010); Finland, Mexico, New Zealand, Aust ralia, Malta, and Turkey

(2009); Sweden (2007); Switzerland (2006); Japan (2005); Iceland (2002); and Denmark (1999). For the youngest-child cohort, data for Israelrefer to mothers with a youngest child less than 2 years old. For the children ages 35 cohort, data for A ustralia and Iceland refer tomothers with a youngest child less than 5 years old. In that same cohort, data for Israel refer to mothers with a youngest child ages 2 toless than 5. For the children ages 614 cohort, data for Denmark, Iceland, Japan, Sweden, and Switzerland refer to mothers with ayoungest child between ages 6 and 16. Data for Canada refer to mothers with a youngest child between ages 6 and 15. D ata for theUnited States refer to mothers with a youngest child between ages 6 and 17. The da ta for Cyprus relate to the southern part of the island,which is under the effective control of the government of the Republic of Cyprus. OECD data for Israel are s upplied by and under theresponsibility of the relevant Israeli authorities.

Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Family database, available at http:// www.oecd.org/so-cial/soc/oecdfamilydatabase.htm (last accessed July 2014).

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%10% 30% 50% 70% 90%

SloveniaIceland

SwedenCzech Republic

EstoniaPortugal

Denmark Finland

NetherlandsCyprus

United StatesBelgiumCanada

RomaniaFranceMexicoLatvia

AustriaIsrael

PolandBulgaria

OECD averageGermanyLithuaniaSlovakiaHungary

SwitzerlandNew Zealand

United KingdomChileSpain

LuxembourgGreeceIreland

ItalyAustralia

JapanMalta

Turkey

Age of youngest child: Younger than age 3 Between ages 3 and 5 Between ages 6 and 14


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Te reasons or hese variances are discussed in grea er de ail below, bu hey arein large measure a reec ion o policy and ins i u ional decisions ocused on work-

amily policies, including paren al leave, child care, and exible work ini ia ives inhe beter-per orming coun ries.

Te coun ries wi h he smalles gender gap in he World Economic Forums 2013

Global Gender Gap Index are Iceland, Finland, Norway, and Sweden.3

Tese allhave universal and affordable child care and early childhood educa ion programs,as well as progressive paren al leave sys ems wi h use-i -or-lose-i pa erni y andma erni y leave. Tese ypes o policies could mi iga e he mo herhood paypenal y he long- erm wage loss uniquely associa ed wi h mo herhood4 ha women ace in coun ries wi h less comprehensive provisions.5

FIGURE 3

Distribution of hours worked among mothers in couple families,ages 0 to 14 in 2011

Note: Data for Japan and the United States do not distinguish between full-time work and part-time work. The base year used for allcountry data is 2011, with the exceptions of Japan, Mexico, Sweden, and Switzerland (2010).

Source: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD Family database, available at http://www.oecd.org/els/fami-ly/LMF2_2_Usual_working_hours_of_couple_parents_Sep2013.pdf (last accessed July 2014).

Netherlands

Germany

United Kingdom

Austria

Italy

Belgium

Spain

France

Turkey

Greece

Poland

Finland

Czech Republic

Portugal

Hungary

129 hours 3039 hours 4044 hours 45 hours or more


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The role of family-friendly policy

Affordable child care

Affordable child care suppor s paren s, especially women, o en er or re-en erhe work orce and remain employed.6 Compara ive s udies such as he work

o Wil red Uunk, Mathijs Kalmijn, and Ruud Muffels, pro essors a ilburgUniversi y in he Ne herlands, show ha one- hird o he in erna ional dispari y

or he number o hours mo hers work is atribu able o he availabili y o public

child care spo s or children ages 0 o 3.7 O her research has shown ha he avail-abili y o child care is more impor an han o her variables, including educa ionalatainmen . For example, Becky Peti and Jenni er Hook, sociologis s a heUniversi y o Washing on and he Universi y o Sou hern Cali ornia, respec ively,have analyzed he effec o having a child ages 0 o 2 on he probabili y o ma ernalemploymen in differen coun ries,8 nding ha in coun ries wi h grea er childcare provisions, he probabili y o ma ernal employmen is higher. O her exam-ples rom coun ries ha have enac ed re orms o widen access o affordable childcare also have ound a rela ionship wi h increased levels o ma ernal employmen .9

Since he in roduc ion o subsidized child care in 1997, he ma ernal employmenra e in Quebec, Canada, has increased signican ly. Te program ini ially offeredparen s care or 4-year-olds or $5 per day.10 Tis has since been expanded o younger children, as well as o be ore- and afer-school programs or elemen ary-school-age children, and he cos has increased o $7.30 per day.11 Te researchevidence poin s o his policys signican posi ive impac on ma ernal employ-men ra es. For example, a s udy by Pierre Le ebvre and Philip Merrigan o heUniversi du Qubec Mon ral, compares he employmen paterns o mo herso eligible children wi h he paterns among similar mo hers in o her Canadian

provinces where he child care policy is no in effec . Looking across he rsdecade o he Quebec policy, Le ebvre and Merrigan conrm wha o her s udieshave ound: Te more generous child care policy had subs an ial labor supplyeffec s on he mo hers o young children.12


