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8/22/2019 BOUCHAT v BALTIMORE RAVENS
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PUBLISHED
UNI TED STATES COURT OF APPEALSFOR THE FOURTH CI RCUI T
No. 12-2543
FREDERI CK E. BOUCHAT,
Pl ai nt i f f - Appel l ant ,
v.
BALTI MORE RAVENS LI MI TED PARTNERSHI P,
Def endant - Appel l ee.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
I NTERNATI ONAL DOCUMENTARY ASSOCI ATI ON; FI LM I NDEPENDENT;MOTI ON PI CTURE ASSOCI ATI ON OF AMERI CA, I NCORPORATED,
Ami ci Suppor t i ng Appel l ee.
No. 12-2548
FREDERI CK E. BOUCHAT,
Pl ai nt i f f - Appel l ant ,
v.
NFL ENTERPRI SES LLC; NFL NETWORK SERVI CES, I NC. ; NFLPRODUCTI ONS LLC, d/ b/ a NFL Fi l ms, a subsi di ary of NFL
Vent ur es L. P. ,
Def endant s - Appel l ees.
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
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I NTERNATI ONAL DOCUMENTARY ASSOCI ATI ON; FI LM I NDEPENDENT;MOTI ON PI CTURE ASSOCI ATI ON OF AMERI CA, I NCORPORATED,
Ami ci Suppor t i ng Appel l ees.
Appeal s f r om t he Uni t ed St at es Di st r i ct Cour t f or t he Di st r i ctof Mar yl and, at Bal t i mor e. Mar vi n J . Gar bi s, Seni or Di st r i ctJ udge. ( 1: 12- cv- 01905- MJ G; 1: 12- cv- 01495- MJ G)
Ar gued: Oct ober 31, 2013 Deci ded: December 17, 2013
Bef ore WI LKI NSON, DUNCAN, and DI AZ, Ci r cui t J udges.
Af f i r med by publ i shed opi ni on. J udge Wi l ki nson wr ot e t heopi ni on, i n whi ch J udge Duncan and J udge Di az j oi ned.
ARGUED: Howar d J . Schul man, SCHULMAN & KAUFMAN, LLC, Bal t i mor e,Maryl and, f or Appel l ant . Robert Ll oyd Raskopf , QUI NN EMANUELURQUHART & SULLI VAN, LLP, New York, New York, f or Appel l ees. ONBRIEF: Mar i e J . I gnozzi , SCHULMAN & KAUFMAN, LLC, Bal t i more,Maryl and, f or Appel l ant . Mark D. Gatel y, HOGAN LOVELLS US LLP,Bal t i mor e, Mar yl and; Sanf or d I . Wei sbur st , Todd Ant en, Rachel E.
Epst ei n, QUI NN EMANUEL URQUHART & SULLI VAN, LLP, New Yor k, NewYork, f or Appel l ees. J ul i e A. Ahrens, Ti mot hy Gr eene, STANFORDLAW SCHOOL CENTER FOR I NTERNET & SOCI ETY, St anf ord, Cal i f orni a,f or I nt er nat i onal Document ar y Associ at i on, Mot i on Pi ct ur eAssoci at i on of Amer i ca, I nc. , and Fi l m I ndependent , Ami ciSuppor t i ng Appel l ees.
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WI LKI NSON, Ci r cui t J udge:
Thi s case present s t he l at est chapter i n ext ensi ve
l i t i gat i on over t he Bal t i mor e Ravens Fl yi ng B l ogo. Freder i ck
Bouchat chal l enges t he Nat i onal Foot bal l League s use of t he
l ogo i n t hr ee vi deos f eat ur ed on i t s t el evi si on net wor k and
var i ous websi t es, as wel l as t he Bal t i mor e Ravens di spl ay of
i mages t hat i ncl ude t he l ogo as par t of exhi bi t s i n i t s st adi um
Cl ub Level seat i ng ar ea. The di st r i ct cour t f ound t hat t he
def endant s use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n bot h set t i ngs was f ai r
and t her ef or e di d not i nf r i nge Bouchat s copyr i ght . We af f i r m.
Any ot her r esul t woul d vi si t adver se consequences not onl y upon
f i l mmaki ng but upon vi sual depi ct i ons of al l sor t s.
I .
I n J une 1996, mont hs bef or e t he begi nni ng of t he Bal t i mor e
Ravens i naugur al season, t he or gani zat i on unvei l ed t he Fl yi ng B
l ogo as i t s symbol . The l ogo f eat ur ed a gol d shi el d wi t h a
pur pl e B at i t s cent er and pur pl e wi ngs ext endi ng f r om ei t her
si de. Freder i ck Bouchat , t he pl ai nt i f f and appel l ant her e,
not i ced t hat t he l ogo bore a st r ong resembl ance t o one he had
cr eat ed and pr ovi ded t o the chai r man of t he Maryl and St adi um
Aut hor i t y mont hs ear l i er , t o be passed on t o the Ravens
f r anchi se. Bouchat al so r equest ed compensat i on, asser t edl y of a
nomi nal nat ur e, i n exchange f or t he Ravens use of t he l ogo.
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Upon r ecogni zi ng t he l ogo, Bouchat obt ai ned a copyr i ght
r egi st r at i on on hi s dr awi ngs but di d not cont act t he Ravens at
t hat t i me.
I n May of 1997, af t er t he Ravens had pl ayed t hei r f i r st
season, Bouchat f i l ed hi s f i r st l awsui t agai nst t he Ravens and a
subsi di ar y of t he Nat i onal Foot bal l League ( NFL) , al l egi ng
t hat t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i nf r i nged t he copyr i ght i n t hr ee of hi s
dr awi ngs. Ul t i mat el y, t hi s cour t r ef used t o set asi de a j ur y s
ver di ct t hat t he def endant s wer e l i abl e as t o one of t he
dr awi ngs. SeeBouchat v. Bal t i mor e Ravens, I nc. , 241 F. 3d 350,
353 & n. 1, 357 ( 4t h Ci r . 2000) ( Bouchat I ) .
Af t er t he 1998 season, t he Bal t i more Ravens adopt ed a new
l ogo ( t he Raven Prof i l e Logo) and no l onger f eat ur ed t he
Fl yi ng B on t hei r uni f orms and merchandi se. We have subsequent l y
i ssued t hr ee more deci si ons i n l awsui t s brought by Bouchat
r egar di ng t he Fl yi ng B l ogo. See Bouchat v. Bal t i mor e Ravens
Foot bal l Cl ub, I nc. , 346 F. 3d 514 ( 4t h Ci r . 2003) ( Bouchat I I )
( af f i r mi ng a j ur y awar d of zer o dol l ar s f or t he or i gi nal
i nf r i ngement ) ; Bouchat v. Bon- Ton Dep' t St or es, I nc. , 506 F. 3d
315, 328 ( 4t h Ci r . 2007) ( Bouchat I I I ) ( af f i r mi ng a number of
j udgments i n f avor of NFL l i censees t hat had used t he Fl yi ng B
l ogo because Bouchat was precl uded f r om obt ai ni ng act ual
damages agai nst t hem) ; Bouchat v. Bal t i mor e Ravens Lt d. P' shi p,
619 F. 3d 301 ( 4t h Ci r . 2010) ( Bouchat I V) ( f i ndi ng t hat
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f oot age of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n season hi ghl i ght f i l ms and i n a
shor t vi deo shown on t he l arge scr een dur i ng Ravens home games
was not f ai r use, but t hat t he Ravens di spl ay of t he l ogo i n
i mages i n i t s cor por at e l obby was) .
Bouchat commenced t he sui t s curr ent l y bef or e thi s cour t i n
May and J une of 2012. He seeks t o, i nt er al i a, enj oi n def endant s
f r om usi ng t he Fl yi ng B Logo i nci dent al l y i n vi deos and
photogr aphs t hat were not at i ssue i n Bouchat I V. Bouchat has
al l eged i nf r i ngement i n t hr ee vi deos t hat appear ed on t he NFL
Net wor k, as wel l as on t he NFL. com or ot her websi t es. These
vi deos f eat ur e f l eet i ng and i nf r equent f oot age of t he Fl yi ng B
l ogo. He has al so chal l enged t he Ravens use of pi ct ur es wi t h
t he Fl yi ng B Logo i n hi st or i cal exhi bi t s i n t he Cl ub Level ar ea
of M&T Bank St adi um.
The di st r i ct cour t f ound, on summar y j udgment , t hat t he
def endant s l i mi t ed use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo qual i f i ed as f ai r
use. For bot h t he vi deos and t he phot ogr aph di spl ays, i t appl i ed
each of t he f our f ai r use f actor s l ai d out i n t he copyr i ght
st at ut e: ( 1) t he pur pose and char act er of t he use; ( 2) t he
natur e of t he copyr i ght ed work; ( 3) t he amount and
subst ant i al i t y of t he por t i on used; and ( 4) t he ef f ect of t he
use upon t he pot ent i al mar ket f or t he copyr i ght ed wor k. 17U. S. C. 107. For bot h t he vi deos and t he phot os, t he di st r i ct
cour t f ound t hat t he f i r st f act or counsel ed i n f avor of f ai r
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use. I n par t i cul ar , t he di st r i ct cour t emphasi zed t hat t he use
of t he l ogo was t r ansf ormat i ve, whi ch t he Supr eme Cour t has
descr i bed as a use t hat adds somethi ng new, wi t h a f ur t her
pur pose or di f f er ent char act er , al t er i ng t he f i r st wi t h new
expr ess i on, meani ng, or message. Campbel l v. Acuf f - Rose Musi c,
I nc. , 510 U. S. 569, 579 ( 1994) . Because of t he subst ant i al l y
t r ansf or mat i ve nat ur e of t he uses, t he second and t hi r d f act or s
di d not wei gh agai nst f ai r use. Di scussi ng t he f our t h f act or ,
t he di st r i ct cour t f ound t hat t he use of t he l ogo i n t he vi deos
and di spl ays was mi ni mal l y commerci al , and t hat t he
subst ant i al l y t r ansf or mat i ve nat ur e of t he use of f set any
negat i ve ef f ect on t he pot ent i al mar ket f or t he Fl yi ng B l ogo.
