Budke_Andrew - FINAL Thesis Book 5.08.12

ANDREW BUDKE

SOUNDSCAPEARCHITECTURE FOR OUR AURAL SENSE

SOUNDSCAPE:ARCHITECTURE FOR OUR AURAL SENSE

A Design Thesis Submitted to the Department of Architecture and Landscape Architecture

of North Dakota State University

by

Andrew Budke

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Architecture

___________________________________________________ Primary Thesis Advisor Date

___________________________________________________ Thesis Committee Chair Date

May 2012Fargo, North Dakota

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CONTENTS

table of contents

PROGRAM DOCUMENT

Research Results

Typological Research

Case Study Summary

Historical Context

Thesis Goals

Site Analysis

Climate Information

Programmatic Requirements

DESIGN DOCUMENTATION

Process Material

Final Design

APPENDIX

Reference List

Personal Identification

Contents

Abstract

Problem Statement

STATEMENT OF INTENT

Theoretical Premise/Unifying Idea

PROPOSAL

Narrative

User/Client Description

Major Project Elements

Site Information

Project Emphasis

Plan for Proceeding

Previous Studio Experience

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vi | soundscape: architecture for our aural sense

This thesis will examine the role of sound in the architectural experience by asking how architecture can improve the standing of sound in the designed environment. Possible solutions are subsequently explored through the design of a 75,000 sq. ft. acoustical research laboratory in Rochester, Minnesota. The projects theoretical premise/unifying idea is: As an interaction with the built environment, the anticipated perception of sound can be used to guide and inform the process of architectural design. The projects justification is: Sound is a powerful shaper of space.

Title:Soundscape: Architecture for Our Aural Sense

Keywords: Sound, perception, sensory, acoustical research laboratory

ABSTRACT

| 1 problem statement

How can architecture improve the standing of sound in the designed environment?

PROBLEM

STATEMENT

STATEMENT OF INTENT

4 | soundscape: architecture for our aural sense

TYPOLOGY:Acoustical Research Laboratory

CLAIM:Sound is a critical part of ones perception of a place. As such, architectural experience can be enriched if sound is carefully considered by the designer.

PREMISES:Architects have historically gone to great lengths to create interesting spaces that appeal to the sensessight, smell, sound, touch, and tasteon a very basic level. The sculpting of light, for instance, takes visual inputs into consideration. The frequent focus on material texture anticipates touch. Even smell can become an important design element as it is an inherent quality of materials.

The perception of a place is only possible through the senses. Even the concepts of perception and sensory are practically inseparable; we could not imagine one without the other.

Like any experience, architectural experience presumes the sensation and translation of signals. Architecture, therefore, could be said to broadcast these signals which, in turn, are translated in such a way as to give it (the inhabited space) identity or make it unique.

The very best architecture is amusing to the senses. Even ancient architects recognized the value of delight an idea that assumes sensory perception and its translation. Architecture is enhanced when the designer anticipates that interaction in hopes of creating a more memorable, engaging experience.

THEORETICAL

PREMISE/UNIFYING IDEA

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THEORETICAL PREMISE/UNIFYING IDEA:As an interaction with the built environment, the anticipated perception of sound can be used to guide and inform the process of architectural design.

JUSTIFICATION:Its true that some spaces are designed with sound very much in mind. Acoustics could never be ignored when designing a concert hall or lecture room, for instance. Its noteworthy, however, that the acoustics in these examples must serve another purpose that is, to enhance the sound of an orchestra or intelligibility of a lecturer. This is nothing less than a serious injustice as sound is a powerful shaper of space in its own right.

PROPOSAL


NARRATIVE

I was not always keen to the thought of addressing sound and architecture in a design thesis. At times, I was expressly opposed to the idea, a sentiment that grew from my educational background. During my time at the university, I have been a student of both architecture and music. I therefore wanted to avoid the obvious choice to design any sort of music related building. Thats remained true to a point, but I cant deny that the same background which caused me to shy from the topic has also made it the most interesting.

In March of 2009, composer Frank Ticheli came to Fargo as part of school-sponsored residency. In addition to coaching future conductors as well as students performing his music, he delivered a number of lectures. During one such lecture, he revealed that as a young man he had to choose between pursuing a career in music or architecture. Ultimately, he chose music, of course, and the world is a better place for it, but I will wager he would have made a fine architect had the chips fallen differently.

Ticheli spoke deftly about the architects role as designer and its parallels to musical composition. He even specifically referenced an entry in Matthew Fredericks (2007) 101 Things I Learned in Architecture School regarding denial and reward (p. 11). He believed

this to be a worthy tool as much in musical composition as in architecture (Ticheli, 2009). What I took from his lecture was a realization that fields such as architecture and music (and sound, by extension) may not be so disparate at all.

I later studied the influence of Beethoven on Frank Lloyd Wright as part of a seminar taught by Darryl Booker at NDSU. This, too, provided an interesting perspective on the relatedness of architecture and music. I concluded that Beethovens influence could not, strictly speaking, be seen in Wrights work. However, Wright most certainly had profound admiration for a number of composers, believing them to be kindred spirits of sorts. That research gave further credence to Tichelis view that architecture and music share a certain quality of design.

I was content with that finding although I felt it lacked a real, concrete value. That changed after a study tour to Japan in 2010. One of the destinations designed by Tadao Ando was Kyotos Garden of Fine Arts, an outdoor art gallery featuring ceramic reproductions of famous paintings. The space was truly remarkable; the gallery was set into the ground and featured cascading water around its perimeter. The experience was aptly described in a blog written by a visiting

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Peruvian architect: The soundscape accompanies the route and has different intensity according to the position of the viewer. Thus, a soft murmur of water invites contemplation of The Last Supper by Leonardo, while a stronger sound surrounds The Doomsday (Zeballos, 2010).

This project and another by Ando (Omotesando Hills, which featured a small stream outside and a large directional speaker inside) offered a new, different perspective on the relatedness of sound and architecture. There, sound was used thoughtfully as a major design element. This insight led me to more closely examine two other particular encounters with sound.

The earlier instance was an acoustical quirk found in the round, stone clad space beneath the rotunda of the Manitoba Legislative Building in Winnipeg. Anyone who speaks while standing in the exact center of this space is sure to notice the sound of their voice reflected by the surrounding walls and returning to the center of the circle at the same instant. It sounds as if the speaker has been surrounded by their own voice, as if their head were inside a huge plastic bubble.

The second, more enduring instance occurred during a choral concert hosted by Fargos First Presbyterian Church, a Gothic Revival with a spacious stone sanctuary. I had arrived just before the choir was to begin and quietly took a seat against the back wall of the churchs balcony. As the performance began, I was suddenly enveloped by the most remarkably beautiful sound Ive ever heard; I was completely transfixed. I felt as if every part of me was being surrounded, cradled, and uplifted. As gorgeous as it was, it was apparent to me even then that the effect was due less to the performers and more to the spaces flattering treatment of their voices.

These two examples were very different from Andos designs in that they appeared to be accidental rather than intentional. The unique space beneath the Legislative Building resulted from the regular geometries of its Neo-Classical design; the churchs vocal enhancement resulted from an ancient tradition of worship spaces being built of stone.

Regardless, all of these recollections demonstrate that sound is a spirited, if often overlooked, part of the human experience. As an architect, it is obvious that sound should no longer be relegated to a topic of discourse or anecdote; sound is a very real and important aspect of architecture worthy of careful design.


USER/CLIENT DESCRIPTION

OWNER:The Acoustical Research Laboratory will be an independently owned and operated facility in Rochester, Minnesota. The charge of the facility will be the study of spatial perception and emerging biomedical technologies with regard to acoustics. Research will be conducted by the laboratorys faculty of research fellows and graduate students from the nearby University of Minnesota Rochester and the Mayo Graduate School.

RESEARCHERS:Researchers and staff at the laboratory will fall into two classes: those who deal with patients for the purpose of medical treatment and those who deal more generally with the phenomenon of auditory spatial perception. All of the research fellows and most of the staff will regularly interact with patients/subjects to either of these ends. It is expected that researchers and staff will use the facility mostly during standard business hours.

SUBJECTS: Those patients who come to the laboratory for experimental treatment are likely to experience severe hearing loss but could otherwise come from any demographic group. The subjects may come from distant parts of the country for various amounts of time and may or may not be referred through the Mayo Clinics patient network. Fortunately, Rochesters long background in renowned medical treatments has created a large market for visitor lodgings. Subjects, too, will use the facility during standard business hours.