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Te in erna ional evidence sugges s ha as coun ries increase he availabili yand affordabili y o child care, he larges impac is on mo hers on he marginso employmen . For example, in erna ionally, he employmen ra es o highlyeduca ed mo hers are no as variable as he ra e o employmen o mo hers whoare less educa ed. Differences in ma ernal employmen ra es be ween coun ries

largely reec differences in he employmen ra es o mo hers wi h lower levels oeduca ional atainmen and lower skill levels.13 In some coun ries, such as Sweden,less educa ed mo hers are already working in large numbers. Bu in o hers coun-

ries, including he Uni ed Kingdom, hese women are much less likely o par ici-pa e in he labor marke . In he Uni ed Kingdom, he employmen ra e o mo hersrises subs an ially wi h educa ional atainmen . For example, among women whose younges child is be ween he ages o 3 and 4, more han 50 percen omo hers wi h a high school diploma or higher are in he labor orce, compared wi h less han 40 percen o mo hers who did no comple e high school.14

A logical ex ension o his evidence hen sugges s ha expanding he availabili yo high-quali y, affordable child care is a key elemen in promo ing leadershipoppor uni ies or women and or lower-income women in par icular makingi possible or hem o remain in he work orce, ob ain secure jobs, and progress.

Parental leave

Te congura ion o ma erni y, pa erni y, and paren al leave inevi-ably has a signican impac on womens employmen decisions.

Considering he rela ionship be ween paren al leave, ma ernalemploymen ra es, and gender pay gaps in an in erna ional con exmakes he rela ive impor ance o various policy dis inc ions clear.Nordic coun ries such as Denmark which combines generousparen al leave wi h affordable child care programs ha begin assoon as he paren al leave period ends enjoy lower gender paygaps and rela ively high ma ernal employmen ra es.15

Paid paren al leave, gran ed o and used by bo h men and women

in he rs year o a childs li e, can address a number o objec-ives: promo ing atachmen and bonding, rein orcing mo hers

links o he labor marke , enabling a hers o spend more ime wi h heir children, and challenging he gendered assump ionso work and child care. Paid ma erni y leave is also essen ial omi iga ing he mo herhood pay penal y.17

The United States is an outlier with no federpaid leave legislation whatsoever. As the emment rates of women have risen and as concabout their advancement opportunities haveremained, there has come to be a consensusamong progressive governments that the polthat best protect womens long-term econominterests are those that include a period ofdesignated maternity leave designed for optimother-baby health and bonding; a period o

use-it-or-lose-it paternity leave; and, in addiperiod of paid parental leave for parents to das best suits their needs. 16


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Long- erm experience in o her na ions has shown ha ma erni y leave mus s rikea care ul balance. I mus pro ec he heal h and well-being o mo hers and babies while no boxing women in as he exclusive child care provider marking womendown as uniquely responsible or caring or children, as he Fa herhood Ins i u e,a U.K. hink ank ocused on a her-inclusive policy, recen ly pu i .18 Te dura ion

and he amoun o pay provided by leave policies mater grea ly or womens long-erm workplace ou comes. For example, i ma erni y leave is or oo long a period,i ends o lock women ou o work, making i more difficul or hem o re-en er work and advance, while locking a hers ou o caregiving roles.19

Te ype and cons ruc ion o paren al leave policies express a coun rys valuesaround gender roles and caregiving. And hose values have concre e ou comesin erms o womens s a us and advancemen . In erna ional evidence sugges s

ha he mo herhood pay penal y appears o be highes in coun ries where bo hpolicies and cul ural values rein orce he radi ional male breadwinner and emale

homemaker ideals.20 In he Uni ed Kingdom, where here is a period be ween heend o paren al leave and he beginning o an early-years child care en i lemen ,

he ac ha paren s have a period o being en irely unsuppor ed ends o drivedown ma ernal employmen ra es and rein orce gender inequali ies. Gender paygaps are high, and ma ernal employmen ra es are jus below average, compared wi h he res o Europe. In con ras , in Nordic coun ries such as Denmark, whichoffers abou a year o paid paren al leave and where here is no gap be ween

he end o he paren al leave period and an en i lemen o child care, ma ernalemploymen ra es are rela ively high and gender pay gaps are lower.21

Fa hers are mos likely o ake pa erni y leave when wage-replacemen ra es arerela ively high and when hey have an individual en i lemen ha is los i hey ail o

ake advan age i .22 In he Uni ed Kingdom, or example, a 2009 s udy ound ha 34percen o a hers surveyed had been eligible or pa erni y leave wo weeks paid a90 percen o salary, wi h a cap o abou $198 per week bu had no aken i . Temos commonly ci ed reason hese a hers gave or no aking pa erni y leave was

ha hey had no been able o afford o do so. Six y- our percen o hose a hers saidhey would have liked o ake he leave.23 Compare his wi h coun ries where he

so-called daddy quo a a use-i -or-lose-i period o designa ed pa erni y leave is

embedded in policy and made easible in prac ice. Fa hers in Norway, or example,enjoy 10 weeks o pa erni y leave, paid a a generous wage replacemen ra e o abou80 percen o 100 percen , depending on he number o weeks bo h paren s choose

o ake off collec ively. A amilys en ire possible paren al leave paymen s are cappeda approxima ely $76,400 or each child over a maximum o 59 weeks.24