The cour t t hen wei ghed t he f our f act or s t oget her f or bot h
t he vi deos and t he di spl ays, and det er mi ned t hat t he f i r st
f act or counsel ed st r ongl y i n f avor of f ai r use, whi l e t he
r emai ni ng f act or s wer e ei t her neut r al or mi l i t at ed onl y sl i ght l y
agai nst f ai r use. Consequent l y, i t f ound t he uses i n bot h
set t i ngs f ai r . Thi s appeal f ol l owed.
I I .
The power over patent and copyr i ght grant ed t o Congress i n
Ar t i cl e I , Sect i on 8 of t he Const i t ut i on i s i nt ended t o
mot i vat e t he cr eat i ve act i vi t y of aut hor s and i nvent or s by t he
pr ovi si on of a speci al r ewar d, and t o al l ow t he publ i c access t o
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t he pr oduct s of t hei r geni us af t er t he l i mi t ed per i od of
excl usi ve cont r ol has expi r ed. Sony Cor p. of Am. v. Uni ver sal
Ci t y St udi os, I nc. , 464 U. S. 417, 429 ( 1984) . To ef f ect uat e t hi s
publ i c benef i t , 106 of t he Copyr i ght Act gr ant s a bundl e of
excl usi ve r i ght s t o t he owner of t he copyr i ght , i ncl udi ng t he
r i ght s t o publ i sh, copy, and di st r i but e t he aut hor s wor k.
Har per & Row Publ i sher s, I nc. v. Nat i on Ent er s. , 471 U. S. 539,
546- 47 ( 1985) ; see al so 17 U. S. C. 106. I n or der t o vi ndi cat e
t he same const i t ut i onal pol i cy of pr omot i ng t he pr ogr ess of
sci ence and t he usef ul ar t s t hat under l i es t he Pat ent and
Copyr i ght Cl ause, cour t s devel oped t he doct r i ne of f ai r use,
whi ch f ost er s new cr eat i on and i nnovat i on by l i mi t i ng t he
abi l i t y of wr i t er s and aut hor s t o cont r ol t he use of t hei r
works. Harper & Row, 471 U. S. at 549 ( i nt ernal quotat i on marks
omi t t ed) .
The Copyr i ght Act of 1976 codi f i ed t he f ai r use doct r i ne
f or t he f i r st t i me, creat i ng 107 as a stat ut or y except i on t o
t he t ypi cal pr ot ect i ons pr ovi ded t o copyr i ght hol der s i n 106.
Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 307 ( ci t i ng Campbel l v. Acuf f - Rose
Musi c, I nc. , 510 U. S. 569, 576 ( 1994) ) . Congr ess meant 107 t o
r est at e t he pr esent j udi ci al doct r i ne of f ai r use, not t o
change, nar r ow, or enl ar ge i t i n any way and i nt ended that
cour t s cont i nue t he common- l aw t r adi t i on of f ai r use
adj udi cat i on. Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 577 ( i nt er nal quot at i on
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mar ks omi t t ed) . As a r esul t , t he f ai r use doct r i ne cont i nues t o
serve as an equi t abl e r ul e of r eason, f or whi ch no gener al l y
appl i cabl e def i ni t i on i s possi bl e. Sundeman v. Seaj ay Soc' y,
I nc. , 142 F. 3d 194, 202 ( 4t h Ci r . 1998) ( i nt er nal quot at i on
mar ks omi t t ed) .
Nonet hel ess, Congr ess di d pr ovi de a l i st of f our f act or s
t hat gui de t he det er mi nat i on of whet her a par t i cul ar use i s a
f ai r use. Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 308 ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks
omi t t ed) . Those f act or s are:
( 1) t he pur pose and char act er of t he use, i ncl udi ngwhet her such use i s of a commer ci al nat ur e or i s f ornonpr of i t educat i onal pur poses;
( 2) t he nat ur e of t he copyr i ght ed wor k;
( 3) t he amount and subst ant i al i t y of t he por t i on usedi n r el at i on t o the copyr i ght ed wor k as a whol e; and
( 4) t he ef f ect of t he use upon t he pot ent i al mar ket
f or or val ue of t he copyr i ght ed wor k.
17 U. S. C. 107. These f act or s cannot be t r eat ed i n i sol at i on
f r om one anot her , but i nst ead must be wei ghed t oget her , i n
l i ght of t he pur poses of copyr i ght . Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 578.
Thi s bal anci ng necessi t at es a case- by- case anal ysi s i n any
f ai r use i nqui r y. I d. at 577. Our pr ecedent s have pl aced pr i mar y
f ocus on t he f i r st f act or . See Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 308- 11,
313- 14; Bond v. Bl um, 317 F. 3d 385, 394- 95 (4t h Ci r . 2003) ;
Sundeman, 142 F. 3d at 202- 04. A f i ndi ng of f ai r use i s a
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compl et e def ense t o an i nf r i ngement cl ai m: t he f ai r use of a
copyr i ght ed wor k . . . i s not an i nf r i ngement of copyr i ght . 17
U. S. C. 107.
A f ai r use def ense present s a mi xed quest i on of l aw and
f act . Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d 307. We r evi ew t he di st r i ct cour t s
l egal concl usi ons de novo and i t s f act ual f i ndi ngs f or cl ear
err or . Sundeman, 142 F. 3d at 201.
I I I .
Bouchat f i r st chal l enges t he NFL s f l eet i ng uses of t he
Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t hr ee vi deos f eat ur ed on t he NFL Network and
var i ous websi t es. Bouchat cl ai ms t hat t hese uses, descr i bed
bel ow, ar e not f ai r use and consequent l y i nf r i nge hi s copyr i ght .
For t he r easons t hat f ol l ow, we hol d t hat t he NFL s i nci dent al
di spl ays of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t he vi deos ar e i ndeed f ai r use.
A.
The t hree vi deos Bouchat chal l enges wer e produced by t he
NFL f or di spl ay on t he NFL network, and were al so f eat ur ed on
websi t es i ncl udi ng NFL. com and Hul u. com. Two of t he vi deos wer e
par t of t he f i l m ser i es Top Ten, each epi sode of whi ch f eat ur es
a count down of t en memorabl e pl ayers, coaches, or event s i n NFL
hi st or y. The t hi r d vi deo i s par t of t he Sound FX ser i es, whi ch
pr ovi des vi ewer s wi t h an i nsi de l ook at t he si ght s and sounds of
t he NFL t hr ough pl ayers who wear mi cr ophones. Consi st ent wi t h
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our r esponsi bi l i t y t o exami ne each use on a case- by- case
basi s, Campbel l v. Acuf f - Rose Musi c, I nc. , 510 U. S. 569, 577
( 1994) , we exami ne t he var i ous vi deos i n det ai l i n or der t o
det er mi ne the nat ur e of t he use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n each.
Top Ten: Dr af t Cl asses r ecount s and anal yzes i n shor t
segment s t he t en best NFL dr af t cl asses of al l t i me. I t begi ns
by expl ai ni ng t hat t he pur pose of t he vi deo i s t o decl ar e whi ch
dr af t cl asses ar e most i mpr essi ve. The vi deo f eat ur es a f our -
mi nut e segment on t he Bal t i more Ravens 1996 dr af t cl ass, r ated
number si x by t he show. I t cont ai ns i nt er vi ews wi t h pl ayer s,
j our nal i st s, and Ravens f r ont of f i ce personnel r egar di ng t he
t eam s move t o Bal t i more and t he qual i t y of t he 1996 dr af t
cl ass. I t al so shows hi st or i cal f oot age f r om t he day of t he
dr af t . These i nt er vi ews and voi ceover s make up t he vast maj or i t y
of t he vi deo. I n t wo spot s, however , t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s
vi si bl e f or l ess t han one second: once on a banner and a hel met
at t he openi ng of t he segment , and agai n on t he si de of a hel met
dur i ng game f oot age t oward the end of t he segment . The f our
mi nut e vi deo uses i t s i nt er vi ews and hi st or i cal f oot age,
i ncl udi ng t he except i onal l y br i ef appear ances of t he Fl yi ng B
l ogo, t o t el l t he st or y of t he Ravens 1996 dr af t cl ass and i t s
i mpact on t he new organi zat i on.
The second vi deo, Top Ten: Dr af t Bust s, al so begi ns wi t h
nar r at i on t hat expl ai ns t hat t he epi sode wi l l showcase t he l east
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successf ul dr af t pi cks. I t t hen f eat ur es shor t segment s on each
unsuccessf ul pi ck or set of pi cks, i ncl udi ng t he number ei ght
bust Lawr ence Phi l l i ps, who was sel ect ed by t he St . Loui s Rams
i n 1996. The vi deo f eat ur es di scussi on of Phi l l i ps s col l ege
car eer , i nt er vi ews wi t h t hose pr esent at t he t i me, news r epor t s
det ai l i ng hi s t r oubl e wi t h t he l aw, and f oot age f r om pr act i ces
and games. The segment r ecount s Phi l l i ps s promi se as a f ootbal l
pl ayer and t he pr obl ems t hat pr event ed hi m f r om f ul f i l l i ng i t .
