Aris Trovada (1)dssdf

7/28/2019 Aris Trovada (1)dssdf

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Wundt was born at Neckarau, Baden on August 16th,[6] 1832 (now part of Mannheim), the fourth child toparents Maximilian Wundt (a Lutheran minister), and his wife Marie Frederike. When about four years of

age, Wundt's family moved to Heidelsheim which was known to be a small town. He studied from 1851 to

1856 at the University of Tbingen, University of Heidelberg, and the University of Berlin. After graduating

in medicine from Heidelberg (1856), Wundt studied briefly with Johannes Peter Mller, before joining the

University's staff, becoming an assistant to the physicist and physiologist Hermann von Helmholtz in

1858. There he wrote Contributions to the Theory of Sense Perception (185862).[7] In 1865, he wrote atextbook about human physiology. In 1867 he became a professor in acquainting medical students with

the exact physical needs for medical investigation. In 1874, he became a professor of "Inductive

Philosophy" in Zurich. In 1875, he moved back to Leipzig.

He married Sophie Mau while at Heidelberg. It was during this period that Wundt offered the first course

ever taught in scientific psychology, all the while stressing the use of experimental methods drawn fromthe natural sciences, emphasizing the physiological relationship of the human brain and the mind. His

background in physiology would have a great effect on his approach to the new science of psychology.

His lectures on psychology were published as Lectures on the Mind of Humans and Animals in 1863-

1864. He was promoted to Assistant Professor of Physiology at Heidelberg in 1864.[7] Weber (17951878) and Fechner (18011887), who worked at Leipzig, inspired Wundt's interest in neuropsychology.

Wundt applied himself to writing a work that came to be one of the most important in the history of

psychology, Principles of Physiological Psychology in 1874. This was the first textbook that was written

pertaining to the field of psychology.[8]The Principles utilized a system of psychology that sought to

investigate the immediate experiences of consciousness, including feelings, emotions, volitions and

ideas, mainly explored through Wundt's system of "internal perception", or the self-examination of

conscious experience by objective observation of one's consciousness.

Wundt proclaimed that a human's soul if indeed they had one was irrelevant, as humans could onlybe understood in terms of physically observable phenomena. A search for the spiritual nature of humans,

he reasoned, was a waste of time as there was no psyche. The subject of psychology thereafter became

prevalent in universities.


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William james

William James (January 11, 1842 August 26, 1910) was a pioneering American psychologist andphilosopherwho was trained as a physician. He was the first educator to offer a psychology course in theU.S.

[2]He wrote influential books on the young science of psychology, educational psychology,

psychology ofreligious experience and mysticism, and on the philosophy ofpragmatism. He was thebrother of novelist Henry James and of diarist Alice James. In the summer of 1878, James married AliceGibbens.

William James was born at the Astor House in New York City. He was the son ofHenry James Sr., anoted and independently wealthy Swedenborgian theologian well acquainted with the literary andintellectual elites of his day. The intellectual brilliance of the James family milieu and the remarkableepistolary talents of several of its members have made them a subject of continuing interest to historians,biographers, and critics.

James interacted with a wide array of writers and scholars throughout his life, including his godfatherRalph Waldo Emerson, his godson William James Sidis, as well as Charles Sanders Peirce, BertrandRussell, Josiah Royce, Ernst Mach, John Dewey, Macedonio Fernndez, Walter Lippmann, Mark Twain,

Horatio Alger, Jr., Henri Bergson and Sigmund Freud.
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John Watson

General Sir John Watson VC, GCB (6 September 1829 23 January 1919) was an English recipient ofthe Victoria Cross, the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can

be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces. An officer serving with the Bengal Army, Watson

received his Victoria Cross for actions at Lucknow during the Indian Mutiny. He later rose to the rank of

general in the British Indian Army.

Early life

Watson was born on 6 September 1829 in Chigwell, Essex.[1]

His father was William George Watson.[2]

In1848,

[2]at the age of 19, Watson traveled to London seeking to join the army of the British East India

Company. Joining the Bengal Army as an officerwas initially he was sent to Madras. This offered littleprospect of action, however. and Watson sought transfer to Bombay.