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Since 1993, Norways pa erni y leave has been provided on a use-i -or-lose-i basis,meaning ha a hers canno rans er heir unused leave o mo hers. Te effec o

his dedica ed leave has been drama ic. Be ore he daddy-quo a policys in roduc-ion, only 4 percen o a hers ook some paren al leave;25 by 2009, up o 90 percen

o a hers were doing so.26 Policies such as use-i -or-lose-i pa erni y leave can be

rans orma ional in empowering amilies o make choices ha allow bo h paren so work and care or heir children in wha ever way bes sui s heir personal cir-cums ances. As Idar Kreu zer, head o he Norwegian nance indus ry associa ionFinans Norge, has pu i , a daddy quo a means ha he a her won need o nego i-a e wi h his employer, and he doesn need o nego ia e wi h he mo her ei her.27

Sweden was one o he rs coun ries o in roduce pa erni y leave in 1980, encour-aging a more equi able division o caring responsibili ies. In Sweden, couples arenow en i led o a o al o 480 days o paren al leave. Six y o hose days are s ric lyreserved or mo hers, and 60 are reserved or a hers. O he remaining 360 days,

180 are reserved or each paren , bu one paren can sign a orm permiting heo her paren o rans er some o he leave o his or her par ner. O he o al 480days o leave, 390 days are paid a 80 percen o salary, and since 2008, a genderequali y bonus has served as an incen ive or paren s o share he leave equally.Under he erms o his bonus, bo h paren s are paid an addi ional 50 Swedishkronor approxima ely $7.32 per day or every day o equally used leave. Tiscan add up o an addi ional 13,500 kronor approxima ely $1,976 or each cou-ple.28 In eres ingly, he gender equali y bonus does no appear o have had a greaimpac on gender equali y, par icularly compared wi h Swedens daddy quo a.29

In Iceland, hree mon hs o leave are reserved or he mo her, hree mon hs arereserved or he a her, and hree mon hs are reserved or hem o share. By 2009,96.4 percen o a hers were aking a period o leave 99 days o leave, on aver-age, compared wi h 178 days or mo hers.30 And Iceland is preparing o go even

ur her. Te governmen recen ly passed legisla ion s a ing ha , s ar ing in 2016,amilies will receive ve mon hs o ma erni y leave, ve mon hs o pa erni y leave,

and wo mon hs o paren al leave or paren s o use a heir discre ion.31 Tis will be paid a he rela ively high ra e o 80 percen o annual average wages six mon hs be ore he bir h o a child, up o a ceiling o abou $3,080 per mon h.32


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Flexible work

o varying degrees, policymakers and employers in many na ions have endorseda exible work agenda policies and arrangemen s ha permi employees o vary

heir place o work, hours o work, and dura ion o work. Many European compa-

nies offer ormal and in ormal policies o suppor heir employees, including job-sharing; annualized hours, where he number o hours an employee is con rac edo work is based on a working year ra her han a working week; erm- ime work,

where employees wi h school-age children work during school erms and ake lon-ger breaks during school holidays; compressed hours; and work rom home. As aresul , in 2013, he European Commission es ima ed ha approxima ely 40 perceno European workers had a leas some abili y o choose heir working hours.33

In addi ion, in a number o coun ries across Europe, here is a righ o exible work and/or a righ o reques exible work. Tis ype o legisla ion con ribu es

o normalizing exible work and also provides employees wi h a righ o have i orreques i and is designed in a way ha pro ec s hem rom adverse rea men as aresul o asking o work exibly.

In 2003, he Uni ed Kingdom rs es ablished i s righ o reques exible workor paren s wi h children under age 6 or or hose wi h children under age 18 who

have a disabili y.34 Te policy has been expanded over ime o include care oradul amily members as well, and i was recen ly ur her ex ended o all employ-ees, allowing hem o be able o ask o work exibly or any reason, provided ha

hey have been working or heir employer or a leas 26 weeks.35

Tis righ - o-reques approach o workplace exibili y appears o work qui e well: According o he mos recen available da a, be ween 2009 and 2011, 22 perceno U.K. employees reques ed changes o heir working hours, and 79 percen o

hese employees had heir reques s gran ed.36 As o 2012, nearly all U.K. employ-ers approxima ely 96 percen were offering some orm o exible workarrangemen s o heir employees.37

Policy could play a wider role in encouraging employers o move beyond exis -

ing unders andings o wha exible work can be. One s riking example curren lycomes rom Germany, where he Familienpegezei amily caring ime pro-gram, in roduced in 2012, enables eligible employees o reduce heir working

ime o a minimum o 15 hours per week or up o wo years o care or a depen-den . During his ime, employees are paid a lower wage, hough he reduc ionin income is less han he reduc ion in hours, and impor an ly, hey con inue o