At t he end of t he segment , a def ensi ve pl ayer t ackl es Phi l l i ps,
and i t i s possi bl e t o cat ch a gl i mpse of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo on
t he pl ayer s hel met i f one chances t o l ook at i t f or t he
f r act i on of a second i t i s vi s i bl e.
The f i nal vi deo, Sound FX: Ray Lewi s, f eatures a col l ect i on
of f oot age and audi o of Ray Lewi s t hr oughout hi s career . The 24-
mi nut e vi deo i s spl i t i nt o ei ght sect i ons, each of whi ch t el l s
t he st or y of a di f f er ent aspect of Lewi s s car eer t hough vi deo
f oot age and recor ded st at ement s by Lewi s and those ar ound hi m.
One of t he segment s f ocuses on Ray Lewi s at t r ai ni ng camp and
l ast s f or r oughl y two mi nut es. Dur i ng an ei ght - second per i od of
t he t r ai ni ng camp segment , t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s vi si bl e on some
of t he Ravens pl ayer s hel met s. And t wi ce i n ot her segment s of
t he show, as Lewi s makes a t ackl e, t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s
par t i al l y vi si bl e f or l ess t han one second. Ot her wi se, t he Raven
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Pr of i l e l ogo i s t he onl y l ogo vi si bl e t hr oughout Sound FX: Ray
Lewi s.
Bouchat ar gues t hat t he use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t hese
t hr ee vi deos does not qual i f y as f ai r use. Fi r st , Bouchat ar gues
t hat t hi s cour t s deci si on i n Bouchat I V bar s t he NFL s f ai r use
cl ai m because t he hi ghl i ght vi deos at i ssue i n t hat case ar e
mat er i al l y i ndi st i ngui shabl e f r om t he vi deos i n t hi s case.
Appel l ant s Br . at 29. He f ur t her cont ends t hat an i ndependent
assessment of t he f ai r use f act or s r equi r es a f i ndi ng of
i nf r i ngement . Focusi ng l ar gel y on t he f i r st f ai r use f actor - -
t he pur pose and char act er of t he use - - Bouchat cont ends t hat
t he use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo was not t r ansf or mat i ve. I t i s, he
cl ai ms, bei ng used i n t he same way i n t hese vi deos as i t was i n
t he i nf r i ngi ng vi deos i n Bouchat I V: t o i dent i f y Ravens pl ayer s.
And even i f t he use wer e t r ansf or mat i ve, t he di st r i ct cour t
er r ed by not wei ghi ng t he t r ansf or mat i on agai nst t he
commer ci al i t y of t he use under t he f i r st f act or , as wel l as
agai nst t he remai ni ng 107 f act or s. Fi nal l y, Bouchat di sput es
t he di st r i ct cour t s f i ndi ng t hat t he def endant s act ed i n good
f ai t h, ar gui ng t hat t hey wer e ser i al i nf r i nger s whose bad f ai t h
was al l t oo evi dent .
B.
The f i r st f ai r use f act or f ocuses on t he pur pose and
char act er of t he use, i ncl udi ng whet her such use i s of a
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commer ci al nat ur e or i s f or nonpr of i t educat i onal pur poses. 17
U. S. C. 107( 1) . The pr eambl e t o 107 l i st s exampl es of uses
t hat ar e f ai r : cri t i ci sm, comment , news r epor t i ng, t eachi ng . .
. schol ar shi p, or r esear ch. I d. 107. These exampl es serve as
a gui de[ ] f or anal ysi s under t he f i r st f act or . Campbel l , 510
U. S. at 578. The essent i al i nqui r y under t he f i r st f act or can be
separated i nt o t wo part s: whether t he new work i s
t r ansf or mat i ve, see i d. at 579, and t he extent t o whi ch t he use
ser ves a commerci al pur pose. See Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 310- 11.
We di scuss each i n t ur n.
1.
A t r ansf or mat i ve use i s one t hat empl oy[s] t he quot ed
mat t er i n a di f f er ent manner or f or a di f f er ent pur pose f r om t he
or i gi nal , t hus t r ansf or mi ng i t . A. V. ex r el . Vander hye v.
i Par adi gms, LLC, 562 F. 3d 630, 638 ( 4t h Ci r . 2009) ( quot i ng
Pi err e N. Leval , Comment ary, Toward a Fai r Use St andard, 103
Har v. L. Rev. 1105, 1111 ( 1990) ) . Tr ansf or mat i ve wor ks r ar el y
vi ol at e copyr i ght pr ot ect i ons because t he goal of copyr i ght , t o
pr omot e sci ence and t he ar t s, i s gener al l y f ur t her ed by the
cr eat i on of t r ansf or mat i ve wor ks. Such wor ks t hus l i e at t he
hear t of t he f ai r use doct r i ne' s guar ant ee of br eat hi ng space
wi t hi n t he conf i nes of copyr i ght . Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 579.
I mpor t ant l y, a t r ansf or mat i ve use i s one t hat adds somet hi ng
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new t o the or i gi nal pur pose of t he copyr i ght ed wor k. I d. ;
Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 314.
Each of t he vi deos i n t hi s case i s i nt ended t o pr esent a
narr at i ve about some aspect of Ravens or NFL hi st ory. Top Ten:
Dr af t Cl asses r ecount s t he Ravens 1996 dr af t , document i ngf oot bal l s r et ur n t o Bal t i mor e, t he t eam s st r at egy f or t he 1996
dr af t , and t he i mpr essi ve r esul t of i t s ef f or t s. Dur i ng t he
f our - mi nut e segment s i nt er vi ews, ar chi val f oot age, and
voi ceover , t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s vi si bl e t wo di f f er ent t i mes, f or
l ess t han one second each t i me. Top Ten: Dr af t Bust s r ecount s
t he di sappoi nt i ng pat h of Lawr ence Phi l l i ps s once pr omi si ng
car eer , compl et e wi t h i nt er vi ews, game tape, and news f oot age.
Towar d t he end of t he f our - mi nut e segment , t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s
par t i al l y vi si bl e on t he hel met of a Raven t ackl i ng Phi l l i ps f or
a f r act i on of a second. Fi nal l y, Sound FX: Ray Lewi s pr ovi des an
i nsi de l ook at t he car eer of Ray Lewi s t hr ough t he si ght s and
sounds t hat accompani ed hi s pl ay. The Fl yi ng B i s vi si bl e f or a
l onger st r et ch dur i ng t hi s vi deo, t hough t he Raven Pr of i l e l ogo,
whi ch has i dent i f i ed t he Ravens s i nce t he 1999 season, i s,
comparat i vel y, f eat ur ed much more pr omi nent l y.
The use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n each of t hese vi deos
di f f er s f r om i t s or i gi nal pur pose. Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 314.
See al so Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 579. I t i ni t i al l y ser ved as t he
br and symbol f or t he t eam, i t s on- f i el d i dent i f i er , and t he
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pr i nci pal t hr ust of i t s pr omot i onal ef f or t s. None of t he vi deos
use the l ogo t o ser ve t he same pur pose i t once di d. I nst ead,
l i ke t he hi st or i cal di spl ays f eat ur i ng t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t he
l obby of t he Ravens headquar t ers i n Bouchat I V, t hese vi deos
used t he Fl yi ng B as par t of t he hi st or i cal r ecor d t o t el l
st or i es of past dr af t s, maj or event s i n Ravens hi st or y, and
pl ayer car eer s. Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 314; see al so Bi l l
Gr aham Ar chi ves v. Dor l i ng Ki nder sl ey Lt d. , 448 F. 3d 605, 609- 10
( 2d. Ci r . 2006) ( f i ndi ng t hat Gr at ef ul Dead post er s r epr oduced
i n a bi ogr aphi cal t ext ser ved as hi st or i cal ar t i f act s t hat
hel ped r eader s t o under st and t he t ext ) . The l ogo, t hen, i s bei ng
used not f or i t s expr essi ve cont ent , but r at her f or i t s . . .
f act ual cont ent , Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 314 ( quot i ng Bond v.
Bl um, 317 F. 3d 385, 396 (4t h Ci r . 2003) ) , and i n such a manner
t hat no doubt adds somethi ng new. I d. And cont r ary t o
Bouchat s cl ai ms, i t does not mat t er t hat t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s
unchanged i n t he vi deos, f or [ t ] he use of a copyr i ght ed wor k
need not al t er or augment t he work t o be t r ansf ormat i ve i n
natur e. Vanderhye, 562 F. 3d at 639.
