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Dissertation
MA Business with consumer psychology
Self-product congruence:
Image-perceptions of postmodern
outdoor-apparel consumers
by
Jan Breitsohl
Bangor University
Business School
September 2009
2
DECLARATION
This work has not previously been accepted in substance for any degree and is not
being concurrently submitted in candidature for any degree.
Signed ……………………………………….. (candidate)
Date …………………………………………..
STATEMENT 1
This dissertation is being submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
degree of Masters of Arts
Signed ……………………………………….. (candidate)
Date …………………………………………..
STATEMENT 2
This dissertation is the result of my own independent work/investigation, except
where otherwise stated.
Other sources are acknowledged by footnotes giving explicit references. A
bibliography is appended;
Signed ……………………………………….. (candidate)
Date …………………………………………..
STATEMENT 3
I hereby give consent for my dissertation, if accepted, to be available for
photocopying and for inter-library loan, and for the title and summary to be made
available to outside organisations.
Signed ……………………………………….. (candidate)
Date …………………………………………..
3
Acknowledgements
I would foremost like to thank my supervisor, Marwan Kammash, who gave me the
space and trust to follow my independent research agenda, treated me as an equal and
has been the crucial inspiration to continue my career in academia. Further thanks go
to my flatmate Ben and the reliable Pam who patiently guided me through a short-
term „statistics-depression‟.
I would also like to thank my parents of course, for their kind words and belief as well
as all sent German food-packages and financial aid.
Finally, I would like to extend my appreciation to the lady of my heart, Juli, who
lovingly understood my iron discipline during all those summer days that from her
reasonable point of view would have best been spent in outdoor-hammocks or on
mountains.
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Table of contents
Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................11
1.1 Introduction..........................................................................................11
1.2 Background...........................................................................................11
1.3 Problem Statement................................................................................12
1.4 Methodology and structure..................................................................14
1.5 Dissertation outline...............................................................................15
Chapter 2: Literature Review....................................................................................16
2.1 Introduction..........................................................................................16
2.2 Postmodernism.......................................................................................16
2.3 Self-image. ............................................................................................19
2.4 Product image........................................................................................21
2.5 Self-product congruence.......................................................................22
2.5.1 Modernist SPC..........................................................................22
2.5.2 Postmodernist SPC....................................................................22
2.5.3 Effects of SPC...........................................................................25
2.5.4 Measuring SPC..........................................................................25
2.6 Conclusion.............................................................................................26
Chapter 3: Industry context......................................................................................27
3.1 Introduction..........................................................................................27
3.2 Outdoor apparel industry......................................................................27
3.3 Outdoor apparel marketing...................................................................28
3.4 Postmodern outdoor consumerism........................................................29
Chapter 4: Research problem theory........................................................................30
4.1 Introduction..........................................................................................30
4.2 Research problem..................................................................................30
4.3 Research problem in industry context...................................................32
5
4.4 Hypotheses............................................................................................34
4.5 Conclusion.............................................................................................35
Chapter 5: Research Methodology ...........................................................................37
5.1 Introduction..........................................................................................37
5.2 Product stimulus...................................................................................37
5.3 Sampling...............................................................................................38
5.4 Data collection......................................................................................38
5.5 Data analysis approach.........................................................................40
5.6 Limitations............................................................................................40
Chapter 6: Research Results.....................................................................................42
6.1 Introduction..........................................................................................42
6.2 Description of sample /respondents......................................................42
6.3 Analysis of data / Hypotheses...............................................................44
6.3.1 Product image...........................................................................44
6.3.2 Self-image.................................................................................46
6.3.3 Self-product congruence...........................................................47
6.4 Conclusions...........................................................................................52
Chapter 7: Discussion and conclusions.....................................................................54
7.1 Introduction..........................................................................................54
7.2 Rationale for findings (Hypotheses).....................................................54
7.2.1 Product image...........................................................................54
7.2.2 Self-image.................................................................................55
7.2.3 Self-product congruence...........................................................55
7.3 Theoretical and conceptual contribution .............................................57
7.3.1 Product image...........................................................................57
7.3.2 Self-image.................................................................................59
7.3.3 Self-product congruence...........................................................59
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7.4 Managerial implications.......................................................................61
7.5 Limitations and future research............................................................64
7.6 Closing note.........................................................................................65
References................................................ ..................................................................66
Appendices................................................ .................................................................75
Appendix 1: Surveyed online forum-communities....................................................75
Appendix 2: Unipolar semantic differential scale items for survey questionnaire....76
Appendix3: Average typical user image perception for attribute „outdoorsy‟.........77
Appendix 4: Average typical user image perception for attribute „reliable‟.............77
Appendix 5: Average typical user image perception for attribute „trendy‟...............78
Appendix 6: Average typical user image perceptions for individual user attributes.79
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List of Tables
Table 6.1 Respondent profile description.............................................................44
Table 6.2 Descriptive statistics for average typical user-image perceptions........45
Table 6.3 Statistical difference between average ideal- and actual self-image.....46
Table 6.4 Correlation between the average ideal- and actual self image..............47
Table 6.5 Actual and ideal self-product-congruence for regular consumers........48
Table 6.6 Individual actual- and ideal SPC-scores for regular consumers...........49
Table 6.7 Actual and ideal self-product-congruence for occasional consumers...50
Table 6.8 Individual actual- and ideal SPC-scores for occasional consumers......52
8
List of figures
Figure 1.1 Self-product congruence construct and underlying assumptions.........13
Figure 2.1 Postmodern conditions.........................................................................17
Figure 3.1 The North Face product image.............................................................28
Figure 4.1 Assumed actual-ideal self-product-congruence relationship................35
Figure 6.1 Average typical user image perceptions – distribution of means and
skewness...............................................................................................46
Figure 6.2 Results: actual-ideal Self-product-congruence relationship..................53
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Abstract
The purpose of this dissertation is to revise the self-product congruence paradigm
from a postmodern perspective. Self-product congruity (SPC) proposes that
consumers evaluate the congruence between their self-image (actual- or ideal) and a
product‟s image in order to engage in self-consistent or self-esteem enhancing
consumption behaviour. Although marketing scholars have substantiated various
positive and negative effects of SPC, two crucial assumptions of the constructs
theoretical foundation have remained unchallenged.
First, the proposition that a product image can be equated to typical-user images; and
second, that an upward, linear image idealisation from a consumer‟s actual to ideal
self (i.e. the ideal being founded in the perception of ‚the more perfect an image
characteristic, the better„) can be indefinitely extended. The inherent assumption that
consumers distinctly perceive a uniform product image and further build their own
self-image on unidirectional self-enhancement cognitions is in stark contrast to
postmodern concepts of fragmented self-images and paradoxical consumption ideals.
Using outdoor-apparel consumerism as an example, this dissertation‟s findings
significantly contradict the hitherto accepted prototype equation, whilst substantiating
the established overall upward idealisation within the SPC-construct. A further
investigation of inherent image characteristics revealed that postmodern consumers
experience a perceptual ambiguity which renders a holistic SPC-construct as
amalgamation of image attributes inaccurate.
The results suggest self-product-congruence to be a precise tool in analysing
consumers‟ increasingly ambivalent image perceptions, aiding managers in crafting
concise brand images and educated segmentation strategies in today‟s dynamic,
pluralistic market environment. In addition, the so-far academically underrepresented
10
outdoor apparel consumerism hereby gains empirical verification and managerial
implications.
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Chapter 1: Introduction
“To establish a favourable and well-defined brand personality in accordance with the
consumer, the advertiser must be consistent.”
Morris Hite, Former Chairman, President & CEO, Tracy-Locke
“Do I contradict myself?
Very well then I contradict myself,
(I am large, I contain multitudes.)”
~ Walt Whitman, postmodern poet
1.1 Introduction
On the one hand, it is the aim of contemporary marketing management to establish a
consistent, distinct brand image in the consumers‟ mind. On the other hand, the crux
of today‟s postmodern consumption culture is its participants‟ heterogeneous,
constantly changing and often contradicting image perceptions. The core questions
these conflicting realities pose are: How can product-images best be defined? What
constitutes a postmodern consumer‟s self-image? And, most importantly, how can
they both be aligned in order to create a profitable brand proposition? By examining
self-product-congruence theory as a postmodern marketing tool that analyses where
the seemingly incongruent constructs may coincide, this paper seeks to establish a
feasible resolution for these critical questions.
1.2 Background
At its core, self-product congruence (SPC) describes the match between a product‟s
image and a consumer‟s self-image. The product image describes a set of personality
12
attributes (or characteristics) associated with a product (Aaker, 1997). The self-image
can simply be defined as the perceptions one has about himself (Sirgy, 1982). One
may differentiate between a modernist, one-dimensional SPC-paradigm and
(postmodern) research which establishes a distinction between one‟s actual self-image
(the way we see ourselves) and ideal self-image (the way we would like to be).
Despite a continuous expansion of the paradigm – proposing social- (Hughes &
Guerrero, 1971), malleable- (Aaker, 1999) or undesired (Hogg & Banister, 2001) self-
images for instance – the original two-dimensional SPC-framework has not been
revised alongside the increasing depth of postmodern marketing research (Elliott,
1997; Firat & Schultz, 2001).
1.3 Problem Statement
The postmodernist school of thought proposes a fragmentation of one‟s self within a
pluralist society where self-images are dynamic, individualised and under constant
pressure to be expressed and communicated via one‟s consumption patterns. Thus, the
multi-dimensional conflict between one‟s actual- and ideal self (Aaker, 1999) can be
expected to have changed the assumed upward idealisation between the two
constructs: treating consumer‟s ideal SPC as linear enhancement of their actual SPC
seems to be questionable regarding the paradoxical desire for both integration and
escapism from the postmodern consumption arena. Whereas in one context consumers
may aspire a self-image-ideal that is characterised by fashion-related attributes (e.g.
trendy or elegant), they may desire a more practical, down-to-earth self-image in a
different situation (during a safari for instance).