[1]

His first combat action came in December 1848 during the Second Anglo-Sikh Warwhen Watson tookpart in the Siege of Multan, while serving with the 1st Bombay European Fusiliers.

[1]Shortly afterwards he

took part in the Battle of Gujrat.[3]

Victoria Cross details

Watson was 28 years old, and a lieutenant in the 1st Punjab Cavalry, Bengal Army during the IndianMutiny when the following deed took place on 14 November 1857 at Lucknow, India, for which he wasawarded the VC:

Lieut. Watson, on 14 Nov., with his own squadron, and that under Captain, then Lieut. Probyn, came

upon a body of the rebel cavalry. The Ressaldar in command of them a fine specimen of the HindustaniMussalman and backed up by some half-dozen equally brave men, rode out to the front. LieutenantWatson singled out this fine-looking fellow and attacked him. The Ressaldar presented his pistol at Lieut.

Watson's breast at a yard's distance and fired, but most providentially without effect; the ball must have

by accident previously fallen out. Lieutenant Watson ran the man through with his sword and dismounted

him; but the native officer, nothing daunted, drew his tulwar, and with his sowars renewed his attack uponLieutenant Watson, who bravely defended himself until his own men joined in the melee, and utterly

routed the party. In this rencontre Lieutenant Watson received a blow on the head from a tulwar, another

on the left arm, which severed his chain gauntlet glove, a tulwar cut on his right arm, which fortunately

only divided the sleeve of his jacket, but disabled the arm for some time; a bullet also passed through his

coat, and he received a blow on his leg which lamed him for some days afterwards .[4]
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Later military career

Following this Watson took part in further fighting around Cawnpore and then the Relief of Lucknow. Afterthis he returned to England briefly on convalescence leave before returning to India .

[5]In 1858, Watson

raised the 4th Sikh Irregular Cavalry which later became the 6th Duke of Connaught's Own Lancers(Watson's Horse). He later took part in the Umbeyla Expedition (1863) and commanded the Central India

Horse, 1871. He became Resident at Gwalior, 1877; Officiating A.G., Central India, 1871; commandedthe Cavalry despatched from Bombay to Malta, 1878; and then commanded the Kurram Field Force(Punjab chief's contingent) in the Second Anglo-Afghan War(187980).[2]In 1891 he was promoted to therank ofgeneral.

[5]

Watson also served in a number of others roles including Aide-de-Camp to Her Majesty Empress Victoria,187071 and the Agent to Governor-General at Baroda, 188286. He was subsequently awarded theKCB in 1886, and this was later upgraded to GCB in 1902. He was also made Colonel of the Regiment ofthe 13th Duke of Connaught Lancers in 1904.

[2]

He died on 23 January 1919 at Finchampstead, Berkshire. He was aged 89.[5]

His VC is on display in theLord Ashcroft Gallery at the Imperial War Museum, London.
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Plato

He was one of the most famous, respected, and influential philosophers of all time. A type of love(Platonic) is named for him. We know the Greek philosopher Socrates mostly through Plato's dialogues.Atlantis enthusiasts know Plato for his parable about it.He saw tripartite structures in the world aroundhim. His social structure theory had a governing class, warriors, and workers. He thought the human soul

contained reason, spirit, and appetite.He may have founded an institution of learning known as theAcademy, from which we get the word academic.

The Dialogues of Plato

The Name 'Plato':Plato was originally named Aristocles, but one of his teachers gave him the familiar

name, either because of the breadth of his shoulders or his speech.

Birth:Plato was born around May 21 in 428 or 427 B.C., a year or two after Pericles died and during the

Peloponnesian War. [See Ancient Greece Timeline.] He was related to Solon and could trace his ancestry

to the last legendary king of Athens, Codrus.

Plato and Socrates:Plato was a student and follower of Socrates until 399, when the condemned

Socrates died after drinking the prescribed cup of hemlock. It is through Plato that we are most familiar

with Socrates' philosophy because he wrote dialogues in which his teacher took part, usually asking

leading questions -- the Socratic method. Plato's Apology is his version of the death of Socrates.