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MAJOR ELEMENTS

MAJOR PROGRAM ELEMENTS:Laboratories A series of spaces suited to the study of psychoacoustics through advanced imaging and psychophysics.

Library A repository for academic literature.

Researcher offices Work space for permanent and visiting researchers.

Administration Work space for support staff.

Support A highly flexible space able to accommodate the design and manufacture of prototypical equipment.


SITE

REGION:The city of Rochester, Minnesota is located in Olmsted County southeast of the Minneapolis/St. Paul metropolitan area. This part of the state, along with adjacent areas in Wisconsin, Iowa, and Illinois, is part of a region known as the Driftless Area. This region is noted for having unusually rugged terrain because it avoided glaciation. During the most recent ice age, parts of the Wisconsonian glacier extended as far south as Des Moines but stopped some twenty miles west of present-day Olmsted County. The Illinoian glacier, present 300 to 130 thousand years ago, also failed to penetrate Olmsted, halting about 25 miles to the northwest (Balaban, 1988, p. 3).

Free of glaciers, the rivers and streams of the Driftless Area, including Rochesters Zumbro, have been free to shape the land for thousands of years. Olmsted county, for instance, has been characterized by geologists as having an intricate pattern of drainageways (US Department of Agriculture, 1980, p. 1). However, much of Rochester itself sits in a lowland plain composed of alluvial soils.

Rochester has been the county seat of Olmsted since it was first established in 1855. The early economy of the region was based on the production of grains. Livestock and dairy production became more common around the turn of the century. Rochester grew quickly during this time; it grew so quickly, in fact, that Olmsteds urban population outnumbered its rural by the 1870s. Agriculture Minnesota Counties, City of Rochester data: Minnesota DNR

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Olmsted County Hydrology data: Minnesota DNR

Olmsted County. Municipalities, Transportation data: Minnesota DNR

continues to be a major industry although much of the regions modern economy is tied to the health and technology fields (US Department of Agriculture, 1980, p. 2). The county also produces a great deal of construction aggregate, made possible by the regions unique geology.

CITY:Downtown Rochester is located on the Zumbro River about 80 miles from Minneapolis/St. Paul. The communities of La Crosse, Wisconsin and Albert Lea, Minnesota are located at similar distances to the east and west respectively. According to the US Census Bureau (2011), Rochesters population stands at 106,769, making it Minnesotas largest city outside of the Minneapolis/St. Paul metro.

Rochester is often associated with the Mayo Clinic, a highly-respected and world-renowned medical facility. The clinics namesake was Dr. William Worrall Mayo, who arrived in Rochester in 1863 as an examining surgeon for the Union draft board. His two sons, William and Charles, were born in Rochester and followed their father into medicine. The three men were the first physicians to practice at St. Marys Hospital, which was established by the Sisters of St. Franics in 1889. The need for such a facility was realized when the nuns were pressed into service as nurses after a deadly tornado destroyed much of Rochester in 1883 (County of Olmsted, Minnesota, 2011).

St. Marys hospital, located just a half-mile from downtown Rochester, remains an important facility for the Mayo Clinic. The clinic also


Rochester, focus region and site

operates a number of newer, even larger facilities within downtown itself. This downtown campus is connected by a series of pedestrian subways that allow employees and patients to move between buildings easily in any season. These subways are also accessible from skyways that connect numerous non-medical buildings, creating a sizeable pedestrian network throughout downtown.

Today, the Mayo Clinic employs around 32,000 people, roughly equivalent to one-third of Rochesters population (Hansel, 2010). Rochesters second largest employer is IBM, which operates a major manufacturing and research facility on the citys north side. The exact number of people employed at this site has been hard to gauge since the company stopped disclosing those numbers after recent downsizing. The latest figure was 4,200 at the end of 2008, although the current number is surely lower (Kiger, 2008).

Rochesters downtown district is demarcated by a series of large parking lots and ramps near the Mayo Clinic. While unfortunate, the space is needed to accomodate the huge influx of employees and patients who travel to use the facility during the day. Interestingly, the Rochester Downtown Alliance has published a set of design guidelines calling for the establishment of an urban village around First Avenue near the clinic. The guidelines, which read somewhat like a New Urbanist manifesto, were informed by research that found 37% of the study area (several blocks south and west of this projects focus region) was used for surface parking (RDA Development Committee & RDA Board, 2009, p. 13). City of Rochester including focus region data: Minnesota DNR

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Project Focus RegionRDA Vision Plan: Urban Village Study Area Mayo Clinic (approximate extent)

St. Marys Hospital (Mayo Clinic)

photo: City of Rochester, (RDA Development Committee & RDA Board, 2009, p. 44)


SITE:The site for the Acoustical Research Laboratory is just outside Rochesters civic district at the confluence of the Zumbro River and Bear Creek. The site is just east of downtown and is bounded by Fourth Street to the south, Third Avenue to the west, and waterfronts to the north and east. Nearly all the block is used as a parking lot although there are several small buildings as well. One of the buildings is a garage which houses county vehicles; the other is an office building known as Ironwood Square. The center of the block features a wellhouse and water cistern used by the city.

A very large civic complex sits on the adjacent block to the west. This building houses Rochesters city hall, Olmsted County government, an adult detention center, and a law enforcement center. Directly across the river are Mayo Park, the Rochester Art Center, and the Mayo Civic Center. These locations, as well as the adjacent public library, can be accessed from the site with relative ease via the Third Avenue bridge.

The parking lot is used by government employees during the week, but some spaces remain available for visitor day parking. The lot is used for Civic Center event parking during the evenings and hosts 93 vendors from the Rochester Downtown Farmers Market every Saturday in May through October.

LINKS:The area near the waterfront is used extensively for recreation. In addition to Mayo Park to the north, the bank east of the site is used as a park and playground. The Zumbro River and Bear Creek are flanked on both sides by bike/recreational trails, which link with other trails to form a network throughout the community.

Other access to the site is by automobile from Third Avenue or Fourth Street. There are five city bus routes which pass near the site. Four of them follow Third Avenue southbound, but one, the number three, follows Fourth Street to the east. All bus routes return regularly to a downtown hub. There is no direct skyway or subway access to the site. However, the nearby government center is connected to the network via an enclosed pedestrian bridge across the Zumbro.

The Mayo Clinic is located approximately five blocks west of the site, although it uses a number of buildings throughout the city. The University of Minnesota Rochester (UMR) occupies a series of downtown buildings about three blocks to the west.

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photo: City of Rochester

OlmstedCountyGarage

Fourth Street

Third Avenue

Zumbro RiverBear Creek

Ironwood SquareOffice Building

Wellhouse

Cistern


Why this site?When determining a typology and site with which to address the problem statement, it was with some reluctance that I settled upon an acousical research laboratory. After all, I have argued that sound is an important part of perception worth celebrating; the project could focus on any building type anywhere in the world. Eventually, however, I determined that the more fruitful approach would be guided by the phrase a celebration of sound. With this in mind, the laboratory typology is logical because sound can be celebrated through researcha quest to understand this perceptual phenomenon at a fundemental level.

Rochester was chosen because it is a city with a reputation for research brought about by the past efforts of IBM and the Mayo Clinic. Not surprisingly, the populace is highly educated; census statistics for persons holding a high school degree and persons holding at least a bachelors degree are both significantly higher than state and national averages (US Census Bureau, 2011). With new and rapid investment by the University of Minnesota Rochester, it is likely that the citys capacity for research will continue to grow.

This particular location within Rochester is unique for several reasons, including its proximity to the downtown civic, business, and medical districts. The confluence of waterways lends an interesting shape to the site and offers unobstructed views in three directions: a park and residential neighborhood to the east, Mayo Park and the Rochester Art Center to the north, and Rochesters skyline to the northwest. The sites use as a parking lot is, in my opinion, a gross underutilization of a naturally beautiful location.

This sites natural background sounds have an interesting character which offer possibilities beyond what other locations might present. The lot is very near to the city center, yet it is not quite urban; it is found near a series of sleepy parks, yet it is not tranquil itself. As a soundscape, there is a rivalry of sounds between what one would expect from an urban setting and a more pastoral one.

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This project will have two emphases resulting from the theoretical premise/unifying idea. The first emphasis will be integrating innovative acoustical design into all aspects of the project. In this way, the project itself will become a showcase for acoustically interesting spaces.