Thi s f i ndi ng of t r ansf or mat i ve use i s r ei nf or ced by t he
except i onal l y i nsubst ant i al pr esence of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n
t hese vi deos. I n t he vast maj or i t y of i t s appear ances, i t i s
pr esent f or f r act i ons of a second, and can be per cei ved onl y by
someone who i s l ooki ng f or i t . The extent t o whi ch unl i censed
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mat er i al i s used i n t he chal l enged wor k can be a f act or i n
det er mi ni ng whet her a . . . use of or i gi nal mat er i al s has been
suf f i ci ent l y t r ansf or mat i ve t o const i t ut e f ai r use. Bi l l Gr aham
Ar chi ves, 448 F. 3d at 611. The Fl yi ng B l ogo cannot be sai d t o
ser ve i t s or i gi nal f unct i on of i dent i f yi ng t he Ravens pl ayer s
and or gani zat i on i f i t i s al l but i mper cept i bl e t o t hose vi ewi ng
t he vi deos. I t ser ves no expr essi ve f unct i on at al l , but i nst ead
act s si mpl y as a hi st or i cal gui depost - - t o t hose who even
det ect i t - wi t hi n vi deos t hat const r uct new nar r at i ves about
t he hi st ory of t he Ravens and t he NFL. See Bond, 317 F. 3d at
396; El vi s Pr esl ey Ent er s. , I nc. v. Passpor t Vi deo, 349 F. 3d
622, 629 ( 9t h Ci r . 2003) ( not i ng t he t r ansf or mat i ve nat ur e of
usi ng copyr i ght ed wor ks as hi st or i cal cont ext ) , over r ul ed on
ot her gr ounds by Fl exi bl e Li f el i ne Sys. , I nc. v. Pr eci si on Li f t ,
I nc. , 654 F. 3d 989, 995 ( 9t h Ci r . 2011) ( per cur i am) .
The sol e vi deo t hat f eatures t he Fl yi ng B f or l ong enough
t hat i t coul d ser ve as an i dent i f i er i s Sound FX: Ray Lewi s. The
epi sode runs f or near l y 24 mi nut es, and f eat ur es j ust one
st r et ch of l ess t han t en seconds i n whi ch t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s
vi si bl e mor e t han f l eet i ngl y. The 24- mi nut e vi deo i s r epl et e
wi t h count l ess i mages of t he Raven Prof i l e l ogo, bot h i n game
and pr act i ce f oot age, whi ch cur r ent l y ser ves t o i dent i f y t he
Ravens and ador ns t hei r mer chandi se. I t i s t he Raven Prof i l e
l ogo, and not t he Fl yi ng B, t hat now serves an expr essi ve
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f unct i on. See Bi l l Gr aham Ar chi ves, 448 F. 3d at 611 ( post er s
r epr oduced i n a bi ogr aphi cal work were i nadequat e t o of f er more
t han a gl i mpse of t hei r expr essi ve val ue) . The Fl yi ng B l ogo,
used onl y i nci dent al l y, no l onger ser ves t he same i nt r i nsi c
pur pose as t he or i gi nal , Am. Geophysi cal Uni on v. Texaco I nc. ,
60 F. 3d 913, 923 ( 2d Ci r . 1994) . I t s use t her ef or e qual i f i es as
t r ansf or mat i ve.
Bouchat ar gues t hat t he uses of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t he
vi deos i n t hi s case ar e i ndi st i ngui shabl e f r om t hose adj udi cat ed
i n Bouchat I V. Appel l ant s Br . at 28- 31. Bot h, he says, act t o
i dent i f y the t eam. I n r eal i t y, however , t he uses ar e st r i ki ngl y
di f f er ent . I n t he season hi ghl i ght f i l ms f r om Bouchat I V, t he
l ogo was shown agai n and agai n, al ways as a br and i dent i f i er f or
t he Ravens organi zat i on and i t s pl ayer s. Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at
306- 07. As we f ound, t he l ogo si mpl y r epl i cat ed i t s or i gi nal
f unct i on when f ootage of t he seasons was shot , condensed, and
r epr oduced i n a summar y f i l m. I d. at 309. But t he cur r ent use,
as not ed above, di f f er s i n t wo i mpor t ant r espect s f r om t he
Bouchat I V vi deos. We f ound i n t hat case that t he season
hi ghl i ght vi deos di d not change the way i n whi ch vi ewer s
exper i enced t he l ogo, maki ng t he use non- t r ansf or mat i ve. I d.
Her e, however , because t he vi deos used t he hi st or i cal f oot age t o
t el l new st or i es and not si mpl y rehash t he seasons, i t used t he
Fl yi ng B l ogo f or i t s f act ual cont ent and was t r ansf or mat i ve.
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See i d. at 314. Equal l y i mpor t ant i s t he f act t hat , whi l e t he
l ogo was f eat ur ed subst ant i al l y, agai n and agai n, i n t he season
hi ghl i ght f i l ms, i t was used onl y f l eet i ngl y and i nsi gni f i cant l y
her e. I t s f uncti on as an i dent i f i er was si gni f i cant l y
di mi ni shed, l i mi t i ng i t s expr essi ve val ue.
Thi s cour t s t wo hypot het i cal s i n Bouchat I V provi de a
par t i cul ar l y usef ul cont r ast bet ween t he vi deos i n t hat case and
t hose pr esent l y bef or e t he cour t . I n f i ndi ng t hat t he season
hi ghl i ght vi deos wer e not f ai r use, we l ai d out t wo di f f er ent
vi ewer exper i ences:
I n t he f i r st , an i ndi vi dual at home i n her l i vi ng r oomi n 1996 wat ches a Ravens f oot bal l game on t el evi si on.The Fl yi ng B l ogo on t he hel met s of one t eam hel ps heri dent i f y t he t eam as t he Ravens. I n t he second, ani ndi vi dual at home t oday ( 2010) i n hi s l i vi ng r oomwatches t he 1996 Ravens season hi ghl i ght f i l m. TheFl yi ng B l ogo on t he hel met s of one t eam hel ps hi mi dent i f y t he t eam as t he Ravens. The l ogo pl ays t he
same r ol e i n each exampl e. I t s pur pose i s nott r ansf or med i n t he hi ghl i ght f i l m, vi ewed somef our t een year s l at er .
I d. at 309. I n t he season hi ghl i ght vi deos, t he Fl yi ng B st i l l
served t he pur pose of i dent i f yi ng t he t eam as t he Ravens as t hey
pl ay opponent s - - i t s cor e and cr uci al f unct i on. But i n t he Top
Ten and Sound FX vi deos, wher e i t i s r ar el y vi si bl e f or mor et han a second, i t cannot possi bl y ser ve as a meani ngf ul
i dent i f i er of t he f r anchi se. I nst ead, l i ke t he Fl yi ng B i n t he
cor por at e l obby, i t i s used f or i t s f act ual cont ent t o t el l new
hi st or i cal nar r at i ves about t he pl ayer s and f r anchi se. See i d.
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at 314. The use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s t hus subst ant i al l y
t r ansf or mat i ve.
2.
The f i r st f act or al so r equi r es an i nqui r y i nto t he
commerci al natur e of t he use at i ssue. Whi l e a commerci al
pur pose may wei gh agai nst a f i ndi ng of f ai r use, Campbel l , 510
U. S. at 579, t he Supr eme Cour t has warned us not t o over -
emphasi ze i t s i mpact : I f , i ndeed, commer ci al i t y car r i ed
pr esumpt i ve f or ce agai nst a f i ndi ng of f ai r ness, t he pr esumpt i on
woul d swal l ow near l y al l of t he i l l ust r at i ve uses l i st ed i n t he
pr eambl e paragr aph of 107, i ncl udi ng news r eport i ng, comment ,
cr i t i ci sm, t eachi ng, schol ar shi p, and r esear ch, si nce t hese
act i vi t i es ar e gener al l y conducted f or pr of i t i n t hi s count r y.
I d. at 584 ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) . Vast number s of
f ai r uses occur i n t he cour se of commer ci al vent ur es. An
overbr oad readi ng of t he commerci al sub- pr ong woul d t hus
evi scer at e t he concept of f ai r use. See Vander hye, 562 F. 3d at
639. I nst ead, t he commer ci al i t y i nqui r y i s most si gni f i cant when
t he al l egedl y i nf r i ngi ng use act s as a di r ect subst i t ut e f or t he
copyr i ght ed wor k. Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 591. Meanwhi l e, t he
mor e t r ansf or mat i ve t he new wor k, t he l ess wi l l be t he
si gni f i cance of ot her f act or s, l i ke commer ci al i sm, t hat may
wei gh agai nst a f i ndi ng of f ai r use. Vander hye, 562 F. 3d at 639
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( quot i ng Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 579) ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks
omi t t ed) .
I n t hi s case, t her e i s no doubt , as t he di st r i ct cour t
f ound, t hat t he NFL has produced and di st r i but ed t hese vi deos
f or commer ci al gai n. But as t he di st r i ct cour t al so not ed, t he
subst ant i al l y t r ansf or mat i ve nat ur e of t he use render s i t s
commer ci al nat ur e l ar gel y i nsi gni f i cant . J . A. 200. I ndeed, i n
Bouchat I V, when eval uat i ng t he commerci al i t y of t he season
hi ghl i ght f i l ms, we not ed t hat because we had f ound t he use of
t he l ogo non- t r ansf or mat i ve, we have no hesi t at i on i n
concl udi ng t hat t he commer ci al nat ur e of t he use wei ghs agai nst
a f i ndi ng of f ai r use. 619 F. 3d at 311. Her e, however , wher e we
have f ound t he use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo t o be subst ant i al l y
t r ansf or mat i ve, t he NFL s pr of i t - seeki ng wei ghs much l ess
st r ongl y agai nst a f i ndi ng of f ai r use.
Fi nal l y, t he l i mi t ed nat ur e of t he uses counsel s agai nst
pl aci ng si gni f i cant wei ght on t hei r commer ci al nat ur e. The key
i nqui r y i s t he ext ent t o whi ch t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i t sel f - - and
not t he vi deos as a whol e - - pr ovi des commer ci al gai n t o the
NFL. [ T]he degr ee t o whi ch t he new user expl oi t s t he copyr i ght
f or commer ci al gai n - - as opposed t o i nci dent al use as par t of a
commer ci al ent er pr i se - - af f ect s t he wei ght due t o t he
commer ci al char act er of a par t i cul ar use. El vi s Pr esl ey Ent er s. ,
I nc. , 349 F. 3d at 627. The uses of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t hese
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t hr ee vi deos can onl y pr oper l y be descr i bed as i nci dent al t o t he
l ar ger commer ci al ent er pr i se of creat i ng hi st or i cal vi deos f or
pr of i t . Al t hough t he l ogo was par t of a pr oduct cr eat ed f or
commer ci al gai n, i t s r ol e i n f aci l i t at i ng t hat gai n was
unquest i onabl y mi ni mal .
