Associative Learning

Operant Conditioning

Foundations

• Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)– Puzzle Box– Cats became more efficient with each trial– Law of effect

• Rewarded behavior is likely to recur

• B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)– Started with Thorndike’s Law of Effect– Operant Chamber (Skinner Box)– Utilized food as reinforcer for a variety of

behaviors– Resulted in animal learning

Operant Conditioning

• Association of behaviors and their consequences

• Behavior is strengthened (repeated) if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment

• Operant because the behavior operates on the environment to produce a consequence.

Shaping

• Procedure in which rewards such as food gradually guide an animal’s behavior toward a desired behavior

• Reinforcement given for successive approximations of desired behavior– Baby steps toward desired behavior

Principles of Reinforcement

• Reinforcer: any event that strengthens the behavior that it follows.– Positive (pleasant given: food)– Negative (aversive taken away: turning off

alarm)– Primary (Innate: satisfies biological need)– Secondary (Learned: money, good grades,

pleasant tone of voice, all linked with primary)

Focus on Positive Reinforcement

• Examples:

Focus on Negative Reinforcement

• Examples:

Reinforcement Schedules

• Continuous– Reinforcing the desired response (behavior)

whenever it occurs• Learning occurs rapidly• Extinction also rapid once reinforcement stops

Reinforcement Schedules

• Partial– Reinforcing response only part of the time

• Slower acquisition of learning• Greater resistance to extinction

Fixed Ratio

• Reinforce behavior after a set number of responses– High rate of responding

• Example: Paid $10 for every 100 envelopes stuffed

Variable Ratio

• Reinforcement occurs after an unpredictable number of responses– High rates of responding– Resists extinction

• Example: gambling, giving in to child’s whining in grocery store every so often, sales commissions

Fixed Interval

• Reinforce the first response after a fixed time period has occurred.– Rapid rate of responding as anticipated time

of reward approaches– Choppy pattern of responding

• Example: checking the cookies as the baking time is nearly done, checking for the mail as the time approaches for the delivery to occur

Variable Interval

• Reinforce the first response after varying time intervals– Slow steady responding

• Example: Boss walks around on a varying schedule to check on employees progress.

Superstitious behavior

• How does it happen?

Punishment

• Decreases behavior that it follows– Not forgotten, just suppressed– May increase aggressiveness

• “positive” applying an aversive consequence

• “negative” withdrawing a pleasant consequence.

Handouts

Operant Conditioning

Updates and applications

Problems with Punishment

• Human studies re: physical…– Temporary suppression negatively reinforces

parental punishing behavior• May learn discrimination (do it when you won’t get

caught)

– Increased aggressiveness– Develop fear– Doesn’t guide

What to do?

• Reinforcement of desired behaviors best

• Reframe contingencies from threats to positive incentives

Cognition

• Cognitive Map – mental representation of one’s environment

• Latent Learning – learning that occurs without reinforcement or punishment

Cognition & Motivation

• Overjustification effect

• Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation

• Excessive rewards undermine intrinsic motivation

• Rewards administered as feedback or information about performance can increase performance– Examples

Biological Predispositions

• Organisms learn associations that are naturally adaptive.

Behavioral Modification

• State your goal in measurable terms

• Monitor behavior

• Reinforce desired behavior

• Reduce the incentives gradually, exchanging for mental rewards

Applications

• Discuss: How can your knowledge of operant conditioning be used to enhance– Education/teaching– Parenting– Work performance

Identify an example for each area