The second emphasis is a pragmatic approach that assumes the field of environmental design benefits from innovations made in the research community. This will be addressed by the projects program. With a focus on biomedical research, those who experience hearing loss will directly benefit from improved quality of life. For those with hearing impairment, the sensation of sound will become an important part of the designed environment through advancements in research and treatment.

PROJECT EMPHASIS

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RESEARCH DIRECTION:An in-depth study of spaces suitable for acoustical study, precedents in research facilities, trends in medical research facilities, and the space requirements of each will be critical to proceed. Analysis of the context and history of the site will be important so as to better integrate the design into the community.

DESIGN METHODOLOGY:This design thesis will use quantitative and qualitative data, digital analysis, and interviews as part of a concurrent transformative strategy. Text and graphics will be used to relay the findings from research on sound psychology.

PROCESS DOCUMENTATION:All sketches and drawings will be archived digitally ever week to ensure a complete record. Physical models will be also be archived via digital photography. The models themselves will be held until the conclusion of the project. The digital archive will be made available online at andrewbudke.wordpress.com.

PLAN FOR

PROCEEDING

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Context AnalysisConceptual Analysis

Spatial AnalysisECS Passive Analysis

Floor Plan DevelopmentSection Development

Structural DevelopmentMaterials Development

Midterm Reviews [3/5-3/9]Envelope Development

Structural RedevelopmentContext Redevelopment

ECS Active AnalysisProject Revisions

Project DocumentationPresentation Layout

Plotting and Model BuildingExhibits Installed on 5th Floor [4/23]

Preparation for PresentationsFinal Thesis Reviews [4/26 5/3]CD Due to Thesis Advisers [5/7]

Final Thesis Document Due [5/10]

Jan Feb Mar Apr May


STUDIO

EXPERIENCE

TeahouseFargo, NDVorderbruggen

BoathouseMinneapolis, MNVorderbruggen

Dance StudioFargo, NDBooker

DwellingMarfa, TXBooker

FirehouseNew Ulm, MNMartens

Fall2008

Spring2009

Fall2009

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Satellite SchoolPangnirtung, NU

Martens

Aquatic CenterMuncie, ID

Urness

Transit HubFargo, ND

Urness

High Rise San Francisco, CA

Kratky

Passive House (Design/Build)St. Paul, MN

Srivastava

Spring2010

Fall2010

SpringSummer

Fall2011

PROGRAM DOCUMENT


ACOUSTICS:The underlying science of sound has been a topic of study for thousands of years; the work of Pythagoras, an Ionian Greek active in the Sixth century BC, may be the earliest of an empirical nature. Using a simple monochord, he was able to describe the mathematical relationships between musical intervals (Charles M. Salter Associates, 1998, p. 15). While remarkable, Pythagorass discovery focused on ratios and proportions, things of a geometric nature, not on actual sound physics (i.e. acoustics). Since his time, however, the physics behind sound has been illuminated to the point that it is now a relatively well-understood phenomenon.

Sound occurs in waves with each wave being a disturbance of molecules within a medium resulting from a vibrating object (Charles M. Salter Associates, 1998, p. 27). When a sound wave reaches a person, small organs inside the ear vibrate in response. Those organs then convert the information into an electrical signal which is sent to the brain. Thus, the sensation

of sound could be said to have three major components: source, path, and receiver.

Sound is described in waves because of the alternating pattern of compression and rarefication (high and low pressure) of molecules in the medium (the path component). The cycles rate of occurrence is described by frequency and the unit hertz (Hz). The concept is analogous to pitch in music although pitch refers specifically to the perception of frequency. The human hearing range is between 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (Charles M. Salter Associates, 1998, p. 29).

The sine function is commonly used to graphically represent the oscillation between high and low pressures. Most sounds are much more mathematically complex than the sine wave. The so-called pure tones of perfectly constant frequency are only producible using electronic equipment. Most sound sources have a characteristic combination or mixing of frequencies called a spectrum. Musicians refer to this quality as timbre or

RESEARCH

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color (Charles M. Salter Associates, 1998, p. 29).

A sounds loudness is a perception of sound pressure described in pascals (Pa) or decibels (dB). This is described graphically by a waves amplitude. Just as with frequency, not all sound pressures are perceptible. The human threshold of hearing occurs around 20 mPa and the threshold of pain around 200 Pa. The more common unit, the decibel (technically a measure of sound pressure level [SPL], but also of sound power level [Lw] or sound intensity level [Li]), uses a logarithmic scale to describe the same thresholds at 0 dB and 140 dB respectively (Charles M. Salter Associates, 1998, p. 31).

Sound waves are capable of changing direction. When they do, the change can be categorized as one of the following: reflection, refraction, diffraction, and diffusion. A reflection occurs when the sound wave encounters a sharp discontinuity in the density of a medium causing some of its energy to bounce off (Cowen & Acentech, 2000, p. 10). Sound reflectors are usually hard,

smooth surfaces which behave much like mirrors in optics; the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

Reflection means that a single sound will travel many different distances (corresponding to numerous paths) to reach the receiver. An echo occurs when an indirect sound a wave having been reflected arrives sufficiently late (after a 60 ms threshold of perception) with perceptible amplitude (Cowen & Acentech, 2000, p. 11). Reflections are also responsible for room resonance, which occurs at certain frequencies when two reflective walls are placed parallel to one another. If the distance between the walls is equal to a whole-number multiplier of a frequencys wavelength, a standing wave will form, causing sound pressures to be reinforced or canceled at certain locations. At these frequencies, the room will have poor sound distribution (p. 12).

Refraction describes the action of a sound wave when it encounters changes in medium conditions that are not extreme


enough to cause reflection, but are enough to change the speed of sound (Cowen and Acentech [firm], 2000, p. 14). The speed of sound transmission varies widely depending on the molecular density and temperature of its medium. For instance, sound waves will travel faster through steel than through air and faster through hot air than cold air. As sound waves travel, they will encounter drag from the colder parts of the medium, causing them to bend or turn. Cowen and Acentech [firm] (2000) describe a scenario in which the air nearest the ground is cooler than the air above it: In this case, sound waves bend downward toward the ground. If the ground surface is reflective, sound waves bounce along and travel farther than one might expect. This is the case near a calm body of water, where conversations at opposite side of lakes can often be clearly heard (p. 14).

Diffraction occurs when sound waves bend around barriers such as walls regardless of material or texture. Even so, a shadow zone is experienced for a certain distance behind the obstacle. The shape of this zone is derived from the line of sight between

the source and the barrier extent and the barriers height above the ground (Cowen & Acentech, 2000, p. 15).

Diffusion is a form of reflection off a convex or uneven surface. As a sound wave strikes such a surface, its energy is spread evenly in multiple directions rather than the single direction of a simple reflection (Cowen & Acentech, 2000, p. 11).

An important design consideration relevant to this discussion is reverberation, the sum of diffuse sounds over time. Diffuse sounds arrive at the receiver indirectly to form a diffuse sound field. In contrast, a free sound field has no such reverberation. Rather, it is a medium where only the direct sound reaches the receiver. This condition is characteristic of an anechoic chamber (Charles M. Salter Associates, 1998, p. 33).

The basic principles behind sound as a phenomenon are not terribly complicated; in many ways, sound behaves much like light in the way that it reflects off surfaces and follows lines of

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sight. This view, however, betrays the true complexity of sound as it is perceived. Consider the following passage by Blesser and Salter (2007) regarding the difficulties of studying acoustics relative to optics (these issues will form the foundation of many of the assertions put forth in the section The Standing of Sound):

First, light waves moves [sic] instantaneously, whereas sound waves move relatively slowly. Second, the highest frequency of visible light is less than 2 times as great as the lowest, whereas the highest frequency of audible sound is 1,000 times greater than the lowest. Third, relative to the size of object and surface variations, the wavelength of light waves covers an extremely narrow range, whereas the wavelength of sound waves covers a wide range, large at low frequencies and small at high frequencies. (pp. 215-216)

Even tiny currents or temperature variations in air can result in significant fluctuations in the properties of sound as it is sent and

received. Additionally, acoustical engineers are limited in their ability to use computer models to fully predict the behavior of sound in some spaces. Accurate simulations of large, irregularly shaped spaces such as concert halls are beyond the practical limits of todays computing power (Blesser and Salter, 2007, pp. 240, 244).

PSCHOACOUSTICS:The terms hearing or listening carry many implications regarding the collection and processing of auditory information. Recalling the source-path-receiver model, the receiver component deserves further analysis.