3.
Bouchat has al so ur ged t hi s cour t t o make a f i ndi ng of bad
f ai t h on t he par t of t he NFL and t he Ravens, l ar gel y due t o past
f i ndi ngs of i nf r i ngement by bot h ent i t i es. Appel l ant s Br . at
40- 41, 50. As an i ni t i al mat t er , good f ai t h i s not l i st ed as a
f ai r use f act or i n 107 of t he Copyr i ght Act and i t i s
quest i onabl e whet her al l egat i ons of subj ect i ve bad f ai t h coul d
under cut a use t hat obj ect i vel y was f ai r . See Campbel l , 510 U. S.
at 585 n. 18. Even assumi ng t hat t hey coul d, however , t he
di st r i ct cour t r ef used t o f i nd t hat t he NFL and t he Ravens act ed
i n bad f ai t h her e, not i ng: t her e i s not hi ng t o put i nt o doubt
t he NFL s good f ai t h i n bel i evi ng t hat t he uses of t he Fl yi ng B
Logo i n Document ar i es wer e non- i nf r i ngi ng f ai r uses. J . A. 201.
See al so J . A. 195 ( maki ng t he same f i ndi ng wi t h r egar d t o the
Ravens) . Bouchat di r ect s us t o pr evi ous exampl es of i nf r i ngement
by the Ravens and t he NFL, and asks t hat we i nf er bad f ai t h.
Absent any evi dence to suppor t t hi s concl usi on, we decl i ne t o
di st ur b t he r ul i ng of t he di st r i ct cour t . The t r ansf or mat i ve
nat ur e of t he def endant s uses of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo pr ovi ded
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t hem wi t h ever y r eason t o bel i eve t hat t hei r use was f ai r . I n
Bouchat I V, we addr essed the past act i ons of t he def endant s, and
not ed that t hey wer e rel evant i n par t because t he pur pose of
t he use [ was] not t r ansf ormed. 619 F. 3d at 311. Here, because
t he use i s t r ansf or mat i ve, any past i nf r i ngement i s si mpl y
i napposi t e.
C.
The f l eet i ng and t r ansf or mat i ve use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n
t he vi deos means t hat t he f i r st f act or i n 107 counsel s
st r ongl y i n f avor of f ai r use. The r emai ni ng cr i t er i a do not hi ng
t o under mi ne t hi s concl usi on. The second f act or concer ns t he
nat ur e of t he copyr i ght ed wor k. 17 U. S. C. 107( 2) . The l ogo i s
a cr eat i ve wor k, and t her ef or e cl oser t o t he cor e of wor ks
pr ot ect ed by t he Copyr i ght Act . Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 311
( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) . Nonet hel ess, i f t he
di sput ed use of t he copyr i ght ed wor k i s not r el at ed t o i t s mode
of expr essi on but r at her t o i t s hi st or i cal f act s, t hen t he
cr eat i ve nat ur e of t he wor k mat t er s much l ess t han i t ot her wi se
woul d. Vander hye, 562 F. 3d at 640 ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks
omi t t ed) . I ndeed, as we not ed i n Bouchat I V, t he second f act or
may be of l i mi t ed usef ul ness wher e t he cr eat i ve wor k of ar t i s
bei ng used f or a t r ansf or mat i ve pur pose. 619 F. 3d at 315
( quot i ng Bi l l Gr aham Ar chi ves, 448 F. 3d at 612) ( i nt er nal
quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) . Thus, whi l e Bouchat s or i gi nal dr awi ng
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i s a creat i ve wor k, t he NFL s t r ansf or mat i ve use l essens t he
i mpor t ance of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo s cr eat i vi t y. Consequent l y, t hi s
f act or i s l ar gel y neut r al .
The t hi r d f act or i s t he amount and subst ant i al i t y of t he
por t i on used i n r el at i on t o the copyr i ght ed wor k as a whol e. 17
U. S. C. 107( 3) . The Fl yi ng B i s r epr oduced i n f ul l i n at l east
some of i t s appear ances i n t he vi deos, whi ch mi l i t at [ es]
agai nst a f i ndi ng of f ai r use, but does not pr ecl ude i t .
Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 315 ( quot i ng Sony Cor p. of Am. v.
Uni ver sal Ci t y St udi os, I nc. , 464 U. S. 417, 449- 50 ( 1984) ;
Sundeman v. Seaj ay Soc' y, I nc. , 142 F. 3d 194, 205 ( 4t h Ci r .
1998) ) ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) . Ul t i mat el y, t he
extent of per mi ssi bl e copyi ng var i es wi t h t he pur pose and
charact er of t he use. Sundeman, 142 F. 3d at 205- 06 ( quot i ng
Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 586- 87) ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks
omi t t ed) . Her e, t he NFL had no choi ce but t o f i l m t he whol e l ogo
i n or der t o f ul f i l l i t s l egi t i mat e t r ansf or mat i ve pur pose of
creat i ng t he hi st or i cal vi deos at i ssue. Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at
315. Though t he NFL has used Bouchat s wor k i n i t s ent i r et y, t he
t r ansf ormat i veness of t he use and t he char act er of Bouchat s
wor k l ead us t o gi ve ver y l i t t l e wei ght t o t hi s f actor . I t woul d
be sensel ess t o per mi t t he NFL t o use the Fl yi ng B l ogo f or
f actual , hi st or i cal pur poses, but per mi t i t t o show onl y a hal f ,
or t wo- t hi rds of i t .
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The f our t h f act or i s t he ef f ect of t he use upon t he
pot ent i al mar ket f or or val ue of t he copyr i ght ed wor k. 17
U. S. C. 107( 4) . We ar e requi r ed to deter mi ne whet her t he
def endant s [ use of t he l ogo] woul d mat er i al l y i mpai r t he
mar ket abi l i t y of t he wor k and whether i t woul d act as a mar ket
subst i t ut e f or i t . Bond, 317 F. 3d at 396. A t r ansf or mat i ve use
r ender s mar ket subst i t ut i on l ess l i kel y and mar ket har m mor e
di f f i cul t t o i nf er . Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 591. The t r ansi ent and
f l eet i ng use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo, as wel l as i t s use f or i t s
f act ual , and not i t s expr essi ve, cont ent , l eads us t o concl ude
t hat i t ser ves a di f f er ent pur pose i n t he vi deos t han i t does
st andi ng al one. As a resul t , t he new, t r ansf or mat i ve use i s
unl i kel y t o suppl ant any market f or t he or i gi nal . See Sundeman,
142 F. 3d at 207.
D.
The f our 107 f act or s i ndi cat e t hat t he NFL s f l eet i ng and
i nsubst ant i al use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t hese vi deos qual i f i es
as f ai r use. The f i r st f act or , r i ght f ul l y t he pr i nci pal f ocus of
t he par t i es di scussi on, counsel s st r ongl y i n f avor of f ai r use.
The r emai ni ng f ai r use f act or s ar e l ar gel y neut r al , provi di ng
compel l i ng ar gument s nei t her f or nor agai nst f ai r use.
Consequent l y, i n t he aggr egat e, t he f our f act or s poi nt i n f avor
of a f ai r use f i ndi ng.
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Our anal ysi s under 107 i s conf i r med by t he Supr eme
Cour t s expl i cat i on of t he under l yi ng i nt er est s t hat i nf or m
copyr i ght l aw and i t s r el at i onshi p t o t he Fi r st Amendment . Whi l e
copyr i ght l aw r ewar ds t he owner , [ t ] he sol e i nt er est of t he
Uni t ed St at es and t he pr i mary obj ect i n conf er r i ng t he monopol y
l i e i n t he gener al benef i t s der i ved by t he publ i c f r om t he
l abor s of aut hor s. Sony Cor p. , 464 U. S. at 429 ( i nt er nal
quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) . As a r esul t , Congr ess has at t empt ed
over t he years t o bal ance t he i mport ance of encour agi ng aut hors
and i nvent or s by gr ant i ng t hem cont r ol over t hei r wor k wi t h
soci et y s compet i ng i nt er est i n t he f r ee f l ow of i deas,
i nf or mat i on and commer ce. I d. at 429. Absent any pr ot ect i on f or
f ai r use, subsequent wr i t er s and ar t i st s woul d be unabl e t o
bui l d and expand upon or i gi nal wor ks, f r ust r at i ng t he ver y ai ms
of copyr i ght pol i cy. Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 575- 76. For cr eat i on
i t sel f i s a cumul at i ve pr ocess; t hose who come af t er wi l l
i nevi t abl y make some modest use of t he good l abors of t hose who
came bef or e. See Br . f or I nt l Document ar y Ass n, Mot i on Pi ct ur e
Ass n of Am. , I nc. & Fi l m I ndep. as Ami ci Cur i ae ( I DA Br i ef )
at 9. Af t er al l , i t shoul d not be f or got t en t hat t he Framer s
i nt ended copyr i ght i t sel f t o be t he engi ne of f r ee expr essi on.
Har per & Row, Publ i sher s, I nc. v. Nat i on Ent er s. , 471 U. S. 539,
558 ( 1985) .