The Legacy of the Academy:When Plato died, in 347 B.C., after Philip II of Macedonia had begun his

conquest of Greece, leadership of the Academy passed not to Aristotle, who had been a student and then

teacher there for 20 years, and who expected to follow, but to Plato's nephew Speusippus. The Academy

continued for several more centuries.

Eroticism:Plato's Symposium contains ideas on love held by various philosophers and other Athenians.

It entertains many points of view, including the idea that people were originally doubled -- some with the

same gender and others with the opposite, and that, once cut, they spend their lives looking for their other

part. This idea "explains" sexual preferences.

Atlantis:The mythical place known as Atlantis appears as part of a parable in a fragment of Plato's late

dialogue Critias.

Tradition of Plato:In the Middle Ages, Plato was known mostly through Latin translations of Arabic

translations and commentaries. In the Renaissance, when Greek became more familiar, far more

scholars studied Plato. Since then, he has had an impact on math and science, morals, and political

theory.


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The Philosopher King:Instead of following a political path, Plato thought it more important to educate

would-be statesmen. For this reason, he set up a school for future leaders. His school was called the

Academy, named for the park in which it was located. Plato's Republic contains a treatise on

education.Plato is considered by many to be the most important philosopher who ever lived. He is known

as the father of idealism in philosophy. His ideas were elitist, with the philosopher king the ideal

ruler.Plato is perhaps best known to college students for his parable of a cave, which appears in Plato's

Republic.Plato is on the list of Most Important People to Know in Ancient History.


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Aristotle's ideas about tragedy were recorded in his book of literary theory titled Poetics. In it, he has a

great deal to say about the structure, purpose, and intended effect of tragedy. His ideas have been

adopted, disputed, expanded, and discussed for several centuries now.

The following is a summary of his basic ideas regarding the tragic hero:

1. The tragic hero is a character of noble stature and has greatness. This should be readily evident in

the play. The character must occupy a "high" status position but must ALSO embody nobility and virtue

as part of his/her innate character.

2. Though the tragic hero is pre-eminently great, he/she is not perfect. Otherwise, the rest of us--mere

mortals--would be unable to identify with the tragic hero. We should see in him or her someone who is

essentially like us, although perhaps elevated to a higher position in society.

3. The hero's downfall, therefore, is partially her/his own fault, the result of free choice, not of accident or

villainy or some overriding, malignant fate. In fact, the tragedy is usually triggered by some error of

judgment or some character flaw that contributes to the hero's lack of perfection noted above. This error

of judgment or character flaw is known as hamartia and is usually translated as "tragic flaw" (although

some scholars argue that this is a mistranslation). Often the character's hamartia involves hubris (which

is defined as a sort of arrogant pride or over-confidence).

4. The hero's misfortunate is not wholly deserved. The punishment exceeds the crime.

5. The fall is not pure loss. There is some increase in awareness, some gain in self-knowledge, some

discovery on the part of the tragic hero..

6. Though it arouses solemn emotion, tragedy does not leave its audience in a state of depression.

Aristotle argues that one function of tragedy is to arouse the "unhealthy" emotions of pity and fear and

through a catharsis (which comes from watching the tragic hero's terrible fate) cleanse us of those

emotions. It might be worth noting here that Greek drama was not considered "entertainment," pure and

simple; it had a communal function--to contribute to the good health of the community. This is why

dramatic performances were a part of religious festivals and community celebrations.


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Francis bacon

rancis Bacon was born on 22 January 1561 in London. He was the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, keeper ofthe great seal for Elizabeth I. Bacon studied at Cambridge University and at Gray's Inn and became amember of parliament in 1584. However, he was unpopular with Elizabeth, and it was only on theaccession of James I in 1603 that Bacon's career began to prosper. Knighted that year, he was appointedto a succession of posts culminating, like his father, with keeper of the great seal.

However, Bacon's real interests lay in science. Much of the science of the period was based on the workof the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. While many Aristotelian ideas, such as the position of the earthat the centre of the universe, had been overturned, his methodology was still being used. This held thatscientific truth could be reached by way of authoritative argument: if sufficiently clever men discussed a

subject long enough, the truth would eventually be discovered. Bacon challenged this, arguing that truthrequired evidence from the real world. He published his ideas, initially in 'Novum Organum' (1620), anaccount of the correct method of acquiring natural knowledge.