The raw sensation of sound is strictly a biological process which begins with the structures of the outer ear. The pinnae are the visible portions of the ear. Their distinctive shape is responsible for modifying the incoming spectrum of sound enough to aid in localization, especially in the up-down and front-back dimensions. The sound is then carried to the middle ear via


Ossicles

SemicircularCanals

VestibularNerve

CochlearNerve

Ear Drum

Ear Canal Cochlea

Pinna

the ear canal, the size and shape of which amplify frequencies between 2000 and 4000 Hz. (Charles M. Salter Associates, 1998, p. 37).

The middle ear consists of the ear drum and ossicles, a set of three tiny bones, which are responsible for converting sound pressure into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is quickly turned into fluid pressure as it reaches the cochlea, a structure of the inner ear. The fluid pressure inside the cochlea causes vibration of the basilar membrane and the bending of

certain tiny hairs called cilia. This action by the cilia causes corresponding neurons to fire, thus signaling the start of a neurological process (Charles M. Salter Associates, 1998, p. 38).

Various cognitive processes are then set in motion which give meaning to aural sensation based on personal history, experience, and cultural influences. The sum total of these processes is referred to as perception. Beyond basic perception is affect, an often subconscious state of emotionally engaged listening characterized by a visceral response. This explains

Structures of Outer, Middle, and Inner Ear

adapted from Wikimedia Commons

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why people might cry or enter a trance after hearing certain personally significant sounds or music (Blesser and Salter, 2007, p. 13). Listening, by contrast, is the active discrimination of sound based on remembered experiences (Blesser and Salter, 2007, p. 328).

This brings us squarely into the realm of psychoacoustics, described thusly by Charles M. Salter Associates (1998):

Psychoacoustics is a joint field of physics and psychology that deals with acoustical phenomena as related to audition. The relationship between physical acoustic variables and human response is not linear and cannot be precisely predicted. A wide variety of psychoacoustic measures are used to correlate the physical measurement of sound with peoples subjective response, depending on the specific application. (p. 43)

A simple example of this is the weighted scale used to describe human sensitivity to certain frequencies over others. Humans

are most sensitive to frequencies between 500 and 4000 Hz, a range roughly equivalent to that of human speech (recall that the ear canal actually amplifies these frequencies). It follows that frequencies outside of this optimal range would have to be enhanced in order to be perceived as equally loud. The most common scale used to do this is the A-weighted scale (dBA) developed by the American National Standards Institute (Cowen & Acentech, 2000, p. 19).

One of the most interesting psychological factors relevant to psychoacoustics is the way in which the perception arises from a developing brain. Scientists have found that the number of neurons in a persons brain peaks even before birth. The infant brain, however, lacks the stable neural connections of an adult, making it incredibly plasticthat is, more capable of learning. Psychologists categorize learning in one of three ways. The first is experience-independent which is hard-wired or innate and requires limited environmental exposure. Experience-dependent or soft-wired learning, on the other hand, requires significant


exposure. Experience-expectant learning is only possible during a certain window of opportunity defined by the stage of brain development (Blesser & Salter, 2007, p. 325).

Scientists often assume that the cognitive pathways governing aural perception are either experience-independent or -expectant either hard-wired or fixed after a certain age. However, Blesser and Salter (2007) cite at least four examples of human or animal studies which suggest some degree of plasticity even in adult brains (pp. 325-327). This information leads us to two important conclusions: an individuals mind can be understood as a reflection of both inborn and learned influences (i.e. culture), and individuals are capable of understanding the world via different sensory avenues (i.e. modalities).

AUDITORY SPATIAL AWARENESSTechnically, a sensory modality refers to a phenomenon that can be sensed, such as temperature, pressure, or light. But since these sensations so closely mirror the major sense organs, it is

common to use the terms sensory modality and the five senses (known to schoolchildren as sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste) interchangeably.

The sensory modalities are responsible for all of ones connections with the surrounding environment. When asked to define ones surroundings, a process called cognitive mapping, all the modalities are employed. The mind assembles all available perceptual information and fuses it into a single understanding or image of external reality. This is an active process in which the individual is capable of weighting the perceptual inputs according to preference or usefulness (Blesser & Salter, 2007, pp. 46-49).

For most people in todays Western culture, the modality that most often dominates the cognitive mapping process is unquestionably sight. But this is not the case with all individuals, nor all cultures. It is true that human beings are capable of remarkable vision, but this alone does not explain why a single

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sense would come to so totally dominate the others. As we have seen, the human brain represents a curious amalgam of inborn and cultural influences.

Western culture has shown great investment in understanding the forces that shape the visual sense while paying relatively little attention to the aural sense. As Blesser and Salter (2007) state, In contrast [to aural space], our knowledge of visual space was already advanced by the sixteenth century. Painters already understood the rules of light, color, reflectivity, perspective, and shadows. There is still no established counterpart for aural painters (p. 215).

When a person does not have use of one of the senses, they must rely on the remaining senses to create their cognitive map. The blind, for instance, still have use of the aural, tactile, olfactory, and gustatory senses with which to form internal spatial images. It is important to remember that that the other four senses do not actually get stronger but are instead assigned a greater

weight during cognitive mapping.

It is not surprising, then, that there are blind individuals who achieve spatial acuity rivaling that of the sighted through the use of the remaining senses, especially the aural. Blesser and Salter (2007) provide published accounts of several remarkable individuals including Martin, a resident of New York City, capable of crossing busy thoroughfares and boarding streetcars without betraying his blindness and Ved Mehta, a native of Calcutta, who rode his bicycle and jumped between rooftops as a young boy (p. 38). The most well-known person to ever develop such ability was Ray Charles, the famous soul musician. Charles was completely blind by age seven but still managed to ride his bicycle and chop wood. He never owned a dog or a cane, believing they represented blindness and helplessness (p. 39).

Scientists have traditionally referred to this ability as echolocation, a misnomer. Recall that other mammals (which


have all inherited the same basic structures and arrangements within the ear) echolocate, most notably bats and dolphins, producing a sound and then mapping their surroundings based on the acoustical response. Indeed, some humans do practice true echolocation by tapping a cane or foot or making clicking noises in order to map their surroundings. However, the ability described above is entirely passive, requiring no inputs from the subject. Using only background noise, some individuals can literally hear the sonic shadows or imprints of surfaces and objects. Blesser and Salter (2007) more accurately refer to this ability as auditory spatial awareness (p. 37).

The heightened auditory spatial awareness exhibited by Ray Charles and Ved Mehta is obviously quite rare, but the talent is not the exclusive property of the blind. With special training and practice, sighted individuals have learned to navigate in much the same way. For that matter, many blind people instead develop a preference for the tactile sense when mapping their surroundings (Blesser & Salter, 2007, p. 38). In fact, all persons

with functioning hearing experience space aurally (auditory spatial awareness) to some extent, but the ability often lies latent, rarely developing beyond the subconscious.

THE STANDING OF SOUNDIn the essay An Architecture of the Seven Senses, architect and theorist Juhani Pallasmaa begins by flatly stating, The architecture of our time is turning into the retinal art of the eye (Holl, Pallasmaa, & Perez, 2006, p. 29). He asserts that todays architecture has cowed to photography, effectively flattening itself and minimizing its inherent charm. Similarly, Blesser and Salter (2007) begin their text by stating, Architects almost exclusively consider the visual aspects of a structure (p. 1).

Architecture and other environmental design could be thought of as the thoughtful shaping of space, the manipulation of volume. But as these authors have already noticed, it is clear that the discipline is dominated by visual thought. Even educational texts like Chings (1979) Form, Space, and Order clearly reflect

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a visual paradigm. This is in spite of the modern understanding of cognitive mapping which, as we have seen, is fashioned from all available senses.

Since architects deal in the shaping of space (and, by extension, its perception), those who believe in artful architecture ought to take notice of the multisensory nature of cognitive mapping. This is the premise behind the collection of writings by Steven Holl, Juhani Pallasmaa, and Alberto Perez-Gomez (2006) titled Questions of Perception. In this volume, Pallasmaa keenly observes that the elements of architecture are measured by all the senses (He adds skeleton and muscle as natural gauges of scale and weight to the five traditional senses) (p. 30). Holl describes how architecture is the only medium which is capable of simultaneously engaging all of the senses, outclassing even cinema (p. 41). Pallasmaa goes on to describe hearing as the sense best suited to connect one to the surroundings as well as the past (p. 31).