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Fai r use, t hen, i s cr uci al t o t he exchange of opi ni ons and
i deas. I t pr ot ect s f i l mmaker s and document ar i ans f r om t he
i nevi t abl e chi l l i ng ef f ect s of al l owi ng an ar t i st t oo much
cont r ol over t he di ssemi nat i on of hi s or her wor k f or hi st or i cal
pur poses. Copyr i ght l aw has t he pot ent i al t o const r i ct speech,
and f ai r use serves as a necessar y Fi r st Amendment saf eguard[ ]
agai nst t hi s danger . El dr ed v. Ashcr of t , 537 U. S. 186, 219
( 2003) . The case- by- case nat ur e of t he i nqui r y of f er s t he
advant age of f l exi bi l i t y, but i t al so l acks pr edi ctabi l i t y and
cl ar i t y, whi ch i s of t en an i mpedi ment t o f r ee expr essi on. As a
r esul t , f ai r use must gi ve speaker s some reasonabl e l eeway at
t he margi ns. As t he Supr eme Cour t has noted, t he consi derabl e
l at i t ude f or schol ar shi p and comment secur ed by t he f ai r use
doct r i ne pr ot ect s t he cor e val ue of f r ee expr essi on f r om
excessi ve l i t i gat i on and undue r est r i ct i on. I d. at 220 ( i nt er nal
quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) ; see al so i d. at 219.
Top Ten: Dr af t Cl asses, Top Ten: Dr af t Bust s, and Sound FX:
Ray Lewi s shar e t he qual i t i es of ot her hi st or i cal document ar i es.
They f eature t hree key component s: ar chi val f oot age, comment ar y,
and i nt er vi ews. These i ngr edi ent s ar e cr uci al t o t he cr eat i on of
any hi st or i cal l y accur at e f i l m. They al so al i gn t he vi deos wi t h
t he exampl es i n 107 s pr eambl e: cr i t i ci sm, comment , news
r epor t i ng, t eachi ng . . . schol ar shi p, or r esear ch. 17 U. S. C.
107. Were we t o requi r e t hose wi shi ng t o pr oduce f i l ms and
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document ar i es t o r ecei ve per mi ssi on f r om copyr i ght hol der s f or
f l eet i ng f act ual uses of t hei r wor ks, we woul d al l ow t hose
copyr i ght hol der s t o exer t enor mous i nf l uence over new
depi ct i ons of hi st or i cal subj ect s and event s. Such a r ul e woul d
encour age bar gai ni ng over t he depi ct i on of hi st or y by gr ant i ng
copyr i ght hol der s subst ant i al l ever age over sel ect hi st or i cal
f act s. I t woul d f or ce t hose wi shi ng t o cr eat e vi deos and
document ar i es t o r ecei ve appr oval and endor sement f r om t hei r
subj ect s, who coul d si mpl y choose t o pr ohi bi t unf l at t er i ng or
di sf avor ed depi ct i ons. See I DA Br i ef at 5. Soci al comment ar y as
wel l as hi st or i cal nar r at i ve coul d be af f ected i f , f or exampl e,
compani es f aci ng unwel come i nqui r i es coul d ban al l depi ct i on of
t hei r l ogos. Thi s woul d al i gn i ncent i ves i n exact l y t he wr ong
manner , di mi ni shi ng accur acy and i ncr easi ng t r ansact i on cost s,
al l t he whi l e di scour agi ng t he cr eat i on of new expr essi ve wor ks.
Thi s r egi me, t he l ogi cal outgrowt h of Bouchat s f ai r use
posi t i on, woul d chi l l t he ver y ar t i st i c creat i on t hat copyr i ght
l aw at t empt s t o nur t ur e. See Sony Cor p. , 464 U. S. at 429.
The NFL wi shes t o cr eate nar r at i ves about var i ous aspect s
of i t s hi st or y, i ncl udi ng some t hat t r anspi r ed bet ween 1996 and
1998, when t he Fl yi ng B l ogo r epr esent ed t he Ravens. These
vi deos have t ol d new st or i es and f eat ur e al l of t he hal l mar ks of
document ar y f i l ms. They al so, of cour se, cont ai n f l eet i ng,
i nsubst ant i al i mages of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo. But j ust as i t woul d
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have been a t er r i bl e shame to pr event Edward Hopper f r om
pai nt i ng t he Esso si gn i n hi s mast er f ul Por t r ai t of Or l eans,
so t oo woul d i t be a mi st ake t o pr event t he NFL f r om usi ng t he
Fl yi ng B l ogo t o creat e new pr ot ect ed wor ks. See E. S. S. Ent m' t
2000, I nc. v. Rock St ar Vi deos, I nc. , 547 F. 3d 1095, 1100 ( 9t h
Ci r . 2008) ( not i ng that under t r ademar k l aw, t he Fi r st Amendment
pr ot ect s t hose uses t hat have ar t i st i c r el evance) . The NFL may
not ar ouse sympathi es i n t he way that a r ever ed ar t i st does, but
t he consequences of t hi s case reach f ar beyond i t s f act s.
Soci et y s i nt er est i n ensur i ng t he creat i on of t r ansf or mat i ve
wor ks i nci dent al l y ut i l i zi ng copyr i ght ed mat er i al i s l egi t i mat e
no mat t er who the def endant may be.
I V.
Bouchat next chal l enges t he i nci dent al use of t he Fl yi ng B
l ogo i n cer t ai n hi st or i cal di spl ays l ocat ed on t he Cl ub Level
of t he Bal t i mor e Ravens st adi um. The f act s of t hi s par t i cul ar
cl ai m ar e det ai l ed bel ow. For t he r easons t hat f ol l ow, we
concl ude t hat t hi s par t i cul ar i nst ance of di spl ay al so qual i f i es
as a f ai r use.
A.
The cl ub sect i on of t he Ravens st adi um occupi es t he 200-
l evel concour se. The Cl ub Level pr ovi des a host of ameni t i es,
i ncl udi ng, among ot her t hi ngs, spaci ous seat i ng, car pet ed
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f l oor s, r ef uge f r om t he el ement s, at t r acti ve dcor , speci al t y
concessi ons, and enhanced cust omer ser vi ce. The Cl ub Level
accommodates over 8, 000 peopl e and i s access i bl e onl y t o t hose
who pur chase Cl ub Level t i cket s. These t i cket s are pr i ced
bet ween $175 and $355 per game.
The t hree di spl ays chal l enged by Bouchat - - a t i mel i ne, a
hi ghl i ght r eel , and a si gni f i cant pl ays exhi bi t - - ar e al l
l ocat ed on t he Cl ub Level . Each addr esses a di scr et e subj ect
mat t er . Consi der ed t oget her , t hey cover an i mpr essi ve span of
Bal t i mor e f oot bal l hi st or y. The Fl yi ng B l ogo pl ays an
i nci dent al r ol e i n onl y a f r acti on of t he hi st or i cal depi cti ons
f eat ur ed i n t he di spl ays. Over al l , t he exhi bi t s document mor e
t han one hundr ed years of hi st ory pr ecedi ng t he advent of t he
Fl yi ng B l ogo and many si gni f i cant hi st or i cal event s post - dat i ng
i t .
The t i mel i ne, whi ch begi ns wi t h t he year 1881, cover s t hose
i ndi vi dual year s t hat i l l ust r at e i mpor t ant event s i n t he
Bal t i mor e f oot bal l st or y. For i nst ance, t he por t i on of t he
exhi bi t devot ed t o the year 1959, whi ch sur r ounds t he exi t f r om
t he women s r est r oom, st ates i n bol d l et t ers TWO I N A ROW and
i ncl udes as a capt i on Bal t i more r epeat s as NFL Champi ons i n
Bal t i mor e Agai n Agai nst Gi ant s. Hi st or i cal phot ogr aphs,
post er s, and f ur t her descr i pt i ve t ext r ound out t hi s component
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of t he exhi bi t , whi ch i s gener al l y repr esent at i ve of ot her year s
i ncl uded i n t he di spl ay.
Wi t h r espect t o Bouchat s chal l enge, t he segment f or a
si ngl e year - - 1996 - - f eat ur es t he headi ng TOUCHDOWN
BALTI MORE and t he capt i on NFL Retur ns t o Bal t i more. To
i l l ust r at e t hi s si gni f i cant event i n Bal t i mor e spor t s hi st or y,
t he di spl ay i ncl udes, among ot her t hi ngs, bl own- up r epr oduct i ons
of t he i naugur al 1996 game- day pr ogr am and t i cket , each of whi ch
necessar i l y bear s t he Fl yi ng B l ogo. No ot her year i n t he
ext ensi ve t i mel i ne di spl ay - - whi ch cover s t he t ai l - end of t he
19t h cent ur y, t he success of t he Bal t i mor e Col t s, t he t enur e of
t he Canadi an Footbal l League s Bal t i mor e St al l i ons, and t he mor e
r ecent hi st or y associ at ed wi t h t he Ravens - - i ncl udes even an
i nci dent al depi ct i on of t he l ogo.