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Furthermore, up to now most SPC-scholars (e.g. Grubb & Stern, 1971; Netemeyer et
al, 1995; Sirgy, 1982) equate product image with product user image, linking the
concept to typical users or stereotypes which, in its uniform simplicity, may require a
postmodern modification. Figure 1.1 summarises the SPC-model and its underlying
research problems.
Figure 1.1: Self-product congruence construct and underlying assumptions
Self-product congruence may hereby act as a meaningful construct of analysis as it
concisely (i.e. numerically) informs marketers where consumers perceive to be
congruent or in disagreement with a product‟s image attributes and what an idealised
Product image
Self-image
Self-product-
congruence
actual ideal
Ideal > actual
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brand image may look like. The postmodern marketing dilemma to develop dynamic
segmentation strategies, which coherently sketch and reach increasingly sophisticated
and pluralistic target groups, may thereby experience a practical remedy.
1.4 Methodology and structure
To investigate and illustrate the SPC-construct, this paper uses the outdoor apparel
industry where advertisements dominantly continue to promote an extreme-sport,
performance-related prototype and therefore segmentation strategies seem to neglect
the growing significance of symbolic, fashion-related image aspirations of both
occasional and regular consumers (here termed „Occasionals‟ and „Regulars‟
respectively).
The research problem stated above translates into an analysis of the clarity of typical
user image perceptions (Hypothesis 1); differences between the actual and ideal self-
image (Hypothesis 2); before examining the overall self-product-congruence-theorem,
particularly the validity of an upward idealisation from the actual to the ideal for
Regulars and Occasionals (Hypotheses 3 and 4 respectively).
Data was gathered via an online questionnaire placed on outdoor-apparel-related
consumer forums. To measure image perceptions, this paper uses Aaker‟s (1999)
brand personality scale, whilst subsequent congruency indices are generated by using
t-tests.
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1.5 Dissertation outline
This dissertation will first provide a review of relevant literature (Chapter 2), and
describe the outdoor apparel industry context (Chapter 3), before the fundamental
research problem (Chapter 4) and the related method of analysis (Chapter 5) are
explained. Chapter 6 will outline the research results, while Chapter 7 will conclude
by discussing theoretical and managerial implications and limitations.
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Chapter 2: Literature review
2.1 Introduction
Self-product congruence, and its inherent components, has experienced a theoretical
evolution since it first appeared in marketing literature, reflecting a perspective shift
from modernism to postmodernism in the field of consumer behaviour. This chapter
will first outline the relevance of postmodernism in understanding contemporary
consumerism, followed by a review of the two theoretical constructs (self-image and
product image) that together form the self-product congruence theorem which is
holistically examined afterwards.
2.2 Postmodernism
The conceptual framework of this essay will be based on postmodernism, which has
experienced significant academic attention in contemporary consumer research (see
Brown, 1993; Elliott, 1997; Firat et al, 1995; Firat & Venkatesh, 1995). Whereas
modernism is marked by a linear logic, the reason of science and a search for
universal truths, postmodernism deals with appearances and simulations of reality
(Baudrillard, 1988), centred in the pluralism of styles and a shift from a production
mantra to consumption ideals (van Raaij, 1993). It is exactly this inherent plurality
which makes a holistic definition difficult, especially as most scholars tend to narrow
their emphasis on selective aspects of postmodernism. One attempt to overcome this
deficiency was made by Firat & Schultz (1997) who provided an often-cited
framework for postmodern marketing considerations (see Figure 2.1).
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Figure 2.1: Postmodern conditions (Firat & Schultz, 1997)
Five of these conditions are of particular relevance to this paper as they present the
socio-psychological rationale underlying its research objective.
The most significant condition in this context is fragmentation of the self, which leads
to multiple representations of one‟s identity and different preferences within the same
product category. Postmodern marketing accelerates this multiplicity of roles since it
is rampant, intertextual, instantaneous and volatile at the same time (van Raaij, 1993).
Media constantly bombards consumers with increasingly sublime, multi-sensuous
semiotics (i.e. symbolic cues), accentuating a diversity of consumer interests.
18
Second and closely related is the juxtaposition of opposites: Self-images are
multiphrenic, i.e. holding and communicating inconsistent, disjointed and often
paradoxical lifestyles, consumption patterns and identities (Christensen et al, 2005;
Elliott, 1997; Firat & Schultz, 2001).
Thirdly, a reversed production and consumption paradigm holds that postmodern
consumers customise and generate self-images at each moment of consumption
(Elliot, 1997; Firat & Venkatesh, 1995), actively shaping or even creating different
brand personalities for the same product (Cova, 1996).
The fourth significant condition is that of decentred subjects: humans become
objectified, partly losing control over their self-definition and simultaneously
constructing a subjective reality through fleeting consumption patterns (Firat et al,
1995).
The emphasis on form and style, a condition originally proposed by Brown (1993), is
closely related to the aforementioned contextual image-switching: product images
need constant updating in order to provide meaning and self-expression in the
postmodernist social arena (Proctor & Kitchen, 2002). Role transitions lead to changes
in appearance without commitment to singularity (Featherstone, 1991; Solomon,
1983).
With regards to these conditions, this paper would like to add escapism (into nature)
as a postmodern option for consumers to refuse a commercial infiltration. Varely &
Crowther (1998) propose that a growing loss of identity and the aspiration for sources
of personal differentiation lead to the desire of escaping into the outdoors and related
authentic, meaningful activities. Scholars of postmodernism (Elliott, 1997; Firat et al,
1995; Schouten, 1991) found impression management a crucial part of postmodern
colloquialism, highlighting the importance of „spare-time selves‟ as part of an escapist
notion (Christensen, 1997).
19
Hence, and to synthesise, it is here argued that the postmodern marketing environment
leaves consumers with the choice between escapism or integration, depending on
which self-image is subjectively constructed at a given time. Marketers must realise
that brand credibility can no longer be based on an assumed stability and consistency
(Firat et al, 1995) as postmodernism promotes incongruity that render long-term
targeting strategies inappropriate (van Raaij, 1993).
Whhile a critical reflection on postmodernism is beyond the scope of this paper and
due to its conceptual nature not immediate to the objectives of this research, a more
detailed discussion can be found in Aronowitz & Giroux (1991) and Jameson (1991).
2.3 Self-Image
In line with a growing interest in consumer behaviour research, Levy (1959) was the
first to promote the investigation of one‟s self-image for marketing purposes. Often
equated with self-concept, self-image may be defined as people‟s perception of
themselves - „all that they are and all that they have‟ (Statt, 1997, p.72) - be it in terms
of their psyche, social evaluations or material possessions. This definition already
incorporates the postmodern notion of a fragmented self, whereas earlier influential
studies such as Grubb & Grathwohl (1967), Dolich (1969) and Birdwell (1968)
proposed a modernist, one-dimensional self-image.
However, Landon (1974), Malhotra (1981) or Zinkhan & Hong (1991), to name just a
few, added a second dimension - the ideal self-image - to the theoretical debate.
Whereas the actual self-image promoted by earlier studies describes how we see
ourselves, the ideal self-image indicates how we would like to be. Today, the
established dimensions of one‟s self-image comprise the actual-, ideal- and social self,
20
which Higgins (1987) claims to be dynamically interrelated. According to Malhorta
(1981), the social self is not as congruent with product preferences as the individual
self, which may be an explanation for the continuing popularity of the two former
concepts.
While these coexisting parts of the self-image already reflect a fragmentation of the
self, later research addressed the juxtaposition of opposites represented via multiple
selves (Firat & Schultz, 2001; Settles, 2004). It is now widely agreed that specific
identities and roles matter more for consumption behaviour than the overall self-image
(Escalas, 2004; Kleine et al, 1993). Schenk & Holman (1980) for instance put forward
the situational self, Schiffmann & Kanuk (2006) the expected- and the ought-to self,
Belk (1988) the extended self, Hogg & Bannister (2001) the undesired self and Aaker
(1999) suggests the malleable self. To the author‟s knowledge, the only contrary
research comes from Gould (1991), who did not find confirming evidence for a
multidimensional self. Since the exploration of each is beyond the scope of this paper,
Hattie (1992) may be recommended for a holistic, multi-disciplinary approach to the
topic.
Generally, the postmodern complexity (i.e. fragmentation and decentration) of the self
in line with the multitude of academic fields reporting on the topic such as sociology,
psychology or marketing may actually have led to a confusion rather than
clarification. An updated and all-encompassing research review of the SPC-construct
as performed by Sirgy in 1982 would therefore be a useful future contribution to the
consumer behaviour literature.
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2.4 Product image
Within the SPC-literature, product image is used interchangeably with brand
personality or brand image. Sirgy (1982) describes product image as a set of
personality attributes associated with a product. The most commonly used brand
personality inventory in SPC-literature (developed by Aaker, 1997), proposes five
core dimensions from which this paper‟s contextual investigation will derive its
defining attributes: Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication and
Ruggedness. Whereas the significance of such personality attributes on purchasing
behaviour has been demonstrated (Grubb & Stern, 1971), its underlying modernist
notion of stereotyping product users has been challenged by highlighting the
importance of the consumption context at a given time (Hannover & Kessels, 2004)
and by emphasising the complementary rather than congruent nature of the brand
personality – self-image relation (Helgeson & Supphellen, 2004). However, there is
still an established agreement, that products have symbolic meaning, which in
postmodern times seems of more importance than its functional value (Elliott, 1997;
Graeff, 1996). In relation to the product context of this thesis, symbolic value was
found to be especially applicable for clothing items in relation to one‟s personal vanity
(Netemyer et al, 1995).