Blesser and Salter (2007) offer some perspective on this point and outline why sound is uniquely qualified to transmit spatial information. First, light moves instantaneously while sound moves much slower by comparison. So while light can provide information about only the current moment, sound describes both the past and present. Time is a central component of sound. Second, people create sound but not light. This means that a space will respond to its occupants, creating a sort of dialogue between animate and inanimate objects (Blesser & Salter, 2007, p. 16).

The Blesser and Salter (2007) text also introduces a number of terms including aural architect, which is used to describe anything that shapes a spaces aural architecture or observed acoustical properties. The term is loosely applied to people (designers and occupants, past and present), objects, and even socioeconomic forces (p. 5).

Behind this terminology, there is a great line of reasoning, one


that highlights the inherent futility of a designed soundscape: It is occupants and their actions that will ultimately determine the sonic character of a space. However, I propose that a distinction be made between passive and active intentional shaping of aural space. We must alter the terminology so that the unwitting players and forces described by Blesser and Salter (2007) be known as aural authors, while we reserve the title aural architect to be more in line with the typical description of designer. An aural architect, then, is a person noted for the artful shaping of aurally perceived space.

Western culture has a weak tradition of producing aural architects of this sort. That may be changing given the special attention paid to the design of musical spaces such as concert halls, but spaces outside of the musical realm rarely receive such attention. Even in the design of some performance spaces, acoustic considerations have been outweighed by other factors. Such was the case with Berlins Philharmonic Hall where geometric symbolism was given precedence over acoustical

performance, resulting in unusually long reverberation times (Blesser and Salter, 2007, p. 120).

Let us now briefly examine the work of Christopher Janney. Equal parts artist, musician, architect, and tinkerer, Janney has made a name for himself by creating urban musical instruments, installations like Soundstair and Reach which produce sound and/or light after being activated by passersby (Janney, Dunlop, Janney, Lampert-Greaux, 2006, p. 22, 34). As these works do not derive their meaning from the shape of the surrounding space, we could not call Janney a true aural architect. Instead, the urban musical instruments give meaning to their surroundings; the sounds they produce populate the local soundscape, adding to the sonic soup of the space. They are about place rather than space.

AN AURAL ARCHITECTUREBlesser and Salter (2007) use the term acoustic arena to describe the area where listeners can hear a sonic event because it has

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sufficient loudness to overcome the background noise (p. 22). If we modify the concept slightly to focus on the listerner, we notice that the acoustic arena represents all the events a listener can possibly hear. When imagined three-dimensionally, the acoustic arena describes the region capable of providing sonic information; it is the shape of a listeners aural space. In such space, sound is the only relevant carrier of information.

Space is given definition by surfaces. We can combine this spatial concept with the source-path-receiver model of sound to imagine a spaces surfaces as sources (i.e. broadcasters or re-broadcasters of sound energy, not necessarily generators), the listener as receiver of spatial information, and the intervening space as the path.

Recall that a surfaces response to incident sound can be categorized as either reflection, diffusion, absorption, or some combination of the three. A perfectly reflective surface, one that returns all incident acoustic energy, is incapable of providing sonic information beyond itself; it is acoustically opaque.

Acoustic Arena

Diffusing surfaces are similarly opaque in that they represent a sonic boundary. However, borrowing another term from Blesser and Salter (2007), diffusing surfaces demonstrate the possibility of aurally texturing the surface, effectively creating aural wallpaper (p. 59). On the other hand, a perfectly absorbent surface, which returns no incident acoustic energy, is incapable of providing sonic information to the listener; it is acoustically absent.

With this in mind, it is possible to anticipate the shape of an acoustic arena (perceived aural space) based on the behavior of the defining surfaces. We can represent this visually using a sphere to signify the theoretical limit of ones acoustic arena. This is analogous to the volume of space from which the listener can ever expect to receive sonic information. If, from any direction, no sound information is received, the listener can only say that such a dimension is of indeterminate measure. Without aural definition, the condition is effectively spacelessequivalent to total absorption. Thus, the sphere also represents the aural shape of a free sound field or an anechoic chamber.


Anechoic

Open Field Wall Corner

Pavillion Awning Edge

We can generate various other aural shapes by introducing combinations of opaque surfaces to this first sketch. It is worth noting here the asymmetry between visual and aural transparency. A window, for instance, may be visually absent but aurally opaque; an absorbent panel may be visually opaque but aurally absent. This exercise provides us with a palette of aural shapes suitable for the crafting of space.

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Narrow Alley Courtyard

Passage Opening Chamber


CASE STUDY

#1

SALK INSTITUTELOUIS KAHNLA JOLLA (SAN DIEGO), CA, USA

The Salk Institute for Biological Studies may be the most celebrated and iconic design of Louis Kahns career. The view from the institutes central court is instantly recognizable: stark concrete volumes arrayed parallel to a thin stream of water stretch toward the azure ocean horizon. One writer has described the courtyard as a soundless, open space focused on infinity (Shepherd, 2002, p. 44).

Jonas Salk, the institutes founder and namesake, is best remembered for developing the first ever effective polio vaccine in 1955, an event that brought him considerable fame. Salk approached Kahn in 1959 although he did not intend to enlist the architect (Steele, 1993, p. 2). Salk hired Kahn after visiting Richards Medical Labs in Philadelphia. For the facility, Salk had some high expectations reflecting his views on medical research. Kahn quoted Salk as saying, Medical research does not belong entirely to medicine or the physical sciences. It belongs

Site Plan (Steele, 1993)

Ground Floor Lab Plan (Steele, 1993) Upper Floor Lab Plan (Steele, 1993)

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Elevation derived from Ellis (1991)

to the population (as cited in Steele, 1993, p.2). The Salk Institute, therefore, needed to be more than a research facility; it needed to be an academy-like setting where the schools of science and humanism could intermingle.

Kahn imagined three major elements for the facility: the main laboratory building, a living space, and a meeting space which would include an auditorium, library, dining room, gym, and guest quarters (Steele, 1993, p. 5). Sadly, only the first of these buildings was realized; subsequent additions have been made to the laboratory building, but the scheme is quite different from Kahns original vision.

The Salk is organized symmetrically around a central courtyard with two main buildings on either side. Each building appears to be four stories tall, but a closer examination reveals six. Building codes restricted the structures height, so the additional two levels were sunk into the ground. These spaces still reveal ample daylighting thanks to enormous lightwells (40 feet long, 25 feet deep), which flank the building on either side. More curious, each six-story building contains only three usable floors; the remaining three are used only for mechanical equipment (Shepherd, 2002, p. 49). Massing

Transverse Section (Steele, 1993)


Structure Circulation to Use

GeometryHierarchy

These interstitial spaces are the key to the projects continued success. As a research facility, the laboratory spaces demand ultimate flexibility in terms of both layout and mechanical equipment. The service spaces house 13 nine-foot-tall Vierendeel trusses spanning 65 feet that allow the laboratories to be completely without walls or columns (Steele, 1993, p. 5). The full-height service floors can be easily rearranged to accommodate the laboratories changing wiring, plumbing, and ventilation requirements. The service floors are daylit in the same way as the laboratories and utilize removable glass for painless reconfiguration (Shepherd, 2002, p. 49).

The iconic serrated masses that line the courtyard contain the institutes 36 science fellow offices. These study towers are accessed from the interstitial levels, lending them an extra measure of privacy. The fellows were initially uninterested in the extra spaces since they were accustomed to working in their laboratories. They soon warmed to the spaces though, which gave the scientists a contemplative retreat from the lab setting (Shepher, 2002, p. 46).

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Plan to Section

DaylightingThis case study is unique in that, when first built, the facility was solely devoted to research; there was very little usable room allocated for non-laboratory or non-office spaces. It is also a quintessential example of flexible, column-free laboratory design made possible by the brilliant use of Vierendeel trusses and interstitial spaces.

The austere quality of the courtyard design is the perfect complement to the sites oceanfront location, although, interestingly, this was not Kahns idea. Rather, it was recommended by Luis Barragan (Shepherd, 2002, p. 49). More important is the way in which Kahn responded to the climate Salk wished to create. The artful, pensive quality of the building reflected Salks biophilosophy that scientists, artists, and philosophers all seek to illuminate the nature of humanity.

I find Shepherds (2002) comment on the courtyard, soundless, open space, to be extremely interesting (p. 44). Given the context, Shepherd is speaking figuratively. The courtyard is not literally without sound, yet the feelings evoked are so stark and elemental that he describes the place as soundless.