Bacon's political ascent also continued. In 1618 he was appointed lord chancellor, the most powerfulposition in England, and in 1621 he was created viscount St Albans. Shortly afterwards, he was chargedby parliament with accepting bribes, which he admitted. He was fined and imprisoned and then banishedfrom court. Although the king later pardoned him, this was the end of Bacon's public life. He retired to hishome at Gorhambury in Hertfordshire, where he continued to write. He died in London on 9 April 1626.


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Gustav Theodor Fechner

1848, German experimental psychologist Gustav Theodor Fechnerformalised the Lustprinzip or

"pleasure principle". The idea that action is determined by the degree of pleasure - or displeasure - that

thought of the action provokes was scarcely new. It dates back to the Epicureans of classical antiquity

and beyond. But Fechner lays stress on the unconscious as much as the conscious motivation for acting.

Fechners conception was later taken up by Sigmund Freud.

Hermann von Helmholtz

AKA Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz

Born: 31-Aug-1821Birthplace: Potsdam, GermanyDied: 8-Sep-1894Location of death: Charlottenburg, Berlin, GermanyCause of death: unspecified

Gender: MaleRace or Ethnicity: WhiteSexual orientation: StraightOccupation: Physicist

Nationality: Germany

Executive summary: Law of Conservation of Energy

German philosopher and man of science, born on the 31st ofAugust 1821 at Potsdam, near Berlin. His father, Ferdinand,was a teacher of philology and philosophy in the gymnasium,while his mother was a Hanoverian lady, a lineal descendantof the great QuakerWilliam Penn. Delicate in early life, Helmholtz became by habit a student, and hisfather at the same time directed his thoughts to natural phenomena. He soon showed mathematicalpowers, but these were not fostered by the careful training mathematicians usually receive, and it may be
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said that in after years his attention was directed to the higher mathematics mainly by force ofcircumstances.

As his parents were poor, and could not afford to allow him to follow a purely scientific career, he becamea surgeon of the Prussian army. In 1842 he wrote a thesis in which he announced the discovery of nerve-cells in ganglia. This was his first work, and from 1842 to 1894, the year of his death, scarcely a year

passed without several important, and in some cases epoch-making, papers on scientific subjects comingfrom his pen. He lived in Berlin from 1842 to 1849, when he became professor of physiology inKnigsberg. There he remained from 1849 to 1855, when he removed to the chair of physiology in Bonn.In 1858 he became professor of physiology in Heidelberg, and in 1871 he was called to occupy the chairof physics in Berlin. To this professorship was added in 1887 the post of director of the physico-technicalinstitute at Charlottenburg, near Berlin, and he held the two positions together until his death on the 8th ofSeptember 1894.

His investigations occupied almost the whole field of science, including physiology, physiological optics,physiological acoustics, chemistry, mathematics, electricity and magnetism, meteorology and theoreticalmechanics. At an early age he contributed to our knowledge of the causes of putrefaction andfermentation. In physiological science he investigated quantitatively the phenomena of animal heat, andhe was one of the earliest in the field of animal electricity. He studied the nature of muscular contraction,

causing a muscle to record its movements on a smoked glass plate, and he worked out the problem ofthe velocity of the nervous impulse both in the motor nerves of the frog and in the sensory nerves of man.

In 1847 Helmholtz read to the Physical Society of Berlin a famous paper, ber die Erhaltung der Kraft(onthe conservation of force), which became one of the epoch-making papers of the century; indeed, alongwith Julius Robert Mayer, James Prescott Joule and Lord Kelvin, he may be regarded as one of thefounders of the now universally received law of the conservation of energy. The year 1851, while he waslecturing on physiology at Knigsberg, saw the brilliant invention of the ophthalmoscope, an instrumentwhich has been of inestimable value to medicine. It arose from an attempt to demonstrate to his class thenature of the glow of reflected light sometimes seen in the eyes of animals such as the cat. When thegreat ophthalmologist, A. von Grfe, first saw the fundus of the living human eye, with its optic disc andblood-vessels, his face flushed with excitement, and he cried, "Helmholtz has unfolded to us a newworld!"