There is wide support for the idea that people buy products that maintain or enhance
their self-image (Aaker, 1999; Belk, 1988; Kleine et al, 1993; Levy, 1959).
Postmodernism argues that a reversal in the consumption – production dichotomy
means that nowadays consumers shape a product‟s image as a way of regaining
control over their self-definition and self-expression. In this context, new insights may
be gained by further investigating where a product image evolves and manifests itself
in the consumer‟s mind (e.g. using neuro-imaging) in order to identify feasible forms
and situations to involve the consumer in the production process.
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2.5 Self-product congruence
2.5.1 Modernist SPC
Originally, self-product congruence (SPC) theory followed a purely modernist stance
being defined as a one-dimensional, linear concept. Birdwell (1968) and Grubb &
Grathwohl (1967) can be considered as pioneers of the Hypothesis that people are
likely to acquire those products whose product image is congruent with their own self-
image. The former provided the first empirical evidence for SPC, the latter highlighted
symbolic consumption as a means for self-enhancement and social interaction.
However, as common with pioneering consumer research, criticism was provided
soon after. Both Landon (1974) and Evans (1968) questioned the post-purchase
measurement of SPC used in the early studies, suggesting that they were likely to have
been deteriorated by dissonance-reducing intentions of the participants and consumers
confusion about their self-image. This criticism already seemed to indicate a
postmodern notion of decentred self-definitions.
Despite this, more recent studies (Jamal & Goode, 2001; O‟Cass & Frost, 2002) have
returned to one-dimensional SPC-research, although the actual-ideal indices of SPC
were not the purpose of their investigation. For now, it seems that the convenience of
measuring SPC as a monistic, modernist concept has been the main rationale for it
remaining on the consumer research agenda.
2.5.2 Postmodernist SPC
Shortly after SPC first appeared in marketing literature, Dolich (1969) suggested an
exploration in relation to consumers‟ ideal self-image. Results suggested an equal
congruence of actual and ideal self-image with one‟s preferred brands. However, Ross
(1971) later proposed that rather than one‟s ideal self-image, it is the actual self-image
23
which is more congruent with the preferred product image. Even so, Hughes (1976)
and Sirgy (1982) empirically verified that ideal SPC is a stronger influence on product
preference than actual SPC. The most influential papers at that stage, manifesting the
two-dimensional construct, came from Belch & Landon (1977), Sirgy (1982) and
Malhotra (1981).
In retrospect, Ross‟ (1991) research may have been influenced by the fact that the
product evaluation of his chosen category, namely cars, refers to utilitarian cues which
incur less symbolic value than fashion items for example. Sirgy et al. (1991) found
that functional congruity, i.e. the use of utilitarian evaluation criteria, had a stronger
influence on consumer behaviour than self-congruity. In relation, Mangleburg et al.
(1998) discovered that if a consumer has prior experience with a product, utilitarian
cues dominate their product evaluation. Whereas Sirgy et al.‟s (1991) study did not
establish a strong causal relationship between functional and self-congruity,
Mangleburg et al. (1998) found proof that one‟s self-image influences utilitarian
evaluation processes. Graeff (1996) indicated earlier that if an advertisement activates
self-congruence in a consumer, the formed attitudes would be more positive than
towards an activated functional congruence. Studies suggesting a biasing effect of
self-congruity on functional congruity seem to have a wider academic support (see
Belk, 1988; Kressmann et al, 2006). Henceforth, SPC-research may provide more
effective tools for influencing a consumer‟s product evaluation than functional
congruity investigations.
The diverse research results may indicate that the functional-symbolic dichotomy of
SPC may vary depending on the product category. Landon (1974) and Morgan (1993)
provide similar findings for idealisation versus actualisation processes with regard to
consumers‟ SPC, which were also found to vary with product categories.
Postmodernist scholars even predict that inherently inconsistent self-images will
24
inevitably deliver juxtaposing results because self-images are dynamic (Belk 1988). It
is therefore surprising that the dominant number of scholars (see for instance Graeff,
1996; Hogg & Zinkhan, 1995) still seem to promote unidirectional self-enhancement
cognitions from actual to ideal SPC-perceptions based on the modernist notion that
consumers will always want more (not less) of what image characteristics they
perceive to possess in order to reach an ideal state. Actual SPC is commonly linked to
consumers need for authenticity and self-consistency, whereas ideal SPC is associated
with self-esteem needs, based on symbolic self-completion theories (Krohmer et al,
2007; Wicklund & Gollwitzer, 1982). Further to this, it remains unclear to what extent
ideal SPC is a stronger influence than actual SPC, as research such as Sirgy & Danes‟
(1982) has not been revised despite a constantly developing postmodern paradigm.
The increasing impact of self-symbolism (e.g. form and style) supports the
postmodern dichotomy of a two-dimensional SPC-paradigm. However, far from being
dualistic, postmodernism inspires multi-dimensional research beyond actual and ideal
SPC and towards the fragmented self. Belk‟s often-cited paper published in 1988 laid
the theoretical foundation for this development, identifying varying degrees of SPC in
dynamic contexts such as materialism, donations and dispositions. Sirgy (1982) as
well as Fournier (1998) provided strong evidence for multiple self-congruity which
has led to extensive self-image research (see Chapter 2.3).
Be it the multiple -, ideal-, or actual self, postmodern marketers must address each as
one segment or target persona on which to focus at a given time of advertising
exposure or within a fragmented consumption context in order to achieve message
consistency. Furthermore, the interplay and assumed upward idealisation between the
actual and ideal self within the SPC-construct requires contextual verification.
25
2.5.3 Effects of SPC
Whereas the interrelation between actual and ideal SPC has not been investigated in a
postmodern context, scholars have explored the impact of SPC on a range of
marketing variables. Belch & Landon (1977) discovered that ownership activates SPC
- particularly the ideal self - whereas non-owners showed no correlation. Sirgy &
Danes (1982) suggested positive effects of SPC on purchase motivation and intention
(regardless of an actual or ideal self-activation). Grzeskowiak (2007) proposes that
SPC influences consumer well-being, i.e. consumers‟ perception of the quality-of-life
impact of a particular product, and Kressmann et al. (2006) verified that SPC assists in
predicting brand loyalty. In terms of postmodernism, these and a multitude of related
findings support the growing emphasis of self-expression through form and style. It
may be of further interest to explore to what extent a reversed production-
consumption dichotomy - i.e. consumers‟ dominant role in co-creating products
(Etgar, 2008) – could influence SPC.
2.5.4 Measuring SPC
A brief note must be made about the ways in which SPC is measured. The most
common method to measure SPC is by investigating self-image and product image
separately for subsequent mathematical combination using semantic differential
scales, validated by Malhotra (1981) and Sirgy (1982). However, an alternative model
suggested by Sirgy et al. (1997) has experienced a growing popularity, because it was
found to be more predictive than the traditional method. Sirgy et al.‟s (ibid.) method
investigates SPC more directly and without predetermined personality attributes as
had been common previously. Yet, it is difficult for marketers to deduce which image
characteristics (i.e. brand personality scale items) actually account for congruity-
26
effects (Kang, 2002; Kwak & Kang, 2008). Furthermore, Kressmann et al.‟s (2006)
recent research used the traditional method and generated high internal
consistency/reliability coefficients and strong discriminant validity.
Therefore, from a postmodern perspective, Sirgy et al.‟s (1997) monistic, uniform
approach does not do justice to the pluralistic SPC-paradigm and related inherent,
potentially inconsistent differences within the self- product-construct.
2.6 Conclusion
As shown in this chapter, investigating the self-product congruence paradigm from a
postmodernist perspective raises valuable insights into how and why self-image and
product-image have developed towards multi-dimensionality, both in separation as
well as within a congruence construct. Of particular interest to postmodern scholars
may be the interrelationship of ideal and actual SPC with regards to the prevailing
modernist assumption of upward idealisation processes and stereotyping images. The
numerous and empirically substantiated positive effects of SPC on consumption
behaviour certainly indicate its utility as a marketing tool despite disagreements
amongst scholars regarding related methods of measurement. Potential future research
areas identified in this chapter include a postmodern review of the multi-dimensional
self-image literature and the effects of consumers‟ co-creation processes on product
image perceptions.
27
Chapter 3: Industry context - Outdoor apparel
3.1 Introduction
To examine the SPC-theorem from a postmodern perspective „outdoor apparel‟ (i.e.
functional clothing made for nature activities such as mountaineering, hiking or
climbing) outdoor apparel was chosen as product category due to its already observed
postmodern consumption character (Varley & Crowther, 1998) and because it is
considered to represent image-eliciting status symbols as well as brand image
prototyping (Stepping out, 1999).
3.2 Outdoor apparel industry
The European outdoor market generated a total sales volume of €2.9 bn in 2007 and is
currently considered to be the strongest growing market in the sports clothing
industry1. By far the biggest markets in Europe are Germany and the UK which bear
strong similarity to the US, the world‟s largest outdoor market. Clothing accounts for
most sales in this highly concentrated industry where leading brands – next to sports
giants Adidas and Nike - include The North Face, Columbia, Patagonia, Mammut and
Vaude. Outdoor products are undergoing a transformation from being seen as purely
utilitarian equipment to becoming social attire (e.g. specialist climbing packs used as
bookbags for instance). This trend towards fashion next to functional symbolism
underlines a postmodern aesthetisation of form and style which has further been
triggered by the market entry of designer brands such as Ralph Lauren and an
increasing feminisation of apparel (Bacheller, 2001).