Second Floor Plan (Svalbard Science Centre in Longyearbyen, Svalbard, 2007)

CASE STUDY#2

Ground Floor Plan (Svalbard Science Centre in Longyearbyen, Svalbard, 2007)

SVALBARD RESEARCH CENTREJARMUND/VIGSNAES ARCHITECTSLONGYEARBYEN, SVALBARD, NORWAY

The Svalbard Research Centre is striking in many ways. Most remarkable may be its location in the hamlet of Longyearbyen in the Svalbard archipelago far north of Norways mainland. The community is located well beyond the Arctic Circle at 78 degrees north latitude or about four hours from Oslo by plane (MacKeith, 2006, p. 115).

The research center is a massive expansion for the University of Svalbard, which operates the facility for arctic research; some 91,500 sq. ft. were added as part of the project. The facility now houses the new Svalbard History Museum and enough office, classroom, and laboratory space for 300 students in four academic disciples. Each discipline (biology, geology, geophysics, and technology) occupies its own arm of the building. The four arms converge at a central space where the common spaces such as the library, dining hall, machine shops, and storage rooms may be found (MacKeith, 2006, p. 115).

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Section/Elevation (Svalbard Science Centre in Longyearbyen, Svalbard, 2007)

Section (MacKeith, 2006)

The building is visually remarkable from both the interior and exterior. The exterior is clad with standing-seam copper, which practically glows during the long arctic night. The interior makes extensive use of the laminated spruce as a structural and finish material. All of the materials used in the expansion had to be shipped to the remote location. The buildings structure is mostly provided by steel framing within the wall section. The designers took care to embed this steel frame deep within the wall so as to thermally isolate it from the harsh exterior conditions (Svalbard Science Centre in Longyearbyen, Svalbard, 2007, p. 1478). The building is supported several feet off the ground by 250 steel pilings driven 36 ft. into the earth (MacKeith, 2006, p. 117).

The buildings highly faceted shape almost seems to take its cue from the walls of the surrounding fjord. In fact, the buildings form is highly performance-based having been derived from extensive digital modeling. The architects used small scale models to gather baseline information for a computer program. They then applied a method known as computational fluid dynamics to gather feedback while finessing the model into its final form. This is the reason for the centres faceted appearance and its position above the ground, which allows blowing snow to pass unobstructed beneath the building (Svalbard Science Centre in Longyearbyen, Svalbard, 2007, p. 1480). This approach allowed the design team to reduce wind loads and thermal exchange while eliminating snow drifts around the building (MacKeith, 2006, p. 114).

Daylighting


Hierarchy

Circulation to Use Structure

Geometry

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Massing

Plan to Section/Elevation

Unlike Kahns Salk Institute, the Svalbard Research Centre is an addition to an existing building (to be fair, the expansion is approximately four times larger than the original). The program of this project is also significantly expanded beyond that of Salk; the building in Svalbard effectively houses an entire university campus. Beyond the expected spaces such as classrooms, offices, and dorms, the research center contains a museum, an archive, machine shops, and an auditorium.

The climatic responses seen in Svalbard are far more relevant to Minnesota than those at the Salk. Kahn was able to take advantage of the mild Southern California climate and use uninsulated concrete throughout the design. The situation is obviously quite different from Svalbard where insulation of the structural framing was a critical detail.

Another interesting element of this project is the role played by computer software. Digital modeling of the buildings aerodynamics actually became part of the feedback loop for evaluating the buildings design rather than being a simple afterthought. This level of pre-construction performance assessment no doubt gave the architects the information needed to design for such an inhospitable location.


CASE STUDY

#3

41 COOPER SQUAREMORPHOSIS (THOM MAYNE)NEW YORK, NY, USA

41 Cooper Square is a new academic building for New York Citys Cooper Union. The school hired Morphosis to design a facility capable of housing its art, architecture, and engineering programs in a single building rather than the separate locations they had been using. This was an important feature for the school as it wanted to foster collaboration and cross-disciplinary dialogue among the schools three departments (Morphosis, 2009, p. 40). Through this and other elements, the design indicates a high level of social awareness. The building was constructed across the street from the schools very first building and added 175,000 sq. ft. to the campus.

The building incorporates numerous green features which have earned it a LEED-platinum rating. Foremost among these is the buildings double-skin cladding consisting of glazing and perforated stainless-steel panels. The second skin acts as a layer of insulation in cold months by holding in the buildings heat. In the warm months, the steel panels reflect the suns radiation and, again, help regulate the internal temperature. The skin contains operable panels which may be opened or closed for finer adjustment (Morphosis, 2009, p. 40).

Ground Floor Plan (Morphosis: 41 Cooper Square, New York, New York, U.S.A., 2009)

Fourth Floor Plan (Morphosis: 41 Cooper Square, New York, New York, U.S.A., 2009)

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Elevations (Morphosis: 41 Cooper Square, New York, New York, U.S.A., 2009)

Circulation (Morphosis: 41 Cooper Square, New York, New York, U.S.A., 2009)Section (Morphosis: 41 Cooper Square, New York, New York, U.S.A., 2009)


Massing

Hierarchy

Geometry

Other sustainable considerations at 41 Cooper Square include a green roof which collects rainwater while helping to reduce excess stormwater runoff and the urban heat island effect. The spaces are made more pleasant thanks to ceiling-mounted radiant heating and cooling panels and extensive daylighting. About 75% of the building is lit in this way, which is made possible by a huge central atrium capable of transmitting sunlight to internal spaces (Morphosis, 2009, p. 40).

The atrium is also the projects main circulation element. A 20-foot-wide grand staircase carries occupants up as far as the fourth floor. Above that, the atrium remains open, wrapped by a lattice-like structure. Morphosis applied a skip-stop circulation scheme consisting of certain landings that do not provide access to the corresponding floor; the scheme is applied to the main elevators as well. This move is said to increase physical activity and interaction opportunities for occupants. The atrium is described as a vertical piazza which, by promoting impromptu meetings, fulfills the clients charge to foster interdisciplinary dialogue and collaboration (Morphosis, 2010, p. 96).

If the Salk Institute can be characterized by its artfulness and the Svalbard Research Centre by its durability, one must say that 41 Cooper Square exemplifies sustainability. Thom Mayne and Morphosis have seemingly applied the tenets of sustainability to everything from technical details (i.e., the green roof and double-skin envelope) to the buildings treatment of the ground condition, which is symbolically open and transparent to the surrounding city. Particularly curious is the skip-stop circulation plan, which might be seen as a comment on the recent social concern of sedentary lifestyles. The buildings list of sustainable features reads something like a design checklist of recommended strategies.

This project has a radically different setting than those of the other case studies. The settings near La Jolla and Longyearbyen offered something resembling architectural blank canvases while this project was faced with responding to a character-rich block in Manhattan. The other architects, especially Kahn, seemed happy to allow their architecture to manifest outwardly on such sites. Given the urban setting, Maynes design becomes inwardly focused. The final product takes on a decidedly urban size and proportion.

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Plan to Elevation

Daylighting

Structure


CASE STUDYSUMMARY

The case studies included here represent outstanding work in the research and laboratory typology. The kinds of research conducted at these facilities are very diverse. The Salk Institute (biomedical research), Svalbard Research Centre (arctic research), and 41 Cooper Square (theoretical/academic research) each possess important elements worth studying, comparing, and contrasting.

Each of the projects emphasizes collaboration in a starkly different way. At Salk, this is seen to be thoughtful and spontaneous as evidenced by the blackboards placed around the central courtyard. At Svalbard, each of the four disciplines share common rooms in the heart of the building. The Svalbard design is very symbolic in that sense with its radial layout. 41 Cooper Square also uses common central space to enhance collaboration, but the method is indirect. Thom Mayne developed an elaborate circulation system complete with skip-stop landings and sky bridges so as to increase chance encounters. How interesting that three designs address the same issue (fostering of collaboration) in thoroughly different ways: thoughtfully, symbolically, and indirectly.

Some climatic responses of each project are worth pointing out. The Salks concrete design is well-suited to Southern California by being massive enough to absorb much of the suns energy and airy enough to allow for ventilation. The team being the Svalbard Research Centre found it necessary to conduct extensive performance-based tests before the design was finalized. 41 Cooper Squares setting in the middle of Manhattan contrasts with the more remote locations of the other projects. The building also uses the very latest cladding technology to reduce its overall energy use.