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accrue con ribu ions o heir pensions. When he employee re urns o ull- ime work, he or she con inues o receive reduced earnings o pay back he difference.In prac ice, his means ha i an employee reduces his or her hours rom ull-

ime o hal - ime s a us or wo years, he or she will receive 75 percen o incomeover a our-year period. Tis program is offered o employees hrough individual

con rac s or where here has been a collec ive agreemen nego ia ed be ween heemployer and a recognized rade union. Te scheme provides he exibili y haemployees require while pro ec ing hem agains uc ua ions in income and giv-ing assurance and s abili y o employers.38

Flexible work policies can help women, who dispropor iona ely end o beamily caregivers, main ain employmen while mee ing heir responsibili ies a

home. On heir own, however, hese policies are no a clear condui oward moreemale leadership roles. Because women ake advan age o exible work arrange-

men s more requen ly han men, he policies have unin en ionally perpe ua ed

a less-paid and less-valued so-called mommy rack or women who wish o carveou ime or amily.39 As a consequence, hese policies are ofen underu ilized byhigh-earning women, who perceive ha heir use would diminish heir long- ermcareer prospec s; some high earners even repor pre erring o leave work en irelyra her han accep lower-s a us exible work.40 And low-income women, who haveconsiderably less access o exible work arrangemen s in he rs place, are gener-ally no in a posi ion o be able o sacrice hours and wages.41

For exible work policies o make a meaning ul difference or he leadership pros-pec s o pro essional women, here need o be cul ural changes in our workplacesso ha working exibly is no longer s igma ized. In addi ion, low-income womenneed access o high-quali y and beter-paying par - ime jobs.


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Gender quotas: The case of Norway

Quo as, mos commonly used in poli ics o encourage emale represen a ion,are increasingly being used in Europe as a ool in business and especially in he boardroom. In 2003, Norway became he rs European coun ry o pass bindinglegisla ion imposing gender quo as on corpora e boards. In 2004, publicly owneden erprises were required o se aside 40 percen o heir board sea s or women.In 2006, he requiremen was ex ended o large join s ock companies in he priva e sec or.42 Since hen, Belgium, France, I aly, he Ne herlands, and Spain have

enac ed similar legisla ion.43 Te French law, adop ed in 2011, se a arge o aleas 40 percen emale board represen a ion by 2017 on he boards o all compa-nies ha are ei her publicly lis ed on he French s ock exchange or ha have more

han 500 employees or revenue o more han 50 million euros.44 Te EuropeanCommission and he European Womens Lobby repor ha since he legisla ionpassed, he propor ion o women on boards lis ed on he French CAC 40 Index

he op 40 equi ies in he French s ock exchange doubled rom 12.3 percen inOc ober 2010 o 29.7 percen in Oc ober 2013,45 and hal o he 40 larges compa-nies have me an in erim arge o 20 percen emale board membership.46

Trough i s Women on he Board Pledge or Europe, a volun ary pledge hapublicly commi s companies o reach a arge o 30 percen emale board membership by 2015 and 40 percen by 2020, he European Union also is rying

o increase he represen a ion o women on boards in i s member coun ries.47 Coun ries such as Aus ria, Finland, Germany, and he Uni ed Kingdom haveadop ed heir own similar volun ary measures.48 In he case o Aus ria, sel -reg-ula ion may be an in erim s ep on he way o legisla ion i a arge o 35 percen women on boards or s a e-owned companies is no reached by 2018.49 In heUni ed Kingdom, companies in he F SE 100 Bri ains blue-chip rms

have been encouraged o increase heir emale board membership o a leas 25percen by 2015.50 Tis goal is unlikely o be achieved given ha he mos recenda a show ha progress has s alled and ha women curren ly accoun or jus 17percen o board members.51


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Norway, as he rs coun ry o adop such legisla ion, provides insigh in o hepo en ial and limi a ions o quo as or womens advancemen . Wi h a progressive

amily policy agenda ha includes universal and affordable child care and gener-ous paren al leave policies, Norways ma ernal employmen ra e, a more han 80percen , is ac ually higher han i s emale employmen ra e.52 Norway also has a

decades-long, well-accep ed his ory o using governmen in erven ion generally oadvance he cause o gender equi y. Norways chie poli ical par ies all have quo asguaran eeing a leas 40 percen represen a ion or emale candida es on elec orallis s, wi h he oldes o hese measures da ing back o 1975.53 In 1979, he GenderEquali y Ac codied he du y o public au hori ies o make ac ive equali yeffor s and specied how hey would do so.54

None heless, in he decades leading up o he passage o i s quo a law in 2006, women in Norway were no progressing o leadership roles, especially in business.In 2002, be ore he quo a law was passed, 6 percen o corpora e board members

were women.55 Over he nex hree years, as companies were lef o augmenemale represen a ion by volun ary measures alone, he number o women on

boards increased o jus 16 percen .56 I was only wi h he hrea o sanc ions inhe case o companies being dissolved ha he 40 percen arge was achieved in

2008.57 I was clear ha wi hou legisla ion, i would ake 100 years un il women were represen ed on boards like men, said a Norwegian business leader in er- viewed in November 2013 or his repor .