1 Unless indicated otherwise, all data is obtained from the U.S. Department of Commerce 2007.
28
3.3 Outdoor apparel marketing
The fashion-function crossover has led to an urbanised consumption of outdoor
apparel in which the outdoor lifestyle reflects a desire for authenticity and adventure.
Accordingly, although a segmentation by activity is common, the dominant marketing
approach is to promote an outdoor prototype of an adventurer engaged in extreme
sports in a risk-bearing context (Varley & Crowther, 1998), as shown in Figure 3.1.
Recent market research (Emotional Logic, 2007) reveals function and comfort to be
mere surface drivers whereas consumers‟ real desires originate in escapism into
freedom and away from an inauthentic, technology-dominated environment. The
current outdoor market environment has thus been suggested to be made up of
Enthusiasts, Recreationals and Fashionists (Stepping out, 1999). Consequently,
outdoor apparel marketing has started to adjust its positioning strategies by expanding
the still extreme-performance-focused brand images to urban contexts (e.g. The North
Face advertisements in music clubs and bars (Gruner & Jahr, 2005).
Figure 3.1: The North Face product image. (Retrieved 12 February 2009 from
http://www.halfmoonoutfitters.com/halfmoon/dept.asp?dept_name=The+North+Face&dept_id=871&s
_id=0)
29
3.4 Postmodern outdoor consumerism
Despite the apparent significance of outdoor apparel for the sports clothing industry
and the related transformation of consumption characteristics, to the author‟s
knowledge only one study to date has explored the industry and its underlying
consumption structure: Varley & Crowther (1998) importantly characterised outdoor
consumerism as a postmodern development which experiences 2 types of consumers
which may here be referred to as „Regulars‟ and „Occasionals‟.
Occasionals experience today‟s symbolic pressures of impression management,
constant self-transformations according to dynamic consumption contexts and an
incomplete self-definition due to standardised extended self solutions. Outdoor
consumption is described as a pressure-release valve to live a spare-time self that
allows for an integration into authentic outdoor communitas. They regard outdoor
apparel as entry code to an aspired self-differentiation.
Regulars represent the extreme-sports elite and engage in constant extreme
performances which they conspicuously communicate to manifest their integration in
the community and to concurrently exclude an increasingly hyper-real environment.
Yet, there is a fashionable sub-context to their public exercising which may reflect the
growing popularity and thereby conspicuousness of outdoor apparel and sports in
general. The notion of escapism as well as an underlying confidence acquired by
wearing outdoor apparel in urban contexts is both supported by recent market research
(Emotional Logic, 2007) and thus assumed to be an appropriate product category for
this research.
30
Chapter 4: Research problem theory
4.1 Introduction
At its core, self-product-congruence proposes that consumers analyse the match
between their self-image (actual- or ideal) and a product‟s image. A high congruence
has positive effects on purchase intentions and related consumer evaluation processes.
The inherent assumption that consumers are able to distinctly perceive a uniform
product image and further build their own self-image in response to unidirectional
self-enhancement cognitions is in stark contrasts to postmodern pluralists concepts,
therefore may require updating.
Accordingly, this chapter briefly explains the theoretical and conceptual research
questions related to a postmodern SPC-perspective, followed by an outline of the
Hypothesis put forward to explore the two identified research gaps (stereotyping and
idealisation processes).
4.2 Research problem: Stereotyping and upward idealisation processes
A core theoretical concept promoted by Sirgy (1982) and adopted by other scholars
(e.g. Belk 1988; Graeff, 1996; Grzeskowiak, 2007; Kressmann et al, 2006) is the idea
of equating product image with a typical (stereotyped) product-user image. However,
since Grubb & Stern verified this equation in 1971, prototyping within the SPC-
paradigm has not been further questioned.
A prototype refers to one person, a stereotype to a social group of persons who
function as cognitive representations crafted through particular connotations
(Hannover & Kessels, 2004), used here with respect to the consumers of a product.
31
Although Helgeson & Supphellen (2004) highlight the difference between product
image constructs and the SPC-paradigm, specifically that typical user images are
merely one of several components of consumers‟ product image perceptions, no
subsequent investigations have been made regarding its potential implications. „Self-
to-prototype-matching‟ has found verifications in social and psychological research
(Hannover & Kessels, 2004; Setterlund & Niedenthal, 1993) but only by analysing
personality attributes in isolation (Niedenthal & Beike, 1997). To this author‟s
knowledge, no studies have yet been conducted to investigate a respective holistic
image-perception, and especially the validity of equating it with a product image in a
consumption context. It is unclear, for example, whether both actual and ideal self can
be served by one monistic prototype and which defining characteristics are
incorporated in such consumption stereotypes. This is especially so since the SPC-
theorem summates multiple image attributes into single holistic entities for reasons of
comparison, ignoring the potential inherent ambivalence.
Consequently, self-to-prototype-matching largely depends on context and varies in
intensity (Hannover & Kessels, 2004), which is significant in marketing terms as it
translates into the necessity for diversified targeting strategies. Van Raaij (1993) has
questioned the validity of stereotyping for postmodern consumers, because the desire
to escape multi-media forms of commercial prototyping is likely to produce
contradictory results to Sirgy‟s (1982) assumptions. On the other hand, stereotypes
may be used as social reinforcement and means of integration for those not
successfully engaging in postmodern „symbolic interactionism‟ (Escalas & Bettman,
2005; Solomon, 1983). Crucially, postmodern thinkers declare any form of
prototyping as obsolete modernist monism and potential marketing myopia (Levitt,
1960).
32
A second and closely related shortcoming in the SPC-paradigm is the assumption of a
linear, upward idealisation from a consumer‟s actual to ideal self (i.e. the ideal being
founded in the perception of „the more perfect an image characteristic, the better‟).
The multi-dimensional conflict (and strong correlation) between one‟s actual- and
ideal self (Ataman & Ülengin, 2003; Belk, 1988) is likely to have changed with
regards to the evolution of the fragmented self and its sub-constructs (such as the
undesired or social self). The ideal SPC may not necessarily be encompass a desire for
more, but potentially for less of the same image characteristic than the actual SPC.
Such ambiguity would be in accordance with a paradoxical desire for both integration
and escapism from the postmodern consumption arena and raise questions as to the
limits of consumers‟ perceptual thresholds beyond which an idealised image is seen as
unattainable and better ignored. Moreover, the interplay of consumers needs for self-
consistency and self-esteem (Hong & Zinkhan, 1995) - reflecting the actual and ideal
congruence paradigm - may gain more conceptual clarity from a pluralist perspective.
4.3 Research problem in the outdoor apparel context
The outdoor industry appears to reflect the static condition described above as its
consumption context (i.e. authentic, pure nature activities) has preserved a state of
monistic simplicity which resists the aforementioned hyper-real impression
management found in urban environments. The extreme-sports prototype proposed by
outdoor apparel marketers is based on a monistic idealisation of wilderness adventures
that disagrees with the recognised urbanisation and growing fashion-orientation in
outdoor consumerism.
To illustrate, occasional hikers‟ product image perceptions may be made up of their
own usage-situation (e.g. casual day-walks), the environmental credentials of the
33
product‟s manufacturer reported in the news and the personal connotations with the
product‟s name (e.g. the brand name Patagonia as memory of a holiday once spent
there). The suggestion that all these image perceptions are incorporated in one typical-
user image, and that such an image would be the same for say extreme climbers, who
possibly pursue very different lifestyles, seems rather questionable. Although it may
be an outdoor-apparel marketers dream to create a product-image-prototype (as shown
in Figure 3.1) with which all consumers could totally identify, it appears to be more
likely that the schizophrenic liberalisation of meaning (Firat et al, 1995) conceptually
blurs universalist image-projections (in this case exemplified by the growing
urbanisation of outdoor apparel).
Furthermore, aspiration for „symbolic integration‟ as well as a perceived desire for an
escape into authentic nature experiences may result in ideal self-images which
significantly differ from actual self-images, rendering upward idealisations a highly
complex if not misguided approach. Accordingly, for the two market segments under
investigation (Regulars and Occasionals) „the more extreme, the better‟ idealisation-
appeals may not necessarily produce self-product congruence. Taking Figure 3.1 as an
example again, the underlying assumption seems to be that the extreme scenario
projected (isolation, coldness, slip hazard) represents what consumers ideally would
like to be when comparing the image to their actual self. Yet, how are those accounted
for who are happy with their actual state of being and whose ideal is not that of a
mountain expedition but rather of a family stroll? It may also be possible that those
consumers whose actual self-image already resembles the projected extreme-sports
ideal, in fact aspire to possess outdoor apparel that fits into urban contexts too,
functioning as a symbolic camouflage (Emotions Logic, 2007).
34
This paper therefore proposes 4 theses based on outdoor apparel consumerism in order
to investigate the validity of the SPC-theorem from a postmodern perspective.
4.4 Hypotheses
In order to study self-product-congruence in a postmodern context, its two
components (self-image and product image) were first explored separately following
postmodern icon Jaque Derrida‟s (1976) „conceptual deconstruction‟ approach.
Subsequently, SPC was examined as a holistic theorem, for both Regulars and
Occasionals.
Hypothesis 1: Product image
The postmodern rejection of Sirgy‟s (1982) so far academically unquestioned one-
dimensional prototyping of a product‟s image was encapsulated in the following
hypothesis:
There is a significant variance in how outdoor consumers characterise the typical
brand user
Hypothesis 2: Self-image
To test whether the here examined outdoor consumers clearly distinguish between
their actual and ideal self-image, it was proposed that:
There is a significant difference between the actual- and the ideal self-image of
outdoor consumers
35
Hypothesis 3 & 4: Self-product congruence
The final step is to explore self-product-congruence as a whole by comparing the
relationship between the actual and ideal SPC.