The hi ghl i ght r eel si mi l ar l y i ncl udes i l l ust r at i ons of
si gni f i cant moment s i n Ravens hi st or y. The r eel f eat ur es a
ser i es of l ar gel y i nt er connect ed depi ct i ons, l ocat ed near
concess i on areas, compr i sed of photogr aphs accompani ed by dates
and descr i pt i ve t ext . The Fl yi ng B l ogo appear s i nci dent al l y i n
sever al i mages. For i nst ance, one exhi bi t i ncl udes a pi ct ur e of
a f ormer Ravens pl ayer , suppl ement ed by t he date Apr i l 19,
1997 and a textual not at i on whi ch r eads, i n par t , The Ravens
sel ect Pet er Boul war e wi t h t hei r 1st pi ck i n t he 1997 dr af t ( 4t h
over al l ) . I n t he phot o, t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s par t i al l y vi si bl e
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on t he si de of Boul war e s hel met . As wi t h t he t i mel i ne, bot h t he
hi ghl i ght r eel and t he i mpor t ant pl ays exhi bi t - - di scussed
bel ow - - f eat ur e many si gni f i cant hi st or i cal depi ct i ons wher e
t he l ogo does not appear at al l .
The i mpor t ant pl ays exhi bi t i s st r uct ural l y anal ogous t o
t he hi ghl i ght r eel : i t compr i ses phot ogr aphs, dat es, and t ext ual
descr i pt i ons commemor at i ng si gni f i cant on- f i el d achi evement s of
Ravens pl ayers. The photogr aphs are exhi bi t ed i ndependent l y
t hr oughout t he Cl ub Level . Bouchat chal l enges onl y t wo
i ndi vi dual exhi bi t s, i ncl udi ng one t hat por t r ays a Ravens pl ayer
r et ur ni ng a punt . The t ext accompanyi ng the photogr aph st at es,
i n par t : Wi de Recei ver J er mai ne Lewi s t i es an NFL Si ngl e- Game
Recor d wi t h t wo punt r etur n Touchdowns ( 89 yar ds and 66 yards) .
Gi ven t he angl e of t he phot o, t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s onl y
i ncompl et el y vi si bl e on t he si de of Lewi s hel met . The second
exhi bi t , f eat ur i ng a si mi l ar l ayout , depi ct s a Ravens
quar t er back cel ebr at i ng a t ouchdown; t he Fl yi ng B l ogo al so
appear s on hi s hel met .
B.
The di st r i ct cour t r ej ect ed Bouchat s chal l enge t o t he Cl ub
Level di spl ays, f i ndi ng each di spl ay of t he Fl yi ng B j ust i f i ed
under t he f ai r use doct r i ne. I t s anal ysi s rest ed i n si gni f i cant
par t on t hi s cour t s deci si on i n Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d 301, whi ch
r ej ect ed an i nf r i ngement chal l enge t o a hi st or i cal di spl ay
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l ocat ed i n t he l obby of t he Ravens cor por at e headquar t er s. That
di spl ay, l i ke t he one at i ssue her e, cont ai ned i nci dent al
r epr oduct i ons of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo.
1.
As not ed above, t he f i r st f ai r use f act or - - t he pur pose
and char act er of t he use, 17 U. S. C. 107( 1) - - can be r educed
t o t wo sub- i nqui r i es: whet her t he new use i s t r ansf or mat i ve, and
t o what degr ee i t ser ves a commerci al pur pose. See Bouchat I V,
619 F. 3d at 314. Each of t hese component s i s di scussed bel ow. As
wi l l become appar ent , much of our anal ysi s r egar di ng t he cont ent
of t he document ar i es di scussed ear l i er i s al so appl i cabl e t o
Bouchat s di spl ay chal l enge.
The par t i es, i n r el i ance upon Bouchat I V, exer t si gni f i cant
ef f or t debat i ng whet her t he chal l enged hi st or i cal di spl ays ar e
i nst al l ed i n a museum- l i ke set t i ng. 619 F. 3d at 314. We need
not r esol ve t hi s speci f i c di sput e, however , i n or der t o concl ude
t hat t he t hr ee t ypes of exhi bi t s at i ssue her e ar e
t r ansf or mat i ve. Campbel l v. Acuf f - Rose Musi c, I nc. , 510 U. S.
569, 579 ( 1994) . As not ed, [ t ] he use of a copyr i ght ed wor k need
not al t er or augment t he wor k to be t r ansf or mat i ve i n nat ur e.
Rat her , i t can be t r ansf or mat i ve i n f unct i on or pur pose wi t hout
act ual l y addi ng t o t he or i gi nal wor k. A. V. ex r el . Vander hye v.
i Par adi gms, LLC, 562 F. 3d 630, 639 ( 4t h Ci r . 2009) .
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Each of t he t hr ee chal l enged Cl ub Level di spl ays i s
i nt ended t o chr oni cl e a si gni f i cant aspect of Ravens hi st or y,
i ncl udi ng i mpor t ant pl ays, speci f i c pl ayer achi evement s, and
gener al hi st or i cal event s. Col l ect i vel y, t he di spl ays pr ovi de a
mul t i - f acet ed por t r ai t of t he evol ut i on of pr of essi onal f oot bal l
i n Bal t i mor e. The Fl yi ng B l ogo i s i ncl uded mer el y as an
i nci dent al component of t hi s br oader hi st or i cal nar r at i ve. See
SOFA Ent m t , I nc. v. Dodger Prods. , 709 F. 3d 1273, 1278 (9t h
Ci r . 2013) . I t s cur r ent f unct i on as a hi stor i cal ar t i f act
di f f er s si gni f i cant l y f r om i t s or i gi nal f unct i on as the t eam s
l ogo, wher eby i t r epr esent ed t he Ravens br and, di f f er ent i at ed
Ravens pl ayers f r om members of opposi ng t eams, and general l y
ser ved as t he f ocal poi nt of pr omot i onal ef f or t s.
The l ogo as i t i s used i n t he Cl ub Level di spl ays no l onger
ser ves t hese or i gi nal pur poses. I nst ead, i t s pr esence i n t he
var i ous exhi bi t s - - l i ke i n t he document ar i es - - i s pur el y
descr i pt i ve and desi gned mer el y to pr eserve a speci f i c aspect of
Ravens hi st or y. See Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 314; El vi s Pr esl ey
Ent er s. , I nc. v. Passpor t Vi deo, 349 F. 3d 622, 629 ( 9t h Ci r .
2003) ( not i ng, i n t he cont ext of an El vi s document ar y, t hat
def endant s use of many of t he t el evi si on cl i ps i s
t r ansf or mat i ve because they ar e ci t ed as hi st or i cal r ef er ence
poi nt s) , over r ul ed on ot her gr ounds as st at ed i n Fl exi bl e
Li f el i ne Sys. , I nc. v. Pr eci si on Li f t , I nc. , 654 F. 3d 989, 995
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( 9t h Ci r . 2011) ( per cur i am) . I t i s t he Raven Pr of i l e l ogo - -
not t he Fl yi ng B l ogo - - t hat now serves t he pur pose served by
t he Fl yi ng B l ogo f r om 1996 t o 1998.
Fur t her mor e, t he Fl yi ng B l ogo repr esent s mer el y a
negl i gi bl e el ement of t he over al l exhi bi t i on. For i nst ance, t he
hi st or i cal t i mel i ne chr oni cl es over 100 year s of f oot bal l i n
Bal t i mor e, but t he Fl yi ng B l ogo was used f or onl y t hr ee. The
Fl yi ng B l ogo i s si mpl y absent f r om l ar ge swat hs of Bal t i mor e
f oot bal l , and i ndeed Ravens, hi st or y. The l ogo pl ayed no par t ,
f or i nst ance, i n t he decades t he Bal t i mor e Col t s ( and Hal l - of -
Famer J ohnny Uni t as) pl ayed i n t he ci t y. And t he Ravens Super
Bowl champi onshi ps were won af t er t he t eam abandoned t he Fl yi ng
B.
The i nsi gni f i cance of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo as a f eat ure of t he
di spl ays i s r el evant because [ t ] he ext ent t o whi ch unl i censed
mat er i al i s used i n t he chal l enged wor k can be a f act or i n
det er mi ni ng whet her a [ def endant s] use of or i gi nal mat er i al s
has been suf f i ci ent l y t r ansf or mat i ve t o const i t ut e f ai r use.
Bi l l Gr aham Ar chi ves v. Dor l i ng Ki nder sl ey Ltd. , 448 F. 3d 605,
611 ( 2d Ci r . 2006) ; Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 587. The l ogo s
compar at i ve i nsi gni f i cance as an el ement of t he t hr ee di spl ays
t hus conf i r ms t hei r t r ansf or mat i ve qual i t y, and mi l i t at es i n
f avor of a f i ndi ng of f ai r use.
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2.
The f i r st f act or i nqui r y al so i nvol ves det er mi ni ng whet her
t he al l egedl y f ai r use i s commer ci al i n nat ur e. Thi s
det er mi nat i on does not , however , r equi r e a cl ear - cut choi ce
bet ween t wo pol ar char act er i zat i ons, commer ci al and non-
pr of i t . Maxtone- Gr aham v. Bur t chael l , 803 F. 2d 1253, 1262 ( 2d
Ci r . 1986) . I nst ead, [ t ] he commer ci al nat ur e of a use i s a
mat t er of degr ee, not an absol ut e. I d. As not ed above, i t i s
i mpor t ant not t o over - emphasi ze t hi s aspect of t he i nqui r y when
t he use i s t r ansf or mat i ve. Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 579.