The Salk Institute is surely one of the finest pieces of architecture in the country. As if to complement the austere volumes of Kahns design, the administrative structure and philosophy of the institute is iconic in its own way. While the other case studies are university buildings, the Salk Institute remains technically unaffiliated (although there is a close relationship with graduate students from the University of California San Diego). The institute relies mostly on research grants and donations in order to operate.

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The facility, when first built, was a place purely for research, which also unlike the other case studies. Interestingly, Kahn imagined the Salk having three main component buildings, only one of which was realized. His scheme for a living place and a meeting place highlight some of the possibilities for expanding the program of a similar facility beyond what is immediately needed. Salk claimed that these elements were ultimately omitted due to a disagreement over the premise, but Steele (1993) clearly believes that this was a guise for a lack of funds (p.17).

The overall artfulness of the project owes a great deal to the vision and philosophy of Jonas Salk. Salk was a humanist in addition to being an accomplished scientist. He believed that scientists and artists have more in common than they give themselves credit. Therefore, the knowledge acquired through research served to benefit the whole of humanity.

Nowhere in the published material for these documents is any consideration given to sound. Only a single, non-literal description about the Salk Institute even mentions it, apparently supporting

the premise that sound is an often underused designers tool. The aforementioned quote from Shepherd (2002), soundless, open space focused on infinity (p. 44), implies something important about sound perception: Sound lends a space a measure of reality. No built space is truly soundless; the prospect of a space without sound is off-putting to the average person and would be considered uncomfortable or even suspect. Such is the case with visitors to anechoic chambers (Blesser & Salter, 2007, p. 19).


HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Though the modern acoustical laboratory can only trace its lineage less than a hundred years, examples of acoustically-aware design can be found throughout much earlier history. The earliest relevant to architectural design comes from the Roman Vitruvious, who outlined the installation of resonant vessels in ampitheatres (Charles M. Salter Associates, 1998, p. 16).

As a modern science, the field of architectural acoustics and the acoustical laboratory can trace their histories through the work of Wallace Clement Sabine. Sabine was a young instructor at Harvard University when he was commissioned to find a solution to the dismal acoustical situation in the schools Fogg Art Museum lecture hall. He and a group of assistants performed tests in the space nightly until they were able to describe the issue in terms of reverberation time. Sabine was then hired by architect Charles McKim to assist in the design of the proposed Boston Symphony Hall. The initial response to the spaces acoustics from visiting orchestras was cold, probably owing to the fact that the hall was much larger than any of its contemporaries. Today, Bostons Symphony Hall is regarded for having one of the worlds finest acoustical spaces (Charles M. Salter

Associates, 1998, p. 21).

Sabine was denied tenure by Harvard, so he moved to Illinois to open the Riverbank Acoustical Labs, the worlds first such lab, in 1918. The facility was dedicated to full-scale measurement of the sound absorption of materials and sound transmission and led to the first ever patents on acoustical tile (Charles M. Salter Associates, 1998, p. 24). In the 1930s, Riverbank became the official test site of the newly established Acoustical Materials Association. The Johns-Manville Company created the first reverberation room in order to test their newly developed sound-absorbing materials. Researchers at New Jerseys Bell Laboratories began making significant contributions to the field of architectural acoustics in the 1960s by examining theatre and recording studio acoustics (Charles M. Salter Associates, 1998, p. 24). Commercial and industrial testing continues to take place in similarly equiped facilities.

Study in the field of auditory spatial awareness has since emerged and requires somewhat different spaces, although they share certain qualities such as isolation. Study in this area and the requisite

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types of spaces can divided into three main realms: pschophysics, brain imaging, and animal physiology. It is typical that study in any of these subfields take place in its own dedicated facility, i.e., pyschophysics research at a psychophysics laboratory, brain imaging at a capable imaging facility (often hospitals after patient hours), and animal physiology at highly specialized and secure facilities. The work done in any one of these subfields often proves insightful in another subfield. However, direct collaboration between specialists is hindered because the relevant research is conducted at distant, disparate locations (D. Ruggles, personal communication, January 27, 2012). This project aims to simulateously accomodate research in two of the aforementionaed subfields, psychophysics and imaging, at a single location, thus enabling greater collaboration.


GOALS

Typically speaking, academic projects begin as assignments with topic, typology, and site information being furnished by a profes-sor. It is then the task of the student to produce a design that solves the assignments unique problems. This thesis shares many of those characteristics but is distinct in that the framework information has been determined by individual students. For this reason, this design for an Acoustical Research Laboratory has significance on academic, personal, and professional levels.

This thesis has its roots in an academic setting and, at its core, is in-tended to be a rigorous learning experience. There is always so much to learn about any given topic; this thesis is an opportunity to focus on any number of relevant subjects. The most interesting topics I ex-pect to cover are spatial perception and sensory input as well as spatial psychology and anthropology.

In the same vein, the final document will be submitted as a degree

requirement for a Masters of Architecture from North Dakota State University. As such, I hope that this thesis will properly showcase the skills I have developed over the last five years of study. Some of these skills are technical such as drafting, visualization, physical and digital modeling, and knowledge of structural and environmental control systems. But architecture school also hones several intangible skill sets, namely communication (graphic, written, and verbal) and com-plex problem solving. I hope that this project will be capable of prop-erly highlighting all of these skills in one way or another.

The possibility of future employment is another reason why I hope this thesis serves to showcase my acquired skills. However, seeing as this thesis serves to cap an academic career, it follows that it would also serve as a stepping stone to a professional career. Acoustical de-sign is not necessarily a field I have had my heart set on, but it is a field to which I feel uniquely qualified to contribute. I am both an experienced performer and patron of music and a student of architec-

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turesomething I expect is rather uncommon. Im hopeful that this thesis will act as a springboard for future work that is significant and personally gratifying.

Because the topic of this thesis was self-determined, it has a great deal of personal significance. The narrative focused on how I came to see worth in the element of sound. However, sound is far from being the only thing I find valuable. I hope that my efforts to paint sound as underappreciated and an underutilized tool have not minimized the importance I see in other architectural elements. A major goal of mine is for this projects soundscape to be as satisfying and rich as its treatment of light, texture, structure, and proportion.


SITE ANALYSIS

My strongest sensory impression from the site was not visual or au-ral; it was the cold temperature. The two days I spent in Rochester followed a minor winter storm which covered everything in a thin film of ice and caused temperatures to plummet and skies to remain overcast. The first morning (November 20) was especially frigid and I had to limit my exposure while documenting the site. Fortunately, there was little-to-no wind, but I still found this aspect of the visit to be very unpleasant.

Obviously, the site was not to blame. The cold air and icy sheen were certainly not the products of any microclimatic effects (if anything, the presence of the waterways may have warmed the air slightly), but were rather a simple bit of bad luck when scheduling the site visit. After all, Minnesotas Novembers are not known to be balmy.

Visually, the site was entirely uninteresting when viewed from street level. Seen from Fourth Street (the lots southern border and primary approach), the site appeared much like all the other barren parking lots on the outskirts of downtown. To make matters worse, I realized that the location suffered from bad neighbors: the county garage

turned out to be a rather drab, concrete box; the Ironwood Square office building was actually built atop concrete pylons to allow for ad-ditional parking underneath; and the water cistern was an enigmatic rectangle awkwardly protruding several feet out of the ground.

However, the visual situation was far more encouraging from other parts of the site. Near the waterfront, for instance, a small patch of grass and stand of trees seemed to reorient the eye toward the nearby parks and away from the expanse of concrete and asphalt. This same spot featured perfect views of Rochesters skyline, the Art Center, the Civic Center, Mayo Park, a footbridge, and a playground. The con-verse situation also proved true as all of these locations presented bril-liant, unobstructed views of the site.

I made a point to document the sites sound features. This, too, was pleasantly surprising due to the diversity of sounds encountered. Be-ing near downtown offered a certain set of characteristic sounds while the proximity to the parks offered a different set. Making an entry every hour, I documented sounds from trucks, cars, car stereos, car horns, train horns, children, joggers, birds, geese, HVAC systems, gas

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station card readers, a cleaning crew, and a helicopter. I found that development to be very encouraging since it was a quality few other locations could offer in the same way.