Regulars are expected to feel self-consistent with an extreme-sports related product
image but may aspire to integrate into multiple social contexts and switch roles to
adjust to the form and style required in a postmodern consumption culture.
Accordingly, it is assumed that:
Regulars show higher actual- than ideal self-product-congruence
Occasionals, on the other hand, may feel that the outdoor context is one of a multitude
of lifestyles that does not authentically reflect their „casual self‟ but ideally would be
enhanced to allow an escape from the omnipresent and paradoxical aestheticisation
they constantly experience. Thus, it is put forward that:
Occasionals show lower actual than ideal self-product-congruence
Figure 4.1 illustrates the expected outcomes:
Figure 4.1: Assumed actual-ideal self-product-congruence relationship
4.5 Conclusion
This chapter thus uncovered the need for a postmodern analysis of image-prototyping
and upward idealisations within the self-product-congruence framework. Hypothesis 1
Regulars Actual SPC > Ideal SPC
Occasionals Actual SPC < Ideal SPC
36
and 2 set out to establish an ambiguity in stereotyping typical product-user images and
aim to confirm a sophistication of consumer‟s fragmented self-image perceptions.
Hypothesis 3 and 4 focus on the SPC-construct as a whole by investigating
idealisation processes of 2 types of postmodern outdoor consumers. The method used
to explore these hypotheses will be outlined next.
37
Chapter 5: Methodology
5.1 Introduction
The aim of this research is to investigate the validity of using image stereotypes and
an upward idealisation of image perceptions within the Self-product-congurence
theorem.
This chapter presents the methodological framework utilized to test self-product-
congruence from a postmodern perspective, delineating the product stimulus,
sampling strategy, data collection and analysis methods as well as related limitations.
5.2 Product stimulus
The chosen product category was outdoor apparel, here defined as functional clothing
(excluding footwear) for the nature-activities hiking, climbing, mountaineering,
mountain-biking and cross-country running. Clothing was selected because the nature
of the product was assumed to elicit status and image-related consideration which
have already been illustrated in SPC-research (Banister & Hogg, 2001; Goldsmith et
al, 1999; O‟Cass & Frost, 2002). The outdoor apparel industry represents a
particularly relevant example because of its prevailing stereotyped branding strategies
which dominantly focus on performance-related, extreme-sports activities.
Furthermore, product users experience supposedly differing brand image perceptions
depending on their level of activity which was here used to divide the market into two
segments: „Regulars‟ and „Occasionals‟. Regulars consisted of respondents
performing outdoor activities at least several times a week whilst Occasionals were
those active in the outdoors once a week or less.
38
5.3 Sampling
This paper employed an online-survey research strategy. A brief introductory note
regarding purpose, length and significance of the survey together with a web-link was
placed on 10 online forums related to outdoor activities (see Appendix 1). Due to their
wide reach, online surveys are expected to produce larger sample sizes than postal
mail surveys, although response rates may be lower due to the very personal content
of the SPC-questionnaire and a related perceived insecurity of internet-based
information (see Evans & Mathur, 2005).
5.4 Data collection:
Survey-data was gathered using a close-ended questionnaire. Participants were asked
to complete the questionnaire with regards to their own outdoor apparel since
possession functioned as required pre-selection condition for an inclusion in the data
analysis (Belch & Landon, 1977).
Questionnaire design
This paper explored self-product congruence via questions already established in the
literature (Sirgy et al, 1991; Quester et al, 2000) and based on an unipolar semantic
differential scale adapted from Aaker (1997) that contains generalisable attributes and
is commonly used in SPC-questionnaires (Helgeson & Supphellen, 2004; Kressmann
et al, 2006). A product-specific adaptation of scale items has been recommended in
past SPC-research (Sirgy, 1982; Landon, 1974) in order to reduce potential ambiguity
between subject and object. A pilot study involving 20 subjects was conducted to gain
feedback on the contextual clarity of an initial set of 18 scale items. Subsequently, 3
39
attributes (honest, glamorous, strong) were removed due to participants reported
uncertainty regarding their application to apparel, resulting in a final set of 15
attributes (see Appendix 2). Items were rated using a 7-point-Likert-scale (1= strongly
disagree, 7 = strongly agree).
The questionnaire design approached SPC by investigating self-image and product
image separately for a subsequent mathematical combination, a method long
established in the SPC-literature (see section 2.5.4). The scale items used were
identical for section 1-3 in order to systematically compare the interrelations between
all three image perceptions and to establish the degree of congruity. Accordingly, the
structure ran as follows:
Section 1 – Pre-selection
Screening basic information regarding participants‟ outdoor activities and apparel
Section 2 – Actual self-image
„To what extent do the following personality attributes apply to you?‟
Section 3– Ideal self-image
„Imagine how you would like to be. To what extent do the following personality
attributes apply to how you would like to be?‟
Section 4 – Product image
„Imagine your brand of outdoor apparel as a person. Indicate the extent to which the
following personality attributes apply to the typical user of the brand.
40
Section 5 – Demographics
This section (placed at the end to avoid fatigue bias) was used to examine basic
demographic information and to increase the relevance for segmentation
considerations.
5.5 Data analysis approach
Data analysis was conducted using the statistical software SPSS 16. Self-product
congruity scores (aSPC and iSPC) for each scale item were measured by taking the
overall mean of each brand personality rating and its correspondent self-image rating
(aSI and iSI) (Sirgy, 1982; Sirgy et al, 1991, 1997) and subsequently using t-tests to
indicate the difference or congruence between them (Hughes, 1976; Hogg et al, 2000).
Individual mean scores were then averaged across all personality attributes, resulting
in the overall aSPC and iSPC scores (Kressmann et al, 2006; Mehta, 1999). Finally,
the relationship between aSPC and iSPC was analysed via paired sample t-tests
(Graeff, 1996; O‟Cass & Frost, 2002). Since t-tests actually measured the difference
between the two means of an image perception (i.e. its incongruence), a high t-value
indicated a low self-product-congruence and vice versa.
5.6 Limitations
The following influences may be of a limiting character to the here proposed
methodology:
41
Placing questionnaires in online forums led to respondents commenting on the
survey and hence, as is natural in online communities, may have been read by -
and biased- subsequent participants.
Sirgy et al. (1991) highlight that summating attributes into one holistic image
entity ignores possible interrelations between characteristics, a phenomenon
referred to as compensatory decision rule.
Carry-over effects may arise due to the similarity of each image-related question
and the same 15 scale items being listed each time. Kleine et al. (1993) for
instance called this occurrence „self-generated validity‟.
42
Chapter 6: Research results
6.1 Introduction
The purpose of this study was to examine postmodern influences on the stereotyping
and idealisation processes that occur when consumers compare their actual and ideal
self with a product‟s image, i.e. their self-product-congruence (SPC). While the
previous chapter outlined the underlying methodology used to approach this concept,
this chapter will provide a detailed description of the sample composition, outline the
statistical data produced by testing the four hypotheses and finish with some
conclusive remarks.
6.2 Description of sample /respondents
A total of 512 replies of which 186 were complete and usable was generated from a
questionnaire placed on 10 online forums. In comparison to similar SPC-research
(Ekinci & Riley, 2003; Hogg et al, 2000; Jamal & Goode, 2001) which generated
around 120 feasible replies, the here collected number was regarded as more than
sufficient.
Among the 186 respondents, 84% were male and 16% female. The numerical
dominance of males reflects the frequently documented fact that outdoor sports are
still exercised by more men than women (Horbert & Atzberger, 2006). In addition,
Quester et al. (2000) note that gender effects do not influence SPC-scores and hence
the dominance of males in this questionnaire does not preclude the validity of its
analysis.
43
The majority of respondents (79%) were between the age of 21 and 49 which tends to
be the outdoor industry‟s main targeting age-group since a combined physical and
financial capability for outdoor activities can confidently be assumed. Due to the fact
that the approached forums were either based in Germany, the UK or the US, it was
no surprise that a total of 80 % of respondents came from these countries.
The numerical preponderance of Regulars (58%) in the distribution of respondents
was to be expected since a participation in the approached online communities
predisposes an above-average level of involvement in outdoor-related content. As
mentioned already, Regulars consisted of respondents performing outdoor activities at
least several times a week whilst Occasionals were those active in the outdoors once a
week or less. No further demographic segmentation was made.
Table 6.1 reports the respondents‟ basic demographic profile in more detail.
44
Frequency Percentage
Gender (n= 186)
Female 30 16
Male 156 84
Age (n= 186)
15-20 25 13.4
21-34 93 50.0
35-49 54 29.0
50-64 12 6.5
over 65 2 1.1
Frequency of activity (n= 186)
Daily 23 12.4
Several times a week 85 45.7
Once a week 29 15.6
Several times a month 26 14.0
Once a month 10 5.4
Several month a year 8 4.3
Once a year 5 2.7
Table 6.1: Respondent profile description
6.3 Analysis of data / Hypotheses
6.3.1 Product image Hypothesis 1 challenged the existence of a prototype which would act as clearly
definable product image in the mind of outdoor consumers.
Results of the descriptive analysis confirm that there is no such clear perception of a
typical user image (see Table 6.2 and Figure 6.1). A standard deviation of 1.2 in
relation to a mean of 4.9 indicates that there is a strong variance in image perceptions,
ranging from being undecided (≈4) to agreement (≈6) on the here employed 7-point-
45
Likert-scale2. A prototype could be expected to produce less variance since a
generalisable perceptual agreement is implicitly assumed. Rather than the here
revealed variance across 3 categories on a 7-point-Likert-scale, a prototype would be
expected to reside in one category with a related lower standard deviation.