Helmholtz's contributions to physiological optics are of great importance. He investigated the opticalconstants of the eye, measured by his invention, the ophthalmometer, the radii of curvature of thecrystalline lens for near and far vision, explained the mechanism of accommodation by which the eye canfocus within certain limits, discussed the phenomena of color vision, and gave a luminous account of themovements of the eyeballs so as to secure single vision with two eyes. In particular he revived and gavenew force to the theory of color vision associated with the name of Thomas Young, showing the threeprimary colors to be red, green and violet, and he applied the theory to the explanation of color blindness.His great work on Physiological Optics (1856-66) is by far the most important book that has appeared onthe physiology and physics of vision.

Equally distinguished were his labors in physiological acoustics. He explained accurately the mechanismof the bones of the ear, and he discussed the physiological action of the cochlea on the principles of

sympathetic vibration. Perhaps his greatest contribution, however, was his attempt to account for ourperception of quality of tone. He showed, both by analysis and by synthesis, that quality depends on theorder, number and intensity of the overtones or harmonics that may, and usually do, enter into thestructure of a musical tone. He also developed the theory of differential and of summational tones. Hiswork on Sensations of Tone (1862) may well be termed theprincipia of physiological acoustics. He mayalso be said to be the founder of the fixed-pitch theory of vowel tones, according to which it is assertedthat the pitch of a vowel depends on the resonance of the mouth, according to the form of the cavity whilesinging it, and this independently of the pitch of the note on which the vowel is sung.
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For the later years of his life his labors may be summed up under the following heads: (1) on theconservation of energy; (2) on hydrodynamics; (3) on electrodynamics and theories of electricity; (4) onmeteorological physics; (5) on optics; and (6) on the abstract principles of dynamics. In all these fields oflabor he made important contributions to science, and showed himself to be equally great as amathematician and a physicist. He studied the phenomena of electrical oscillations from 1869 to 1871,and in the latter year he announced that the velocity of the propagation of electromagnetic induction wasabout 314,000 meters per second. Michael Faraday had shown that the passage of electrical actioninvolved time, and he also asserted that electrical phenomena are brought about by changes inintervening non-conductors or dielectric substances. This led James Clerk Maxwell to frame his theory ofelectrodynamics, in which electrical impulses were assumed to be transmitted through the ether bywaves.

G. F. Fitzgerald was the first to attempt to measure the length of electric waves; Helmholtz put theproblem into the hands of his favorite pupil, Heinrich Hertz, and the latter finally gave an experimentaldemonstration of electromagnetic waves, the "Hertzian waves", on which wireless telegraphy depends,and the velocity of which is the same as that of light. The last investigations of Helmholtz related toproblems in theoretical mechanics, more especially as to the relations of matter to the ether, and as to thedistribution of energy in mechanical systems. In particular he explained the principle of least action, firstadvanced by Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis, and developed by Sir W. R. Hamilton, of quaternionfame. Helmholtz also wrote on philosophical and aesthetic problems. His position was that of anempiricist, denying the doctrine of innate ideas and holding that all knowledge is founded on experience,hereditarily transmitted or acquired.

The life of Helmholtz was uneventful in the usual sense. He was twice married,, first, in 1849, to Olga vonVelten (by whom he had two children, a son and daughter), and secondly, in 1861, to Anna von Mohl, of aWrtemberg family of high social position. Two children were born of this marriage, a son, Robert, whodied in 1889, after showing in experimental physics indications of his father's genius, and a daughter, whomarried a son ofWerner von Siemens. Helmholtz was a man of simple but refined tastes, of noblecarriage and somewhat austere manner. His life from first to last was one of devotion to science, and hemust be accounted, on intellectual grounds, one of the foremost men of the 19th century.