The most dominant feature of the sites soundscape was Fourth Street, particularly the bridge over Bear Creek. The way in which the con-crete surface of the bridge deck was cut considerably amplified the sound of vehicle tires as they crossed. I measured the sound level near the bridge and found it to peak well above 75 dBA. Since the vehicle traffic was so loud, I attempted to map the sound levels across the parking lot surface. I marked nearly 300 evenly-spaced grid points and then recorded the average sound level at each (dBA, 2 sec avg).

The exercise was anything but scientific. It mostly served to illustrate the highly conditional nature of vehicle sound near the site. Some-times there were more passing vehicles than other times, sometimes no vehicles at all. Some vehicles and tires sounded very differently than others. It also demonstrated how well the sound propagated over the hard, flat, asphalt surface.

Finally, the exercise highlighted an important point regarding spatial perception. I suggested above that simply by moving into a new view-shed, my spatial perception was reoriented away from the parking lot. In truth, I believe that this phenomenon was influenced much more by aural perception than visual. The presence of such a domi-nant sound source acted as a kind of datum to organize surroundings. As I approached the waterfront, I began to move beyond the bridges acoustic horizon and into a new acoustic region.


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Site Views and Photogrid photo: City of Rochester

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VIEWS:The presence of the river allows for some excellent views to and from the site. The course of the Zumbro meanders somewhat, but it is ori-ented northwest-southeast near the site. This affords an excellent view of the downtown Rochester skyline, also to the northwest, as well as the Civic Center. There are equally excellent views looking toward the site from the opposite banks of the Zumbro River and Bear Creek. The footbridge, which connects Mayo Park and the park to the east, might have the best view if not for its tall truss design.

BUILT FEATURES:The Government Center, being a very large building connected by skyway, marks the southeastern-most extent of the main downtown district. The neighborhood south of the Zumbro River and Bear Creek is significantly less dense than the rest of downtown.

The project site contains a series of interconnected parking lots. A small wellhouse and water cistern occupy the center of the lot near-est the river. The buildable site is also bounded by a concrete garage for county-owned vehicles. A small office building is located in the northwest corner of the site; the Fourth Street Bridge is found at the opposite corner.

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LIGHT QUALITY:The sky was overcast during both days of the site visit, which resulted in an even, cool, white light throughout the sky. The site has excel-lent sun exposure as there are no buildings of significant height to the south. The only limiting factor for exposure is the line of seven trees flanking Fourth Street that stand approximately 20-25 feet tall. The site is otherwise free of trees except for a grouping of four on the lots north side. VEGETATION:As a parking lot, the site is practically void of vegetation. There are, however, trees and grass turf around the sites periphery. The berm along Fourth Street features turf beneath the boulevard trees. The same is true beneath the cherry trees that screen the water cistern. There are four trees on the sites north side, one of which acts as a parking island with a tiny patch of turf beneath it. The other three grow from a larger section of turf where three tables have been placed, forming a small picnic area. One of these trees stands approximately 60 feet tall, significantly higher than any of the others, and utterly commands the point at which the waterways converge.

Taller wetland grasses grow near the waterways. However, the banks have been riprapped extensively so the grasses only grow at the very edge of the water. Other visible parts of the riverbank have been turned into concrete retaining walls and do not support vegetation.


WATER:The site derives much of its character from the presence of the Zum-bro River and its tributary, Bear Creek. The water is present year-round although it is shallow and prone to seasonal variation.

Workers were dredging the river bottom during the time of the site visit. Since the Zumbro is only several feet deep, the crew used a bull-dozer to scour silt from the riverbed and move it to the bank where an excavator loaded it into trucks for transport. The process created two large, presumably temporary mounds on the riverbank not present in the aerial photographs. Work crews deployed a sediment catchment system slightly downstream from this work. Two large, sail-like de-vises were lashed to the footbridge to prevent the disturbed silt from traveling further downstream.

WIND:The site is predominantly flat, but the topography is steeper near the riverbank and surrounding the water cistern. The steep slope near the cistern and the adjacent stand of shorter, denser trees are the only site features that might offer any real protection from the wind.

The prevailing wind direction varies with the season, but breezes tend to come from the south during the summer. The site is essential-ly flat and wide open to the south and offers very little in terms of landforms or built features that might impede the wind. The seven thinly-spaced, deciduous trees along Fourth Street are the only pos-sible candidates.

In terms of wind protection, the river may betray the site. The pre-vailing wind shifts to the northwest during the winter months, which is exactly in-line with the course of the Zumbro. The site is largely unshielded from this direction except for the stand of shorter, denser trees mentioned above. Accelerated winter winds should be expected as the riverbed offers no obstructions.

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HUMAN CHARACTERISTICS:The site is a showcase of human interventions, but not necessarily for the better. The vast majority of the lot has been paved with asphalt to accommodate automobile parking. The remaining vegetation has been replaced with grass turf that must be mowed. The banks of the waterways have been riprapped or converted to retaining walls to in-hibit erosion. The parks to the east and north are pleasant but equally tamed.

It is rare that people transverse the site except to park their vehicles. Most human interaction with the site occurs via automobiles on Fourth Street. Pedestrians and bicyclists have access to the site thanks to the recreational trail which parallels the riverbank. During the site visit, several pedestrians used the Fourth Street sidewalk while on er-rands from the residential neighborhood to the east. The picnic tables on the site seem to suggest that the area is utilized by patrons of the farmers market.


DISTRESS:There were few visible clues to suggest distress at the site. The major-ity of trees were deciduous and without their leaves, making a simple visual assessment difficult. There was, however, a blemish on one side of the sites largest tree, indicative of storm/wind damage.

The eastern section of the parking lot was surfaced with relatively new asphalt. This could be the result of any number of benign factors (recent expansion, old age, construction work, etc.) or possibly from riverbank settlement. However, given the presence of the riprap and the proximity of the newly renovated Fourth Street Bridge, it seems unlikely.

The dredging operation that occurred during my visit remains a bit mysterious, but I believe it was related to the shape of the rivers course. The waterways of Olmsted County carry a great deal of silt which tends to be deposited on the inside bank of a bend. This si-multaneously exerts greater pressure on the opposite bank, which is eroded to form a meander. By dredging silt from the inside edge of the bend, the workers can reduce erosional pressure on the opposite bank. Considering the number of bridges in Rochester (more specifi-cally, the erosion-susceptible bridgeheads), this would be an impor-tant act of preventative maintenance.

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SOILS:The soil at the site is classified by the US Department of Agriculture (1980) as Kalmerville silt loam, which is characterized as level and poorly drained (p. 42). Generally, this soil has about 43 inches of very dark grey silt loam near the surface followed by dark grey sand to a depth of at least 60 inches (p. 42). Kalmerville silt loam is a good source of construction sand but is unsuitable for crops and pas-ture. Kalmerville silt loam offers good support to wetland plants but is only rated as fair for trees of either hardwood or softwood variety.

The report warns that the seasonal high water table is often within 12 inches of the surface, making the soil a poor candidate for building site development. However, the soil survey found the exact same soil conditions on the rivers opposite bank, where the Rochester Civic Center complex now stands.

UTILITIES:The site is home to a small wellhouse and water cistern. The water helps to feed Rochesters municipal water supply.

VEHICULAR TRAFFIC: Automobile traffic is significant on the surrounding streets (Fourth Street and Third Avenue). This is due, in part, to the bottlenecking of traffic that occurs at bridges. That is to say, when an obstruction is present, traffic from a larger region must be funneled onto a main thoroughfare where a bridge can be built economically.

Such is the case with Fourth Street, which spans both the Zumbro River and Bear Creek in an east-west direction. It features four lanes and is classified as an arterial road. The same is true of Third Avenue, which crosses the Zumbro in the north-south direction. This, too, is a four-lane arterial road, but it does not boast quite the same volume of traffic.


PEDESTRIAN TRAFFIC:Pedestrian traffic near the site was very light for the duration of the site visit although this may have been the result of unpleasantly cold temperatures. The vast majority of observed pedestrian traffic utilized the sidewalk along Fourth Street, especially near the bridge. The rec-reational trails on the opposite banks were used by a number of bicyl-ists and joggers, particularly in the early morning and late afternoon. The trail that crosses the site was closed due to the dredging operation and was not used during the site visit.

During the workweek, Government Center employees who park at the site make their way to the crosswalk at the intersection of Fourth Street and Third Avenue. This is the only crosswalk near the site. The recreational trails continue underneath the nearby bridges, thereby offering pedestrians an alternative for crossing the thoroughfares.

TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY:The site is predominantly flat with grades ranging between 1% and 4%, but there ar

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