Table 6.2: Descriptive statistics for average typical user-image perceptions
Yet, the dominantly negative skewness of each individual personality attribute in
combination with the low standard error (0.178) - suggesting that the sample is an
accurate reflection of the population- means that a trend towards a performance-
related product image can be inferred (see also Fleck & Quester, 2007):
The highest means were generated from the attributes outdoorsy (5.44) and reliable
(5.57), by far the lowest means were produced by the fashion-oriented attribute trendy
(3.84) (see Appendix 3-6 for average means and illustrations).
Figure 6.1: Average typical user image perceptions – distribution of means and skewness
2 Results for Regulars and Occasionals were similar with standard deviations of 1.2 for both and
respective means of 4.9 and 4.8.
N Mean Std. Deviation Skewness
Statistic Std. Error
Typical User Image 186 4.88 1.20 0.784 0.178
46
6.3.2 Self-image
For a subsequent investigation of interrelated image perception processes, Hypothesis
2 first was to test whether outdoor consumers significantly differentiate between their
actual and ideal self-image (SI). As expected and illustrated in Table 6.3, a paired
samples t-test showed that consumers perceived significant differences between their
actual (M=5.37, SD = 1.23) and ideal self-image (M=4.83, SD= 0.88), t(185) = 8.63, p
<0.05, hence verifying their investigation within the SPC-construct. The mean
increase from ideal to actual self-image was 0.54 with a 95% confidence interval
ranging from 0.42 to 0.67.
Mean Std. Deviation t
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Ideal self-image
Actual self-image
5.37 1.23 8.63
0.000
4.83
0.88
Table 6.3: Statistical difference between the average ideal- and actual self-image
In addition, Table 6.4 highlights the strong positive correlation between the two image
dimensions (r= 0.717, n= 186, p< 0.05), moving the focus to their interrelation and
assumed upward idealisation (the higher the actual self, the higher the ideal self).
Correlation Sig.
Ideal self-image & actual self-image 0.717 0.000
Table 6.4: Correlation between the average ideal- and actual self image
6.3.4 Self-product congruence
Hypothesis 3 and 4 were to test the supposedly upward idealisation from the actual
and ideal self-product-congruence of Regulars and Occasionals respectively. It must
be noted that, because the t-tests used for both hypotheses measure the difference
between two means, they actually measure incongruence; hence, the lack of
significant differences – indicated by p-values higher 0.05 - represent congruence (see
Hogg et al, 2000).
Regulars
Hypothesis 3 suggested that Regulars would feel close to the outdoor product image
but desire idealised characteristics not reflected in the product image (i.e. they show a
higher actual than ideal SPC).
Table 6.5 illustrates image perceptions and SPC-scores (i.e. t-values and p-values).
Results substantiate that Regulars have a higher aSPC (t= -0.14, p=0.887) than iSPC
(t= -5.77, p=0.000), demonstrating that the actual SI (M=4.95, SD=0.86) is closer to
the typical-user-image (M=4.94, SD=1.24) than the ideal SI (M=5.51, SD=1.26) is.
However, the underlying postmodern assumption that this is based on a lower ideal
SI-score (i.e. mean) is not confirmed. Instead, the upward score from the actual SI to
the ideal SI confirms a modernist, ascending linearity.
47
Ideal SPC
Ideal self-image -
Typical user image
5.51 1.26 -5.78
0.000
4,94
1,24
*df = 107
* p< 0.05
Table 6.5: Actual and ideal self-product-congruence for regular consumers
Yet, whereas all other characteristics verify the Hypothesis, the attribute „tough‟
experiences a reversal of the assumed upward SPC-idealisation: The actual SPC (t=
2.22, p=0.029) is lower than the ideal SPC (t= -1.58, p=0.118).
Additionally, a further examination of the individual characteristics reveals that SPC
is a strongly multidimensional construct: The highest actual SPC was scored by
attributes that can be related to such diverse needs as safety (secure: t= -0.49,
p=0.627), reliability (t= -0.51, p=0.608), self-esteem (authentic: t=-0.33, p=0.743) and
social responsibility (environmentally-conscious: t= .22, p=.830). The strongest ideal
SPC was generated for outdoorsy (t=-0.58, p=0.566) and tough (t= -1.58, p=0.118),
characteristics more related to extreme adventurism with the latter incorporating an
aforementioned equivocality.
The most incongruent characteristics experience an even stronger ambivalence:
Regulars feel less tough (t= 2.22, p=0.029) and trendy (t= 4.76, p=0.000) and more
down-to-earth (t= 3.90, p=0.000) than the product image - once more a rather
paradoxical, inconsistent juxtaposition - whilst ideally they would like to be
significantly more confident (t= -6.16, p=0.000), secure (t= -5.32, p=0.000),
responsible (t= -5.67, p=0.000), daring (t= -5.99, p=0.000), spirited (t= -6.31,
p=0.000), and imaginative (t= -5.05, p=0.000).
Table 6.6 summarises the individual SPC-scores for regular outdoor consumers.
Attribute
Actual SPC Ideal SPC
t Sig. (2-tailed) t Sig. (2-tailed)
Down-To Earth -3.91 0.000 -4.76 0.000
Authentic -0.33 0.743 -2.71 0.008
Environmentally-Conscious 0.22 0.830 -3.93 0.000
Daring -1.72 0.088 -5.99 0.000
Spirited -2.1 0.038 -6.31 0.000
Imaginative -1.88 0.063 -5.05 0.000
Trendy 4.76 0.000 2.74 0.007
Mean Std. Deviation t Sig. (2-
tailed)
Actual SPC Actual self-image -
Typical user image
4.95 .86 -0.14 0.887
4.94 1.24
48
Reliable -0.51 0.608 -3.82 0.000
Economic 0.72 0.473 -2.93 0.004
Secure -0.49 0.627 -5.32 0.000
Confident 1.02 0.311 -6.16 0.000
Responsible -1.22 0.223 -5.67 0.000
Good-Looking 1.92 0.057 -2.11 0.037
Outdoorsy -0.73 0.469 -0.58 0.566
Tough
2.22
0.029
-1.58
0.118
*df = 107
* p< 0.05
Table 6.6: Individual actual- and ideal SPC-scores for regular consumers
Occasionals
In contrasts to Regulars, Occasionals were expected to show a lower actual than ideal
self-product-congruence, as Hypothesis 4 assumes them to feel less congruent with the
outdoor product image but to nevertheless idealise the inherent characteristics.
Yet, findings indicate otherwise (see Table 6.7): Occasionals‟ congruence (t= 1.25,
p=0.215) between their aSI (M=4.66, SD=0.88) and the perceived product image
(M=4.79, SD=1.16) is more significant than the congruence (t= -3.88, p=0.000)
between their iSI (M=5.18, SD=1.18) and the product image. Similar to Regulars, the
ascending score (i.e. mean) from the aSI- to the iSi provides evidence for an upward
idealisation proposed by modernist SPC-scholars.
Ideal SPC
Ideal self-image -
Typical user image
5.18 1.18 -3.88
0.000
4.79
1.16
*df = 77
* p< 0.05
Table 6.7: Actual and ideal self-product-congruence for occasional consumers
Mean Std.
Deviation t
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Actual SPC Actual self-image -
Typical user image
4.66 0.88 1.25 0.215
4.79 1.16
49
However, a closer look into the SPC-constructs‟ underlying components reveals its
potential postmodern ambiguity again: Although their overall aSPC is higher and both
clearly imply a relation to extreme performances, the attributes „secure‟ and „tough‟
both show a lower aSPC (t= 2.05, p=0.044 and t= 3.23, p=0.002 respectively) than
iSPC (t= -1.26, p=0.213 and t= 0.000, p=1.000 respectively) (for details see Appendix
6). This signifies that the present product image for the two characteristics is already
perceived as ideal compared to an actual self-image far away from this ideal state.
The highest aSPC-scores were generated from self-esteem (authentic: t= 0.18,
p=0.861; confident: t= 0.46, p=0.647) and pragmatic (economic: t= -0.22, p=0.826)
characteristics, the highest iSPC was expressed for adventurism- (outdoorsy: t= 0.73,
p=0.467; tough: t= 0.000, p=1.000) and safety needs (secure: t= -1.26, p=0.213). Here,
both actual and ideal characteristics may still be combined within one respective
product image campaign though. Yet, as was the case with Regulars, the most
incongruent attribute perceptions undermine a potential amalgamation: Occasionals
feel significantly less trendy (t= 4.60, p= 0.000), secure (t= 2.05, p=0.044) and tough
(t= 3.23, p=0.002) than the product image communicates. They further show the least
ideal congruence for the attributes confident (t= -4.17, p=0.000), responsible (t= -3.66,
p=0.000), daring (t= -3.30, p=0.001), spirited (t= -3.32, p=0.001) and imaginative (t= -
5.13, p=0.000), indicating that the product image lacks characteristics that they
perceive as ideal.
Table 6.8 summarises the overall and individual SPC-scores for occasional outdoor
consumers.
