Biotechnology is applied biology Modern focus on genetic
engineering, recombinant DNA technology, cloning, and analysis of
biomolecules Traditional (historical) applications of biotechnology
date back to over 10,000 years ago Use of yeast to produce beer and
wine in Egypt and Near East Selective breeding of plants and
animals
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Genetic engineering refers to the modification of genetic
material to achieve specific goals
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Major goals of genetic engineering Learn more about cellular
processes, including inheritance and gene expression Provide better
understanding and treatment of diseases, particularly genetic
disorders Generate economic and social benefits through production
of valuable biomolecules (vaccines, and hormones) Improved plants
and animals for agriculture
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Genetic engineering utilizes recombinant DNA technology
Splicing together of genes or portions of genes from different
organisms Recombinant DNA can be transferred to plants and animals
Modified animals are called transgenic or genetically modified
organisms (GMOs) Most modern biotechnology includes manipulation of
DNA Many natural processes recombine DNA
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Bacteria can naturally take up DNA from the environment
(transformation) and integrate the new genes into the genome
(recombination)
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Viral life cycle 1. Viral particle invades host cell 2. Viral
DNA is replicated 3. Viral protein molecules are synthesized 4.
Offspring viruses are assembled and break out of the host cell
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Forensics is the science of criminal and victim identification
DNA technology has allowed forensic science to identify victims and
criminals from trace biological samples Genetic sequences of any
human individual are unique DNA analysis reveals patterns that
identify people with a high degree of accuracy
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Forensic technicians typically have very little DNA with which
to perform analyses Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) produces
virtually unlimited copies of a very small DNA sample
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Forensic scientists focus on short tandem repeats (STRs) found
within the human genome STRs are repeated sequences of DNA within
the chromosomes that do not code for proteins STRs vary greatly
between different human individuals A match of 13 different STRs
between suspect and crime scene DNA virtually proves the suspect
was at the crime scene
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Is a technique used to spread out different-length DNA
fragments in a mixture Distinctive pattern of STR numbers and
lengths are fairly unique to a specific individual (forming a DNA
fingerprint) DNA fingerprint from crime scene can be matched with
DNA fingerprint of suspect
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At least three-quarters of corn, cotton, and soybeans grown in
the US are genetically modified
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Crop plants are commonly modified to improve insect and
herbicide resistance Herbicide resistant crops withstand
applications of weed-killing chemicals Bt gene (from Bacillus
thuringiensis bacterium) can be inserted into plants to produce
insect-killing protein in crops
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Modifying a plant genetically begins with gene cloning 1.
Desired gene is first isolated from organism containing it Desired
gene may alternately be synthesized in the laboratory 2. Gene is
next cloned by inserting it into a plasmid which replicates itself
autonomously in bacterial cells 3. Transfect the host
organism.
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Medically useful genes can be inserted into plantsexamples:
Potatoes have been engineered to produce harmless hepatitis B virus
and E. coli proteins, stimulating an immune response when eaten
Plants could be engineered to produce human antibodies, conferring
passive immunity to microbial infection merely by eating the
plant
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Transgenic (Genetically Modified) animals can be engineered by
incorporating genes into chromosomes of a fertilized egg Healthy
transgenic animals are difficult to engineer Animals like sheep
might be engineered to produce more wool, cattle to produce more
proteins in their milk
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Findings Human genome contains ~25,000 genes New genes,
including many disease-associated genes have been discovered Has
determined the nucleotide sequence of all the DNA in our entire set
of genes, called the human genome The genes comprise 2% of all the
DNA
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Applications Improved diagnosis, treatment and cures of genetic
disorders or predispositions Comparison of our genome to those of
other species will clarify the genetic differences that help to
make us human
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Potential parents can learn if they are carriers of a heritable
disorder through testing Alleles for defective genes differ from
normal, functional genes in nucleotide sequence
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Treatments using DNA technology Tailored medical care
Recombinant DNA to make proteins Replacing defective genes to
possibly cure a disorder Gene Therapy Curing AIDS patients by
eliminating the receptor site for the virus Remove stem cells from
red bone marrow, genetically repair the cells, and replace
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GM Organisms in Agriculture The goal of breeding or genetically
modifying plants or livestock is to make them more productive,
efficient, or useful Genetic modification differs from selective
breeding (traditional biotechnology) Genetic engineering is much
more rapid Genetic engineering can transfer genes between species
Genetic engineering can produce new genes never seen before on
Earth
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Benefits of genetically modified plants Transgenic crops
decrease applications of pesticides, saving fuel, labor, and money
GM plants can be sold at a lower price due to farm savings
Genetically engineered crops can deliver greater amounts of
vitamins e.g. golden rice which produces vitamin A
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Safety issues from eating GMOs Could ingestion of Bt protein in
insect-resistant plants be dangerous to humans? Are transgenic fish
producing extra growth hormone dangerous to eat?
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Safety issues from eating GMOs Could GM crops cause allergic
reactions? USDA now monitors GM foods for allergic potential
Toxicology study of GM plants (2003) concluded that ingestion of
current transgenic crops pose no significant health dangers
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Environmental hazards posed by GMOs Pollen from modified plants
can carry GM genes to the wild plant population Could herbicide
resistance genes be transferred to weed species, creating
superweeds? Would they displace other plants in the wild, because
they would be less likely to be eaten by insects?
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Environmental hazards posed by GMOs Could GM fish reduce
biodiversity in the wild population if they escape? Reduced
diversity in wild fish makes them more susceptible to catastrophic
disease outbreaks
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Should parents be given information about the genetic health of
an unborn fetus?
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Should parents be allowed to select the genomes of their
offspring? Embryos from in vitro fertilization are currently tested
before implantation Many unused embryos are discarded
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Should parents be allowed to design or correct the genomes of
their offspring?