In he decade since implemen a ion o Norways board quo a law began, enoughevidence has accumula ed o allow us o begin o draw conclusions abou heexperience. Te la es da a available rom S a is ics Norway, an independen en i y wi h overall responsibili y or producing official s a is ics in Norway, show ha ,in 2014, 40.7 percen o board members were women in public limi ed com-panies.58 Binding legisla ion combined wi h sanc ions or noncompliance have been essen ial ingredien s o he measures success. Women in posi ions o powernow occupy a much more visible place in Norwegian socie y.59 By requiring hepresence o women, Norways quo a law made companies consider a wider poolo candida es or recrui men o board pos s, aking recrui ers beyond he usualne works o mos ly male CEOs and o her radi ional indus ry leaders. As a resul ,

he no ion ha here were ew women in Norway ready and able o serve on boards was quickly dispelled. As a senior male business leader who serves on mul iple boards pu i in an in erview or his repor , Te quo a law has made us look ino her places [ or new board members]. Te hypo hesis ha here were very ew

By requiring the presencwomen, Norways quotamade companies considwider pool of candidatesrecruitment to board postaking recruiters beyondusual networks of mostlyCEOs and other traditionindustry leaders. As a rethe notion that there werwomen in Norway ready

able to serve on boards wquickly dispelled.


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capable women was debunked. Indeed, Marianne Ber rand, an economis a heUniversi y o Chicago Boo h School o Business who has inves iga ed he effec so Norways board re orm, ound ha afer he quo a law wen in o effec , emale board members had sligh ly more educa ion han heir male coun erpar s, bus ing

he my h ha gender quo as would lead o less-qualied women on boards.60

In a series o in erviews wi h Norwegian business leaders, male and emale boardmembers, senior civil servan s, researchers, and represen a ives o pro essionalassocia ions all o whom have exper ise in he quo a policys developmen andimplemen a ion he au hors were old ha Norways quo a law had improved board governance by crea ing a more ransparen recrui men process and enhanc-ing recrui ers ocus on he compe ency and skills o po en ial new board members.Tis largely anecdo al evidence, ga hered in November 2013, has been backed bymore sys ema ic research by Mor en Huse, a pro essor o organiza ion and manage-men a he BI Norwegian Business School, who oge her wi h Pro essor Sabina

Nielsen o he Copenhagen Business School ound ha objec ive seting and heinner workings o boards changed as a resul o more diverse board composi ion.61

A 2009 survey by he Norwegian Ins i u e or Social Research a he Universi yo Oslo ound ha he presence o new women on boards had increased direc orindependence: 11 percen o emale direc ors had major ownership in eres s in

heir companies, compared wi h 35 percen o male direc ors.62 A number o in erviewees or his repor said hey hough his ype o independence was an asse .

Fur hermore, Huse has ound ha decision making is enriched by he injec iono differen values and perspec ives on boards; his has been more no iceable on boards wi h a leas hree women.63 Some in erviewees or his repor , as well aso her commen a ors in Norway, have ques ioned whe her Norwegian boardsnow are ruly more diverse or have simply widened an old boys ne work o admia new eli e. When i comes o economic per ormance, i is probably oo early oassess he impac , hough academic s udies have sugges ed mixed resul s.64

Te Norwegian experience is inuencing and shaping he wider deba e on quo asacross Europe.65 Bu perhaps he mos signican unanswered ques ion is whe her

quo as have led o progress in gender equali y overall and, in par icular, whe herhey have had a ripple effec in helping women ob ain o her senior managemen

posi ions. According o he global managemen and consul ing rm McKinsey &Company, women made up only 14 percen o he members o execu ive com-mitees in Norway in 2013 he same percen age as in he Uni ed S a es, where


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no quo as are in place.66 Dis urbingly, in he years afer he in roduc ion o hequo a requiremen , which gave public companies he op ion o change heir s a us

o priva e companies i hey did no wan o comply wi h he law, hundreds ocompanies wen priva e, wi h companies wi h ewer women board members moslikely o make he swi ch.67 In 2014, womens represen a ion on he boards o

priva ely held companies in Norway was jus 17.9 percen .68

Ber rand has inves iga ed he effec s o Norways board re orm and has oundha he gender wage gap or women in op posi ions, including hose o her han

board members, did no shrink afer he quo a law ook effec , hough he earningsgap shrank some or women who sa on boards and were hus direc ly affec ed by he law. In ac , according o Ber rands research, women whose qualica ions were he same as hose o he new board members bu who were no appoin ed o boards did no see any change in heir pro essional s a us.69 And a bo h publicly

raded and priva ely held companies, he upper echelons o corpora e manage-

men con inue o be overwhelmingly male.70

I remains o be seen whe her, in he long erm, he increased presence o womenon boards will have a rickle-down effec on he or unes o women in priva ecorpora ions overall.