Attribute
Actual SPC Ideal SPC
t Sig. (2-tailed) t Sig. (2-tailed)
Down-To Earth -0.86 0.394 -2.01 0.048
Authentic 0.18 0.861 -2.85 0.006
Environmentally-Conscious 0.89 0.377 -2.01 0.048
Daring 0.54 0.592 -3.3 0.001
Spirited -0.85 0.397 -3.32 0.001
Imaginative -1.11 0.272 -5.13 0.000
Trendy 4.6 0.000 2.8 0.007
Reliable 1.02 0.309 -2.28 0.025
50
Economic -0.22 0.826 -2.68 0.009
Secure 2.05 0.044 -1.26 0.213
Confident 0.46 0.647 -4.17 0.000
Responsible -1.87 0.066 -3.66 0.000
Good-Looking 1.5 0.138 -1.74 0.086
Outdoorsy 1.12 0.268 0.73 0.467
Tough
3.23
0.002
0.00
1.000
*df = 77
* p< 0.05
Table 6.8: Individual actual- and ideal SPC-scores for occasional consumers
6.4 Conclusions In conclusion, Hypothesis 1 and 2 are confirmed, indicating that outdoor consumers
do not have a distinct image perception of a typical product user from which they infer
a product image but nevertheless show a perceptual trend towards performance-related
image attributes. Furthermore, consumers are clearly able to distinguish between their
actual and ideal self. Although results for Hypothesis 3 and 4 were not as expected
and thereby substantiated the traditional modernist SPC-view (see Figure 6.2), the
ambiguous findings for the single characteristics which make up the theorem suggest
that postmodern considerations should be taken into account when using SPC-theory
as a marketing tool as well as in further academic research, both which will be
discussed in more detail in the next chapter.
Regulars Actual SPC > Ideal SPC
Occasionals Actual SPC > Ideal SPC
Figure 6.2: Results: actual-ideal self-product-congruence relationship
51
Chapter 7: Discussion and conclusions
7.1 Introduction The purpose of this study was to provide a postmodern analysis of image stereotyping
and upward image-idealisation processes as part of self-product-congruence theory
within an outdoor apparel consumption context. Research results contradict the so far
accepted appropriateness of equating typical-user-images with product images, whilst
confirming the established overall upward idealisation within the SPC-construct. A
further investigation of inherent image characteristics revealed that postmodern
consumers experience a perceptual ambiguity that potentially renders a holistic SPC-
construct as amalgamation of image attributes inaccurate. This chapter will first
interpret the Hypothesised findings in detail and then highlight its theoretical and
conceptual contribution before suggesting specific managerial implications, potential
future research and possible limitations.
7.2 Rationale for findings (Hypotheses) 7.2.1 Product image
Hypothesis 1 is confirmed; the diversity in attribute ratings clearly illustrates the lack
of a uniform prototype. A typical user as representation of the product‟s image
comprises both agreement and strong disagreement for „trendiness‟ for instance. The
generally high variance seems to indicate outdoor apparel consumers‟ apparent
indecision of what characteristics a typical product-user may possess. Incorporating
this ambiguity into one unifying image entity would be a Sisyphean task for marketers
aiming to develop a tailored positioning strategy for a specific moment or context of
exposure.
However, the trend towards a typical user being related to extreme-performance (i.e.
being outdoorsy, reliable, tough) provides a rough direction / benchmark of
characteristics to compare it with self-image perceptions. Although the exact product
image cannot be investigated holistically via the projection of an overall typical user
image, the existence of SPC and the interrelation between iSPC and aSPC can
nevertheless be examined by using the observable trend as first component of the
construct.
7.2.2 Self-image
The second component of the SPC-theorem is confirmed by Hypothesis 2: Consumers
are able to make a clear distinction between their actual and ideal self-image. This
implies a level of self-awareness as well as a sophistication of their current and ideal
state that allows for cognitive self-product-congruence processes to be present. It
seems reasonable to assume that the strong correlation between the actual and ideal
self represents two dimensions of one holistic self rather than being based on two or
more separated identity-perceptions which would undermine the here suggested self-
image framework.
52
7.2.3 Self-product congruence Having established the validity of both components, self-product-congruence as a
holistic image entity and an idealistic enhancement from the actual to the ideal are
both confirmed. However, an ambiguity in the SPC-scores for individual image
attributes reveals the potential utility of deconstructing the amalgamated SPC-theorem
in order to accurately identify unwanted idealisations and contradictions not revealed
in the overall image projection.
Results for Hypothesis 3 show that the modernist notion of an upward idealisation
holds true for regular outdoor apparel consumers: A „the more, the better‟ idealisation
seems true when comparing the extreme-performance product image to their self-
image. This was to be expected since a high level of activity implies closeness to the
adventurous product image put forward in current brand promotions. Yet, when
looking at individual characteristics, the danger of generalising this assumption
becomes apparent: An idealised „the tougher, the better‟ brand design for example
would lower the congruence and potentially elicit a negative response because the
promoted image is perceived as unattainable. Additionally, desired attributes are often
ambiguous (e.g. images combining „secure‟ and „reliable‟ with „daring‟ and „spirited‟)
or even contradicting such as idealising both safety and adventurous characteristics.
This pluralism reveals that an accumulation of characteristics into an overall image
entity may ignore intrinsic conflicts of needs.
Similar to regulars and in contrast to what Hypothesis 4 proposed, occasional outdoor
consumers demonstrate an upward idealisation which would imply underlying
idealisation processes. The postmodern assumption that Occasionals lower activity-
level entails a perceived actual incongruence with the extreme-performance-focused
product image is not substantiated. Whilst the reason for their perceived proximity
remains unclear, individual attributes would suggest a general postmodern ambiguity
comparable to their regular counterparts: The attributes „secure‟ and „tough‟ do not
verify an unlimited upward idealisation as both already perfectly match the ideal
image that Occasionals aspire to realise. For instance, consumers that perceive
themselves to lack „toughness‟ (in terms of their actual self-image), may perceive a
self-inadequacy that causes brand avoidance when faced with a prototype of a
toughness that is even beyond what they perceive as attainable ideal. Using the
outdoor apparel consumption context as an illustration, one may imagine an
occasional hiker who would ideally like to do some hill-walking but dismisses an
advertisement of a muscular climber with bloody hands who just reaches the top of an
exposed glacier.
When further examining single image attributes, Occasionals‟ pluralistic actual and
ideal SPC-perceptions may still be meaningfully incorporated into one consistent
product image (combining authenticity, confidence and pragmatism for example).
However, as is the case with Regulars, when taking into account the identified
paradoxical incongruence perceptions (dominated by diverse self-actualisation ideals),
a holistic SPC-view appears to be conceptually undermined again.
In sum, these findings in combination with the inappropriateness of using product-
image stereotypes may significantly contribute to existing SPC-literature and current
marketing practice, as will be discussed in more detail next.
7.3 Theoretical and conceptual contribution 7.3.1 Product image
This research‟s findings crucially contradict Sirgy et al.‟s (1991, 1997) suggestion of
equating a product‟s image with the image of a typical product user. Despite the
53
verification of stereotypes in sociological and psychological literature (Niedenthal &
Beike, 1997; Setterlund & Niedenthal 1993; Settles 2004), it can here be observed that
stereotyping may not hold true in a postmodern consumption context. Banister &
Hogg (2001, 2004), though adopting Sirgy‟s (1982) proposed prototype equalisation,
may nevertheless have a point by proposing the idea of negative stereotypes, here
illustrated in the generalisable trend of rejecting the compatibility of fashion-attributes
with outdoor product images. Bosnjak & Rudolph (2008) suggest similar undesired
self-responses in a low-involvement context. Yet, the essential analytical focus of SPC
is on positive congruence and a self-consistent identification with (not rejection of)
inherent product-image-characteristics and related beneficial consumption effects
(such as increased brand loyalty). Hence, its exploration needs a definite revision not
only in terms of its questionnaire terminology - i.e. replacing the term „typical user‟
with a conceptually accurate representation of consumers‟ product image perceptions -
but more significantly in finding a way to adjust the somewhat static brand personality
scale to the perceptual dynamics of multidimensional postmodern image comparisons.
Keller (1993) as well as Helgeson & Supphellen (2004) for example regard the typical
user image as merely one reflective factor of a product‟s image and further question
brand personality as meaningful construct of analysis. Cova (1996) and van Raiij &
Schoonderbeek (1993) support that by emphasising postmodern consumers‟ desire to
escape symbolic prototyping and to ascertain different brand personalities to the same
product in order to engage in pluralistic role plays. This is also consistent with Kleine
et al.‟s (1993) suggestion that stereotypes may apply for role schemas in specific
situations but cannot be regarded as a guide to one‟s personal ideals.
Hence, this research contributes empirical evidence to the so far unexplored
questioning of stereotypes as representation of product images within the self-product-
congruence paradigm. It is significantly demonstrated that the monistic image
equalisation it is currently based needs a revision when using SPC as a tool to craft
brand images and customer profiles.
7.3.2 Self image
Whereas the first component of the self-product-congruence construct evidently
requires a modification, its second part is substantiated: As most SPC-scholars
propose, consumers plainly distinguish between their actual and ideal self. With
regards to the postmodern framework this paper is build upon, any result to the
contrary (e.g. suggesting a holistic, overall self) would have made further SPC-
investigations meaningless. In fact, the here confirmed strong correlation between the
actual and ideal self-image (see Kressmann et al, 2006 for similar results) may
indicate the high degree of conceptual clarity and sophistication (i.e. cognitive
capabilities) of today‟s consumers (Krohmer et al, 2007) and hence the postmodern
idea of a malleable self (Aaker, 99) seems to be supported. The multiplicity of one‟s
self-image (Banister & Hogg, 2001) may henceforth add to the explanation of the
perceptual ambiguities that will be outlined next.
7.3.3 Self-product-congruence
The here proposed second research problem which decisively deviates from traditional
SPC-assumptions is, at first sight, not corroborated: Findings for both investigated
consumer segments support the common view of an upward idealisation from actual
to ideal SPC. Accordingly, Graeff‟s (1996) proposition of means being consistently
54
larger for a consumer‟s iSPC than for his/her aSPC is confirmed. Moreover, such an
idealisation is in line with Hong & Zinkhan‟s (1995) suggestion of self-consistency
and self-esteem as two linear, monistic representations of consumers‟ image
aspirations. Given the modernist nature of these findings, it may further be plausible
to suggest that regarding the utilitarian nature of the here used performance-related
product-category, functional congruity as biasing factors is present (Mangleburg et al,
1998). This would be analogous to Ross‟ (1991) constructivist conception of
variations in SPC being originated in differing product-categories rather than
postmodern ideals of paradoxical juxtapositions.