Father: August Ferdinand Julius Helmholtz (headmaster, Potsdam Gymnasium, d. 1858)

Mother: Caroline PennWife: Olga von Velten (m. 26-Aug-1849, d. 1859, two children)Wife: Anna von Mohl (m. 16-May-1861)

High School: Potsdam GymnasiumMedical School: MD, Royal Friedrich-Wilhelm Institute of Medicine and Surgery, Berlin (1837-43)University: University of Knigsberg (-1855)University: Professor of Anatomy, University of Bonn (1855-58)University: University of Heidelberg (1858-71)University: University of Berlin (1871-)
http://www.nndb.com/people/571/000024499/http://www.nndb.com/people/430/000072214/http://www.nndb.com/people/419/000072203/http://www.nndb.com/people/010/000095722/http://www.nndb.com/people/869/000206251/http://www.nndb.com/edu/635/000079398/http://www.nndb.com/edu/732/000068528/http://www.nndb.com/edu/633/000071420/http://www.nndb.com/edu/634/000079397/http://www.nndb.com/edu/634/000079397/http://www.nndb.com/edu/633/000071420/http://www.nndb.com/edu/732/000068528/http://www.nndb.com/edu/635/000079398/http://www.nndb.com/people/869/000206251/http://www.nndb.com/people/010/000095722/http://www.nndb.com/people/419/000072203/http://www.nndb.com/people/430/000072214/http://www.nndb.com/people/571/000024499/


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Ernst Heinrich Weber(1795-1878), Professor fr Anatomie und Physiologie in Leipzig

Ernst Heinrich Weber made important discoveries about the sense of touch and invented the idea

of the just-noticeable difference between two similar physical stimuli. He foundedpsychophysics, the branch of psychology that studies the relations between physical stimuli and

mental states.

Weber, the third of 13 children, was born June 24, 1795, in Wittenburg, Germany. His father was

Michael Weber, a professor of theology. Weber learned Latin in secondary school, and began to

study medicine in 1811 at the University of Wittenberg. He received his doctor of medicine

degree in 1815, specializing in comparative anatomy. Weber became a lecturer at the University

of Leipzig in 1817 and was promoted to professor of anatomy the following year. He remained atthe University of Leipzig until his retirement.

Weber made his name studying touch, pain, sight, hearing, taste, and smell. He was one of the

first psychologists to experiment. He did not just sit at a desk and speculate about human mental

states and perceptions. Instead, he tested human subjects to discover how they actually reacted tophysical stimuli, publishing the results of many of his experiments about touch inDe Tactu in

1834.

Weber developed the concept of the just-noticeable difference. He had his subjects lift one

weight and then another to see if they could detect a difference between the two. If the

differences were small, the subjects could not tell the two weights apart. If the differences werelarge, the subjects noticed them. Weber then searched for the smallest perceivable difference

between a standard weight and a different weight. He discovered that the just-noticeable

difference was best described as a ratio. For lifting weights, the ratio was one to 40. That is, for

any standard unit of 40, subjects would notice a difference if one more unit were added to theweight. This ratio applied if Weber used 20, 40, or 80 ounces. If Weber only added half a unit,

subjects would not notice the difference. The one-to-40 ratio applied when subjects lifted a

weight using both their muscles and their sense of touch. When Weber only rested the weights


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on a subject's skin, and the subject could not use his muscles to sense the weight, then the ratio

became lower, one to 30. The difference in perception meant that sensitivity to change was

sharper if a person used two or more senses.

Weber conducted experiments about just-noticeable differences in vision, pain, auditory pitch,

smell, and taste. Subjects noticed differences of one-sixtieth in light intensity, one-thirtieth inpain differences, one-tenth in pitch perception, one-quarter in smell, and one-third in taste. The

ratios in all of these senses did not hold up at extremes. Thus, if a weight was too small, a subject

would not recognize the difference. At the other extreme, if another candle were added to a well-lit room, the subject would not recognize its difference either.