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Conclusion

Tere is no single answer o he ques ion o how bes o suppor womens asceno leadership posi ions in he Uni ed S a es and abroad. Differen women have

differen oppor uni ies and cons rain s. Te direc approach o quo as, curren ly being used in many European coun ries, works o increase he visibili y andrepresen a ion o women on corpora e boards. Bu ocusing oo heavily on herepresen a ion o women a he op can dis rac rom he need or wider prog-ress or he vas majori y o working women. Job advancemen and economic

securi y is impor an o nearly all women oday, and he challenges acing mos working women seeking o advance in heir careers are no he same as heobs acles acing women close o he very op.

Public policy has an impor an role in helping women en er work, remain in he work orce, and progress o decision-making roles wi hin organiza ions. Europeand o her na ions in he in erna ional communi y offer a varie y o lessons on heimpor ance o affordable child care on womens employmen and advancemenoppor uni ies. Coun ries ha have affordable and high-quali y child care sys ems

end o have higher ma ernal labor- orce par icipa ion. Likewise, paid paren alleave, wi h genuine choices or bo h paren s, can be a re en ion ool ha reduces

he impac o he so-called mo herhood pay penal y and also aids womens long-erm prospec s by offering mo hers and a hers he exibili y o work and o care.

Flexible work also can bene bo h women and men, par icularly hose wi h car-ing responsibili ies, i he cul ure o a workplace suppor s i .

On heir own, quo as have limi ed effec iveness when i comes o challenginginequali y. Moreover, he goal o quo as, a leas hus ar, has been narrow: o sup-por corpora e leadership. Tis will cer ainly offer direc gains o some women,

bu i will no undamen ally change he reali y o mos womens lives. Only whenquo as are combined wi h amily- riendly legisla ion and sanc ions or noncompli-ance will hey be likely o achieve he more broadly shared goal o gender equali yand equal oppor uni y or all.


22/26


About the authors

Dalia Ben-Galim is an associa e direc or a he Ins i u e or Public Policy Research,or IPPR, he Uni ed Kingdoms leading progressive hink ank. Be ore join-ing IPPR in 2008, she augh social policy a he Universi y o Ox ord and held

research pos s a he London School o Economics and Poli ical Science.Amna Silim is a ormer research ellow a IPPR.

Acknowledgments

Te au hors would like o hank Judi h Warner a he Cen er or AmericanProgress or her suppor , advice, and guidance. We would also like o hank EmilyBax er a CAP or her research assis ance.

Finally, hanks go o he business leaders, board members, senior civil servan s,researchers, and represen a ives o pro essional associa ions whom we in erviewedas par o he research on quo as in Norway.


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Endnotes

1 Judith Warner, Fact Sheet: The Womens LeadershipGap (Washington: Center for American Progress, 2014),available athttp://www.americanprogress.org/issues/women/report/2014/03/07/85457/fact-sheet-the-womens-leadership-gap/.

2 Spencer Thompson and Dalia Ben-Galim, Childmindthe Gap: Reforming Childcare to Support Mothers IntoWork (London: Institute for Public Policy Research,2014), available at http://www.ippr.org/publications/childmind-the-gap-reforming-childcare-to-support-mothers-into-work.

3 World Economic Forum, The Global Gender Gap Re-port 2013 (2013), available athttp://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GenderGap_Report_2013.pdf .

4 Tess Lanning and others, Great Expectations: Exploringthe Promises of Gender Equality (London: Institute forPublic Policy Research, 2013), available athttp://www.ippr.org/publications/great-expectations-exploring-the-promises-of-gender-equality.

5 Ibid.

6 Thompson and Ben-Galim, Childmind the Gap.

7 Wilfred Uunk, Matthijs Kalmijn, and Ruud Muffels, TheImpact of Young Children on Womens Labour Supply:A Reassessment of Institutional Effects in Europe, ActaSociologica 48 (1) (2005): 4162.

8 Becky Pettit and Jennifer Hook, The Structure ofWomens Employment in Comparative Perspective,Social Forces 84 (2) (2005): 779801.

9 Tarja K. Viitanen, Cost of Childcare and Female Employ-ment in the UK,Labour 19 (S1) (2005): 149170.

10 Pierre Lefebvre and Philip Merrigan, Child-Care Policyand the Labor Supply of Mothers with Young Children:A Natural Experiment from Canada, Journal of LaborEconomics 26 (3) (2008): 519548, available athttp://www.er.uqam.ca/nobel/r22204/Lef_Mer_JOLE_2008.pdf .

11 CBC News, Quebecs $7-a-day daycares could move tosliding-scale system, September 11, 2014, available athttp://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-s-7-a-day-daycares-could-move-to-sliding-scale-system-1.2763074.

12 Lefebvre and Merrigan, Child-Care Policy and theLabor Supply of Mothers with Young Children. Seealso Pierre Lefebvre, Philip Merrigan, and FrancisRoy-Desrosiers, Quebecs Childcare Universal Low FeesPolicy 10 Years After: Effects, Costs and Benets. Work-ing Paper 1101 (Centre Interuniversitaire sur le Risque,les Politiques conomiques et lEmploi, 2011), availableat http://www.cirpee.org/leadmin/documents/Ca-hiers_2011/CIRPEE11-01.pdf .