The Bouchat I V cour t r el i ed heavi l y on t he f act t hat t he
l obby housi ng t he al l egedl y i nf r i ngi ng i mages was open t o t he
gener al publ i c f r ee of char ge. 619 F. 3d at 314. Cl ear l y, i n t hat
case, t he di spl ays had at most an at t enuated commerci al pur pose:
t he l obby s dcor was not i nt ended t o i nduce a par t i cul ar
pur chase or t o ef f ect uat e a commer ci al t r ansact i on, but r at her
t o st i mul ate general communi t y support f or t he t eam. Whi l e t he
pat r ons of t he Cl ub Level and t he members of t he publ i c pr esent
i n t he l obby of t eam headquar t er s are obvi ousl y not equi val ent ,
we do not bel i eve t he di f f er ence i s di sposi t i ve. The Cl ub Level
di spl ays, l i ke t hose i n t he l obby, pr oduce what i s essent i al l y
an at mospher i c ef f ect . They ar e a negl i gi bl e, f r i nge benef i t of
cl ub member shi p. The gour met f ood, shel t er f r om t he el ement s,
and vi ew of t he game - - not some mi ni scul e aspect of t he wal l
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decor - - pr ovi de t he pr i mar y mot i vat or s f or pur chasi ng a Cl ub
Level t i cket . See J . A. 194 ( di st r i ct cour t f act - f i ndi ng) ( [T] he
st at i c pi ct ur e di spl ays ar e not any meani ngf ul par t of t he
i ncent i ve f or a pat r on t o buy a game t i cket . ) .
The commer ci al char act er of def endant s use becomes even
mor e at t enuat ed when one consi der s t hat t he l ogo i t sel f - - not
t he exhi bi t s i n gener al - - t echni cal l y r epr esent s t he pr oper
f ocus of anal ysi s. No one i s put t i ng down hundr eds of dol l ar s t o
see t he Fl yi ng B l ogo. The Ravens are not gai ni ng di r ect or
i mmedi ate commerci al advant age f r om any l ogo di spl ay at i ssue
her e - - i . e. , [ t he t eam s] pr of i t s, r evenues, and over al l
commer ci al per f or mance [ ar e] not t i ed t o t he use. Bouchat I V,
619 F. 3d at 314 ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) . Thi s i s
mani f est l y not a case wher e t he copi er di r ect l y and excl usi vel y
acqui r es conspi cuous f i nanci al r ewar ds f r om i t s use of t he
copyr i ght ed mat er i al . Am. Geophysi cal Uni on, 60 F. 3d at 923.
Fur t her mor e, t he use of a l ogo as an i nci dent al el ement i n
a hi st or i cal exhi bi t i s si mpl y not t he t ype of commer ci al use
f r owned upon by 107. I f Bal t i mor e s f oot bal l hi st or y i s t o be
accur at el y depi ct ed, some i nci dent al r epr oduct i on of t he l ogo
woul d seem al most unavoi dabl e. The mere use of a l ogo i n a
pr of i t - maki ng vent ur e, however , i s qui t e di f f er ent f r om i t s
commer ci al expl oi t at i on. Fai r use, as i t s name suggest s, i s a
mat t er of degr ee. And t he degr ee t o whi ch t he new user expl oi t s
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t he copyr i ght f or commer ci al gai n - - as opposed t o i nci dent al
use as par t of a commer ci al ent er pr i se - - i s what i s
si gni f i cant . See El vi s Pr esl ey Ent er s. , I nc. , 349 F. 3d at 627.
Her e, t he di spl ays i ncl ude i nci dent al depi ct i ons of t he Fl yi ng B
l ogo mer el y t o enr i ch t he pr esent at i on of t he cul t ur al hi st or y
of t he [ Ravens] , not t o expl oi t copyr i ght ed ar t wor k f or
commer ci al gai n. Bi l l Gr aham Ar chi ves, 448 F. 3d at 611.
Consequent l y, whet her vi ewed f r om t he st andpoi nt of t he Cl ub
Level di spl ays t r ansf or mat i ve char act er or f r om t he st andpoi nt
of whet her t hey ser ve a commer ci al pur pose, t he f i r st f act or
cut s deci dedl y i n f avor of f ai r use.
3.
The r emai ni ng f ai r use cr i t er i a do not al t er t he
i mpl i cat i ons of t he f i r st . The second f act or concer ns t he
nat ur e of t he copyr i ght ed wor k. 17 U. S. C. 107( 2) . The l aw
gener al l y recogni zes a gr eat er need t o di ssemi nat e f act ual
wor ks t han cr eat i ve ones. Har per & Row, Publ i sher s, I nc. v.
Nat i on Ent er s. , 471 U. S. 539, 563 ( 1985) . Her e, t he l ogo i s
di spl ayed f or i t s hi st or i cal si gni f i cance r at her t han i t s
i nt r i nsi c cr eat i ve wor t h. Bi l l Gr aham Ar chi ves, 448 F. 3d at 612-
13. As i n t he document ar y cont ext , t hi s f act or i s t hus of no
assi st ance t o Bouchat .
The t hi r d f act or cent er s on t he amount and subst ant i al i t y
of t he por t i on used i n r el at i on t o t he copyr i ght ed wor k as a
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38
whol e. 17 U. S. C. 107( 3) . I f t he second user r epr oduces onl y
t he amount necessary t o achi eve a val i d end, t hi s f act or wi l l
f avor nei t her par t y. El vi s Pr esl ey Ent er s. , I nc. , 349 F. 3d at
630. Her e, i n or der t o f ul f i l l t he l egi t i mat e t r ansf or mat i ve
pur pose of depi ct i ng i mpor t ant moment s i n Bal t i mor e f oot bal l
hi st or y, def endant had no choi ce but t o i ncl ude t he Fl yi ng B
l ogo i n i t s ent i r et y as an i nci dent al component of t he
chal l enged exhi bi t s. Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 315. I t i s har d t o
see f r ankl y how t he use of one- t hi r d or t wo- t hi r ds of t he l ogo
i s even pr act i cal or makes any sense. Thus, as i n Bouchat I V, we
f i nd t hi s f act or al so of no hel p t o pl ai nt i f f .
The f our t h f act or r equi r es an assessment of t he ef f ect of
t he use upon t he pot ent i al mar ket f or or val ue of t he
copyr i ght ed work. 17 U. S. C. 107( 4) . As not ed above, we must
det er mi ne whet her t he def endant s [ use of t he l ogo] woul d
mat er i al l y i mpai r t he mar ket abi l i t y of t he wor k and whet her i t
woul d act as a mar ket subst i t ut e f or i t . Bond v. Bl um, 317 F. 3d
385, 396 ( 4t h Ci r . 2003) . When def endant s use i s
t r ansf or mat i ve, mar ket subst i t ut i on ( and t he resul t i ng mar ket
har m t o pl ai nt i f f ) i s l ess l i kel y. Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 591.
Her e, t he i nci dent al r epr oduct i on of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t he
Cl ub Level hi st or i cal di spl ays ser ves a di f f er ent mar ket
f unct i on t han does t he l ogo st andi ng al one. The new use - - whi ch
i s bot h t r ansf or mat i ve and onl y mi ni mal l y commer ci al - - does not
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suppl ant or subst i t ut e f or t he or i gi nal . See Vander hye, 562 F. 3d
at 643; J . A. 196. Fi nal l y, we r ei t er at e t hat al t hough t he
di st r i ct cour t made no f i ndi ngs r egar di ng t he exi st ence of a
l i censi ng mar ket f or hi st or i cal l ogos, J . A. 196, f i ndi ngs i n
Bouchat s f avor on t hi s poi nt woul d be i nsuf f i ci ent t o over come
t he subst ant i al wei ght of t he f i r st t hr ee f act or s. Once agai n,
gi ven t he absence of mar ket dat a, we concl ude t hat t hi s f act or
st andi ng al one i s neut r al .
The cr i t er i a enumer at ed i n 107, i n t he aggr egat e, t hus
mi l i t at e i n f avor of a f i ndi ng of f ai r use. Thi s concl usi on i s
r ei nf or ced by br oader expr essi ve consi der at i ons si mi l ar t o t hose
ar t i cul at ed i n our anal ysi s of t he chal l enged document ar i es.
Fai r use, as a cruci al Fi r st Amendment saf eguar d[ ] , i s an
i mpor t ant t ool i n ensur i ng t hat an or i gi nat or s r i ght s ar e not
expanded unj ust i f i abl y at t he subsequent expense of f r ee
expr essi on. El dr ed v. Ashcr of t , 537 U. S. 186, 220 ( 2003) . Our
hol di ng t hat t he di spl ays const i t ut e a f ai r use of t he Fl yi ng B
l ogo pr eserves t hese f undament al Fi r st Amendment i nt er est s.
V.
Our r ej ect i on of Bouchat s chal l enge t o t he i nci dent al uses
of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo pr ovi des no suppor t f or a f ai r use def ense
wher e the al l eged i nf r i nger expl oi t s a pr ot ect ed wor k f or pr of i t
based on i t s i nt r i nsi c expr essi ve val ue. That scenar i o, however ,
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i s si mpl y not pr esent ed on t he f act s bef or e us. The uses her e
wer e not onl y t r ansf or mat i ve, but al so - - t ake your pi ck - -
f l eet i ng, i nci dent al , de mi ni mi s, i nnocuous. I f t hese uses
f ai l ed t o qual i f y as f ai r , a host of per f ect l y beni gn and
val uabl e expr essi ve wor ks woul d be subj ect t o l awsui t s. That i n
t ur n woul d di scour age t he maker s of al l sor t s of hi st or i cal
document ar i es and di spl ays, and woul d depl et e soci et y s f und of
i nf or mat i ve speech. The di st r i ct cour t s f i ndi ng of f ai r use
wi t h r espect t o t he document ar y vi deos and t he hi st or i cal
di spl ays on t he Cl ub Level was a cor r ect one. I t s j udgment i s i n
al l r espects af f i r med.
AFFI RMED