Weber also tested to see if subjects would recognize when they were being touched by one ortwo points of an object. Weber would close the legs of a drafting compass until their points were

almost together, and then touch them to a blindfolded subject's back or cheek. If the legs of the

compass were close together, then the subject would perceive them as one touch. Weber then

pulled the legs of the compass further apart and touched them again to the subject's back or

cheek, to see at what point the subject would notice two touches rather than one. Using thismethod, Weber discovered that the human body had different sensitivities to touch. Subjects

could tell two touches in less than a twentieth of an inch on their tongues, two touches in half aninch on their cheeks, and two touches in 2 in on their backs. Weber's results were important

decades later when nerve endings in the skin were discovered. Fingertips, which have many

nerve endings, make very subtle distinctions, but the human back, which has far fewer nerve

endings, makes coarser distinctions.

Weber retired from his university professorship in 1871, and he died in Leipzig, Germany, on

January 26, 1878.

Sigmund freud

Sigmund Freud (German pronunciation: [zikmnt ft]), born Sigismund Schlomo Freud (6

May 185623 September 1939), was an Austrian neurologist who became known as the

founding father ofpsychoanalysis.
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Freud's parents were poor, but they ensured his education. Interested in philosophy and law as a

student, he moved instead into medicine, undertaking research into cerebral palsy, aphasia and

microscopic neuroanatomy. He went on to develop theories about the unconscious mind and themechanism ofrepression, and established the field of verbal psychotherapyby creating

psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a

patient (or "analysand") and a psychoanalyst.

[2]

Though psychoanalysis has declined as atherapeutic practice, it has helped inspire the development of many other forms ofpsychotherapy, some diverging from Freud's original ideas and approach.

[3]

Freud postulated the existence oflibido (an energy with which mental process and structures are

invested), developed therapeutic techniques such as the use offree association (in which patients

report their thoughts without reservation and make no attempt to concentrate while doing so),

discovered transference (the process by which patients displace on to their analysts feelingsbased on their experience of earlier figures in their lives) and established its central role in the

analytic process, and proposed that dreams help to preserve sleep by representing as fulfilled

wishes that would otherwise awake the dreamer. He was also a prolific essayist, drawing on

psychoanalysis to contribute to the interpretation and critique of culture. Freud has been calledone of the three masters of the "school of suspicion," alongside Karl Marx and Friedrich

Nietzsche, while his ideas have been compared to those ofPlato and Thomas Aquinas.[4]

Psychoanalysis remains influential within psychiatry and across the humanities, though some

critics see it as pseudo-scientific and sexist, and a study in 2008 suggested it had been

marginalized within university psychology departments.[5]

One analysis of research literatureconcluded that experimental data supports some of Freud's theories, including the ideas of oral

and anal personality types and the importance of Oedipal factors in some aspects of male

personality development, but that others, such as Freud's view of dreams as primarily bearers ofunconscious wishes, and several of his views about the psychodynamics of women, were either

unsupported or contradicted by research.[6]

Regardless of the scientific content of his theories, his

work has suffused intellectual thought and popular culture to the extent that in 1939 W. H.

Auden wrote in a poem dedicated to him: "to us he is no more a person / now but a wholeclimate of opinion / under whom we conduct our different lives ..."

[7]

Freuds theory
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Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Petrovich Pavlov(Russian: ; September 26 [O.S. September 14] 1849February 27, 1936) was a famous Russian physiologist. From his childhood days Pavlov demonstratedintellectual brilliance along with an unusual energy which he named "the instinct for research".

[1]Inspired

when the progressive ideas which D. I. Pisarev, the most eminent of the Russian literary critics of the1860s and I. M. Sechenov, the father of Russian physiology, were spreading, Pavlov abandoned hisreligious career and decided to devote his life to science. In 1870 he enrolled in the physics andmathematics faculty at the University of Saint Petersburg to take the course in natural science.

[2]Ivan

Pavlov devoted his life to the study of physiology and sciences; making several remarkable discoveriesand ideas that were passed on from generation to generation.

[3]His efforts did pay off in fact, as he won

the Nobel Prize for physiology in 1904.[1]
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jean Piaget

By: Chasity Truslow

It is with children that we have the best chance of studying the development of logical knowledge,mathematical knowledge, physical knowledge, and so forth. -Jean Piaget

Jean Piaget was born in 1896 in Switzerland. As a child, Piaget was considered an intelligent young boyand very scientific. He wrote his first scientific paper by the age of 10. He attended the University ofNeuchatel in Switzerland where he received is Doctorate degree in Biology.