Therefore, the established overall SPC-construct appears to remain a feasible
marketing tool for undifferentiated segmentation strategies aiming at generalisable
image perceptions. Furthermore, the various positive effects of SPC on consumer
behaviour – e.g. in terms of purchase motivation and intention or brand preference
(Hong & Zinkhan, 1995) – are manifested by these findings.
However, the original assumptions date back more than a decade and the then
inherently univocal SPC-findings may by now be undermined by increasingly
ambiguous, symbolically intertextual consumption patterns. By deconstructing the
amalgamation of individual image-characteristics, this paper offers insights into an
immanent ambivalence so far largely neglected in the SPC-literature.
As postmodern school of thought would assume, the upward idealisation does not
hold for all image characteristics: For both consumer segments under investigation at
least one characteristic did not support a „the more, the better‟ ideology, as the ideal
SPC was already achieved. This imposes the danger of eliciting a cognitive
unattainability and related negative esteem-responses (Krohmer et al, 2007). With
close reference to postmodern marketing studies such as Firat et al. (1995), the here
unveiled perceptual ambivalence may critically act as incentive to research and utilise
SPC as a multidimensional rather than exclusively holistic marketing tool.
The general fragmentation of the here investigated self-images signifies a
consumerism originating in strong actual and ideal self-product-congruence for
characteristics which reflect highly diverse, if not opposing needs. Again, a plausible
explanation would be the postmodern rejection of idealistic self-enhancement
advertisements as proposed by Graeff (1996) due to switching identities in different
consumption contexts (van Raaij, 1993). Alternatively, Aaker (1999) emphasises a
dynamic activation of additional parts of the self not included within actual or ideal
imaginations. This paper‟s findings still support the potential clustering of image
characteristics into sub-segments of summated needs however, thus allowing for an
application of differentiated segmentation strategies. Nevertheless, in times where
consumer-orientation is seen as the crux of effective marketing, a detailed SPC-
analysis educating required temporary segmentation constants (e.g. time or place of
exposure) may be a possible remedy for the rapidly evolving consumption dynamics.
7.4 Managerial implications This research suggests that the self-product-congruence theorem can be a precise tool
in analysing consumers pluralistic and increasingly ambiguous image perceptions in a
postmodern, dynamic market environment. So far, the SPC-literature has proposed
rather vague recommendations in this respect, referring to positioning (e.g. Graeff,
1996) or branding strategies (e.g. Kressmann et al, 2006) without elaborative
depth3.This paper therefore focuses on 2 essential implications:
3 Aaker (1999, p. 55) being a meaningful exception.
55
Brand-images
Although most marketing scholars regard brand image or brand personality as a
holistic construct (Henkel et al, 2007), postmodern marketers and semioticians stress
that it would be an intentional fallacy (Wimsatt & Beardsley, 1954) to trust that brand
meaning solely remains with the author (Barthes, 1990).
In this regard, SPC clearly aides managers in aligning brand images to consumers‟
dynamic self-concepts by specifying to what extent personifications (e.g. through
archetypes or role models) and inherent characteristics can be conveyed in a uniform
(i.e. using SPC as a holistic concept) or multi-dimensional (i.e. accounting for
individual SPC-characteristics) fashion. By establishing the strength of consumers
SPC-perceptions, idealistic and unattainable brand images which may cause a
negative self-esteem response can be avoided. Furthermore, an updated SPC-theorem
as here suggested will provide insights into potentially inconsistent self-actualisation
needs that may require multiple brand images which divert from current one-sided
meaning constructs. Consumer co-production in virtual environments (Bonsun &
Darmody, 2008) for example may be one way of practically translating SPC-results
into tailoring such brand meaning.
Naturally, once a brand image has been established, it must be converted into a
respective segmentation strategy:
Segmentation strategy
Generally, if an undifferentiated segmentation strategy is desired, such as for global,
symbolic consumer goods, an idealised holistic SPC-image-campaign will prove
feasible. Introducing a prototype or celebrity endorser as idealistic representation of
one‟s brand into a test market and subsequently investigating consumers holistic SPC-
perceptions is likely to craft a credible and yet mass market-oriented position.
Manager should pay close attention as to how far a brand image may be stretched (van
Raaij & Schoonderbeek, 1993) before potential dilution causes brand confusion.
If a more differentiated segmentation strategy is sought, an SPC-analysis of individual
image characteristics may provide the required targeting precision. Using basic
statistical marketing programmes, congruence perceptions can be clustered across
available consumer data, creating „SPC-segments‟ based on image-perceptions instead
of common bases such as demographics, level of activity, lifestyles or simplistic
fashion-function dichotomies. The analysis would thereby more accurately reflect
multiple and even contradicting consumer preferences within the same product
category and along differing consumption contexts and times of exposure. In an
increasingly heterogeneous, localised market, this, in line with the aforementioned
consumer co-production, may help today‟s managers in crucially differentiating their
marketing proposal.
Outdoor-apparel management implications
Practitioners in the outdoor apparel industry can infer two implications from this
study:
Product image
56
There is no clearly established typical-user-image perception amongst outdoor
consumers. Hence, positioning strategies may still exploit or pioneer in creating an
archetype outdoor brand image for mass marketing campaigns or diversify (following
the postmodern approach) into different levels of outdoor activism incorporating
either:
a) an ideal product image that distinctly communicates the possibility of an escape
into adventurism enabled by the safety gained from outdoor apparel.
b) an actual product image that focuses on authentic, confident and pragmatic image
characteristics, avoiding both an idealistic toughness and trendiness.
Segmentation review
So far, the identified demand for fashionable apparel (Gruner & Jahr, 2005) has not
been captured in the SPC-construct (both trendy and good-looking achieved low or
negative image-scores). Hence, a future investigation into respective „urban
consumers‟ SPC may reveal a phenomenon similar to so-called „posers‟, i.e. „a person
who habitually pretends to be something he is not‟ (Thefreedictionary.com, 2009). In
this context, the urban segment may reflect a postmodern emphasis on form and style
that simulates being an adventurous performer by wearing outdoor apparel in a
convenient environment.
7.5 Limitations and future research In the present study, SPC was merely analysed as a two-dimensional construct which,
in addition to the here found inherent ambiguity of image perceptions, makes
exploring further dimensions of the self a worthwhile research project. In this regard,
it may prove to be of particular interest which part of the self-concept is activated
according to a given consumption context or time of exposure. Outdoor marketers
may meaningfully include consumers‟ made-up self (Firat & Venkatesh, 1995) in
order to account for the here proposed urban posers for example.
In addition, it is unclear to what extent SPC-perceptions and marketing-effects vary
across product categories of differing conspicuous character and status-appeals (Hong
& Zinkhan, 1995). Similarly, SPC is likely to experience differences across cultures
(Quester et al, 2000) and personalities, e.g. in terms of one‟s cognitive capabilities
(Krohmer et al, 2007), requiring further research for concise marketing applications.
From a methodological point of view, it must be mentioned that the online forums
used to generate consumer data exhibited negative reactions towards the term „typical
user‟ which was publicly expressed in form of comments and hence may have biased
responses by consecutive survey participants. As aforementioned, a rephrasing of the
term is likely to prove advantageous in future SPC-questionnaires.
7.6 Closing note To summarise, the current study significantly contributes both conceptually and
practically to the existing SPC-paradigm by highlighting the innate ambiguity of
stereotyping- and image idealisation processes. Whereas the prevailing modernist
idealisation is manifested, findings are unique in revealing an inherent postmodern
image-paradox so far camouflaged under the amalgamated singular SPC-construct.
For the moment, marketers may therefore opt for either targeting a mass market for
which the holistic approach seems still viable or applying differentiated segmentation
strategies. This research certainly illustrates the feasibility of using individual SPC-
57
components or a clustering of attributes into sub-constructs as a means for tailoring
product images to postmodern target audiences.
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Appendices
Appendix 1: Surveyed online forum-communities
Ramblers Association UK
UKclimbing.com
Trekkingforum.com
Trekkingportal.com
Hikingforum.net
Rockclimbing.com
Abc-of-mountaineering.com
Outdoorsmagic.com
Xing.com: Group „outdoor‟ (in German)
Wanderforum.de (in German)
67
Appendix 2: Unipolar semantic differential scale items for survey questionnaire
Brand personality facets Dimension
Environmentally-conscious
Social responsibility
Economic
Responsible
Confident Self-esteem
Authentic
Down-to-earth
Daring Self-actualisation
Trendy
Imaginative
Spirited
Good-looking
Tough Adventurism
Outdoorsy
Reliable Safety
Secure
68
Appendix3: Average typical user image perception for attribute „outdoorsy‟
Appendix 4: Average typical user image perception for attribute „reliable‟
69
Appendix 5: Average typical user image perception for attribute „trendy‟
70
Appendix 6: Average Typical user image perceptions for individual user attributes
Typical user attribute Mean Std. Deviation
Down-to-earth 4,74 1,600
Authentic 5,05 1,682
Environmentally-conscious 4,88 1,688
Daring 4,44 1,650
Spirited 4,61 1,604
Imaginative 4,77 1,588
Trendy 3,84 1,745
Reliable 5,57 1,682
Economic 4,60 1,716
Secure 5,03 1,721
Confident 5,17 1,610
Responsible 5,01 1,667
Good-looking 4,68 1,750
Outdoorsy 5,44 1,752
Tough 5,31 1,701
71