13 Daniela Del Boca, Silvia Pasqua, and Chiara Pronzato,Motherhood and Market Work Decisions in Institution-

al Context: A European Perspective,Oxford EconomicPapers 61 (supplement 1) (2009): i147i171.

14 Thompson and Ben-Galim, Childmind the Gap.

15 Dalia Ben-Galim, No More Baby Steps: A Strategy forRevolutionising Childcare (London: Institute for PublicPolicy Research, 2014), available http://www.ippr.org/publications/no-more-baby-steps-a-strategy-for-revolutionising-childcare.

16 Ibid.

17 Lanning and others, Great Expectations.

18 Fatherhood Institute, Parenting leave: which archi-tecture works best for children?, October 29, 2013,available athttp://www.fatherhoodinstitute.org/2013/parenting-leave-which-architecture-works-best-for-children/.

19 Ben-Galim, No More Baby Steps.

20 Ibid.

21 Lotte Bloksgaard and Tine Rostgaard, Denmark. In PeterMoss, ed.,10th International Review of Leave Policies andRelated Research 2014 (London: International Networkon Leave Policies and Research, 2014), available athttp://www.leavenetwork.org/leadmin/Leavenetwork/An-nual_reviews/2014_annual_review_korr.pdf .

22 Overview: cross-country comparisons. In Moss, ed.,10th International Review of Leave Policies and RelatedResearch 2014 .

23 Gavin Ellison, Andy Barker, and Tia Kulasuriya, Workand Care: A Study of Modern Parents (Manchester,England: Equality and Human Rights Commission,2009), available at http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/sites/default/les/documents/research/15._work_and_care_modern_parents_15_report.pdf.

24 There is no cap on the different components ofparental leave, but there is an overall cap for parentalleave that is six times the basic national insurancerate of 492,732 kronor, or approximately $76,400. Formore, see Berit Brandth and Elin Kvande, Norway. InMoss, ed.,10th International Review of Leave Policies

and Related Research 2014 ; Norwegian Welfare andLabour Adminis tration, Parental benet, availableat https://www.nav.no/Parental+benet.353588.cms (last accessed October 2014).

25 Berit Brandth and Elin Kvande, Norway. In PeterMoss, ed.,International Review of Leave Policies andResearch 2013 (London: International Network on LeavePolicies and Research, 2013), available athttp://www.leavenetwork.org/leadmin/Leavenetwork/Annual_re-views/2013_complete.6june.pdf .

26 Ibid.

27 Elizabeth Lindsay, Fathers leave still a burning issue,Norways News In English, September 20, 2013, availableat http://www.newsinenglish.no/2013/09/20/fathers-leave-still-a-burning-issue/.

28 Ann-Zoe Duvander and Linda Haas, Sweden. In Moss,ed., International Review of Leave Policies and Research2013.
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24/26


29 Ibid.

30 Gun Bjrk Eydal and Inglfur V. Gslason, Iceland.In Moss, ed.,International Review of Leave Policies andResearch 2013 .

31 Gun Bjrk Eydal and Inglfur V. Gslason, Iceland2012 - Revised law on paid parental leave (Reykjavik,Iceland: University of Iceland), available at http://thjod-malastofnun.hi.is/sites/thjodmalastofnun.hi.is/les/skrar/eydal_and___gislason-_paid_parental_leave_in_iceland-_2012_dvelopmen__ts-1.pdf .

32 Authors calculation based on ibid.

33 Kristina Dervojeda and others, Workplace Innovation:Solutions for Enhancing Workplace Productivity (Sint-Gillis, Belgium: European Commission, 2013), availableat http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/policies/innovation/policy/business-innovation-observatory/les/case-studies/10-wpi-solutions-for-enhancing-workplace-productivity_en.pdf .

34 Sarah Tipping and others, The Fourth Work-Life Bal-ance Employee Survey (London: Department for Busi-ness, Innovation and Skills, 2012), available athttps://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/le/32153/12-p151-fourth-work-life-balance-employee-survey.pdf .

35 Ibid.

36 Ibid.

37 Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development,Flexible working provision and uptake (2012), avail-able at https://www.cipd.co.uk/binaries/5790%20Flex-ible%20Working%20SR%20%28WEB2%29.pdf .

38 Sonja Blum and Daniel Erler, Germany (London:International Network on Leave Policies and Research,2012), available at http://www.leavenetwork.org/l-eadmin/Leavenetwork/Country_notes/2012/Germany.FINAL.9may.pdf .

39 Meg Lundstrom, The New Mommy Track: Chief Execu-tive, Cook, and Bottle Washer,Bloomberg Businessweek ,December 2, 1999, available at http://www.business-week.com/smallbiz/9912/f991202.htm.

40 Judith Warner, The Opt-Out Generation Wants BackIn,The New York Times Magazine, August 7, 2013,available athttp://www.nytimes.com/2013/08/11/magazine/the-opt-out-generation-wants-back-in.html?pagewanted=all.