Soon after his graduation he grew very interested in the field of Psychology. He was first introduced toFreudian theories which seemed to be the most interesting theory to him. From his interest, he beganstudying cognitive development in psychology.

Jean Piagets interest in the psychology of children began when he took a job as the director of aninstitute of research on children. He got married to Valentine Chatenay, and they had two daughters anda son together. Piaget used his children to begin to study the development of thought processes inchildren. From there, Piaget continued to study children for fifty years.Jean Piaget passed away in1980Here are some additional accomplishments that Jean Piaget made in his study of psychology:

1929-Director of the International Bureau of Education

1933-Director for the Institute of Educational sciences at the University of Geneva

1938-Professor of Psychology and Sociology of Lausanne

1952-Professor of Experimental Psychology at the University of Geneva

Piagets Influence on Child PsychologyPiagets main interest was the question of how does knowledgedevelop? Through his studies with observing his own children, Piaget discovered that to achieve thisanswer he needed to continue his studies of childhood development. He was interested in studying thethought process in children because he noticed how younger children thought much differently thanyounger children did. From this, Piaget began to study children at various different ages and came upwith information that helped him form his theory of cognitive development in children.
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Ren Descartes

First published Wed Dec 3, 2008

Ren Descartes (15961650) was a creative mathematician of the first order, an important scientific

thinker, and an original metaphysician. During the course of his life, he was a mathematician first, anatural scientist or natural philosopher second, and a metaphysician third. In mathematics, hedeveloped the techniques that made possible algebraic (or analytic) geometry. In natural philosophy, hecan be credited with several specific achievements: co-framer of the sine law of refraction, developer ofan important empirical account of the rainbow, and proposer of a naturalistic account of the formation ofthe earth and planets (a precursor to the nebular hypothesis). More importantly, he offered a new visionof the natural world that continues to shape our thought today: a world of matter possessing a fewfundamental properties and interacting according to a few universal laws. This natural world included animmaterial mind that, in human beings, was directly related to the brain; in this way, Descartes formulatedthe modern version of the mindbody problem. In metaphysics, he provided arguments for the existenceof God, to show that the essence of matter is extension, and that the essence of mind is thought.Descartes claimed early on to possess a special method, which was variously exhibited in mathematics,natural philosophy, and metaphysics, and which, in the latter part of his life, included, or wassupplemented by, a method of doubt.

Descartes presented his results in major works published during his lifetime: the Discourse on the Method(in French, 1637), with its essays, the Dioptrics, Meteorology, and Geometry; the Meditations on FirstPhilosophy(i.e., on metaphysics), with its Objections and Replies (in Latin, 1641); the Principles ofPhilosophy, covering his metaphysics and much of his natural philosophy (in Latin, 1644); and thePassions of the Soul, on the emotions (in French, 1649). Important works published posthumouslyincluded his Letters (in Latin and French, 165767); World, or Treatise on Light, containing the core of hisnatural philosophy (in French, 1664); Treatise on Man (in French, 1664), containing his physiology andmechanistic psychology; and the Rules for the Direction of the Mind(in Latin, 1704), an early, unfinishedwork attempting to set out his method.

Descartes was known among the learned in his day as the best of the French mathematicians, as thedeveloper of a new physics, and as the proposer of a new metaphysics. In the years following his death,his natural philosophy was widely taught and discussed. In the eighteenth century aspects of his scienceremained influential, especially his physiology, and he was remembered for his failed metaphysics andhis method of doubt. In the nineteenth century he was revered for his mechanistic physiology and theorythat animal bodies are machines (that is, are constituted by material mechanisms, governed by the lawsof matter alone). The twentieth century variously celebrated his famous cogito starting point, reviled thesense data that some alleged to be the legacy of his skeptical starting point, and looked to him as amodel of the culturally engaged philosopher. He has been seen, at various times, as a hero and as avillain; as a brilliant theorist who set new directions in thought, and as the harbinger of a cold, rationalistic,and calculative conception of human beings.


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