41 Susan J. Lambert and Elaine Waxman, OrganizationalStratication: Distributing Opportunities for BalancingWork and Personal Life. In Ellen E. Kossek and Susan J.Lambert, eds.,Work and Life Integration: Organizational,Cultural, and Individual Perspectives (Mahwah, NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2005).

42 Mari Teigen, Norwegian Quota Policies (Oslo,Norway: Institute for Social Research, 2008), availableat http://www.socialresearch.no/Publications/Pa-pers/2008/2008-012.

43 European Womens Lobby, Women on Boards in

Europe: From a Snails Pace to a Giant Leap? (2012),available athttp://www.womenlobby.org/publications/reports/article/women-on-boards-in-europe-from-a?lang=fr.

44 Ibid.

45 European Commission, Report on Progress on equalitybetween women and men in 2013 (2014), availableat http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/les/swd_2014_142_en.pdf.

46 European Womens Lobby, Women on Boards inEurope.

47 European Union, EU Justice Commissioner Redingchallenges business leaders to increase womens pres-ence on corporate boards with Women on the BoardPledge for Europe, Press release, March 1, 2011, avail-able at http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_MEMO-11-124_en.htm.

48 European Womens Lobby, Women on Boards inEurope.

49 Ibid.

50 Lord Davies of Abersoch and others, Women onboards: April 2013 (2013), available at https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/at-tachment_data/le/182602/bis-13-p135-women-on-boards-2013.pdf .

51 Ibid.

52 Sigbjrn Johnsen, Women in Work: the NorwegianExperience,OECD Observer , available at http://oecdob-server.org/news/fullstory.php/aid/3898/Women_in_work:_The_Norwegian_experience.html (last accessedJuly 2014).

53 Quota Project, Norway, available athttp://www.quo-taproject.org/uid/countryview.cfm?CountryCode=NO(last accessed July 2014).

54 Government.No, The Act relating to Gender Equal-ity, available athttp://www.regjeringen.no/en/doc/Laws/Acts/The-Act-relating-to-Gender-Equality-the-.html?id=454568 (last accessed July 2014).

55 Teigen, Norwegian Quota Policies.

56 Ibid.

57 Ibid.

58 Statistics Norway, Board and management in limited

companies, 1 January 2014, available athttp://www.ssb.no/en/virksomheter-foretak-og-regnskap/statistik-ker/styre (last accessed October 2014).

59 Harald Dale-Olsen, Pl Schne, and Mette Verner,Diversity among Norwegian Boards of Directors:Does a Quota for Women Improve Firm Performance?,Feminist Economics 19 (4) (2013): 110135.

60 Marianne Bertrand and others, Breaking the GlassCeiling? The Effect of Board Quotas on Female LaborMarket Outcomes in Norway (Bonn, Germany: Institutefor the Study of Labor, 2014), available athttp://ftp.iza.org/dp8266.pdf .

61 Morten Huse, Lessons from Norway, Catalyst Blog,June 8, 2010, available at http://www.catalyst.org/blog/catalyzing/lessons-norway.

62 Claire Braund, Looking at the big picture on genderdiversity, Women on Boards, available athttp://www.womenonboards.org.au/pubs/articles/norway_bigpic-ture.htm (last accessed October 2014).

63 Huse, Lessons from Norway.
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64 Alison Smale, Progress, but Still a Long Way to Go, forWomen in Norway, The New York Times, June 4, 2013,available at http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/05/world/europe/progress-for-women-in-norway-but-a-long-way-to-go.html?_r=0. See, for example,Dale-Olsen, Schne, and Verner, Diversity among Nor-wegian Boards of Directors; David A. Matsa and AmaliaR. Miller, A Female Style in Corporate Leadership?Evidence from Quotas, American Economic Journal: Ap- plied Economics 5 (3) (2013): 136169; Kenneth R. Ahernand Amy K. Dittmar, The Changing of the Boards: TheImpact on Firm Valuation of Mandated Female BoardRepresentation,The Quarterly Journal of Economics 127(1) (2012): 137197.

65 Dale-Olsen, Schne, and Verner, Diversity amongNorwegian Boards of Directors.

66 Sandrine Devillard and others, Women Matter2013Gender diversity in top management: Movingcorporate culture, moving boundaries (Paris: McKinsey& Company, 2013), available at http://www.mckinsey.com/features/women_matter.

67 Bertrand and others, Breaking the Glass Ceiling?

68 Statistics Norway, Board and management in limitedcompanies, 1 January, 2014.

69 Bertrand and others, Breaking the Glass Ceiling?

70 Statistics Norway, Board and management in limitedcompanies, 1 January, 2014; John D. Stoll, NorwaysExemplary Gender Quota? Just Dont Ask About CEOs,MoneyBeat, May 22, 2014, available at http://blogs.wsj.com/moneybeat/2014/05/22/norways-exemplary-gender-quota-just-dont-ask-about-ceos/.
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Can Public Policy Break the Glass Ceiling? Lessons from Abroad