ANH310DV01 Pragmatics

8/11/2019 ANH310DV01 Pragmatics

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George Yule

OXFRD UNIVERSITY PRESS


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Conn

Preface XI

EC O N Suey

Denitions and backrodSna, anc, and praac Rar 4 praac waeba 6

Deixis and distancePrn d 1

Saa d pra d an aar

Refeence and inerenceRfrna and arb e 1Na and rfrn r f c 1naprc rfernce

Presupposition a etametPrppn 6p f prppn T prjcn prb 3 0rdred nae 3 3

Coopeation an implicaue cperave prcpe 3 6Hed 3


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Converstonl implicture 40Generlized converstionl implctures 40Sclr implicture 4 1Prticulrized converstion impictures 42Properties of onerstonl implictures 44

Conentionl impictures 45

6 Speech as and events

Speech cts 48IIs 49Felicity conditions 50The performtive hypothesis 5 1Speech ct clssiction 53Direct nd indrect speech cts 54

Speech eents 56

7 Politeness and inteion

oliteness 60Fce wnts 61Negtve nd positive fce 61Self n other: sy nothing 62Sy somethng: off nd on record 6otive nd negtive poitenes 64

Strtegies 65Presequence 67

8 Conversation and preference stcture

Converstion nlysis 71uses, oerlps, nd bckchnnels 72Converstionl style 76Ajceny pirs 6Preference structure 78

9 Discoue and culture

Discourse nlysis 83Coherence 84Bckgroundknowledge 85Cturl scemata 8Cross-culturl pragmatics 8


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ECON 2Raigs 9

ECON Rfcs

ECON Gossa


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Pf

Purps

Wa jcan h hr b fr a r f nrdcn

aa d? ftr a, nc arad w rvd wnrdcr pn ad pana wc ar c-prv and atrav ad c n r wa. rapan, wvr, r wa na acadc n frvdn a dad na t dcpn f cand nd b and cnca apprpra , vtr prp B ca b q dann nvc. Thr a a nd fr a r ra and rada nrdcn aa ranna wc wl a pp n an ndr

andn f cp da. T r f nrdcn dnd rv nd

Tr prp, trfr, n ppan b ppr r acadca

rtd rdcn nc

prpar cncpa rnd. T ar bad n h bf a a advana av a brad ap f rra chd bfr n cndr r pcc far n a ar ca, anra cn n rfrnc whc da a n.

ca a dn ar nrdcd da t bn ad car wat a dta . Car, a nra ndr-andn f da n fcn hr d b cr crn.B qa, c cr can b mpc and ann n rad h arr vw. ndd, ca b ad a hprcndn f r parcar qr an awarn f wa,n nra, parcar ar ab r dnd v aca vw fr ara f aa c can rv a a prar (and prcndn fr h

PA XI


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mr pcc nd pcazd nqr wc tdnt f nt-c ar rqrd t ndrtk

t t r nt n ntndd t b pf t c tdnt r r mn pp wh tak n ntrt n nwtt bn cadca nad n ntc pr s Scpp ma rcnz t mprtanc f ndrtndn nfr tr wn n f nqr, r fr tr wn practc prp,r qt p fr makn thm wr f tn wcr cntr n tr vrd v f ntc rvn nd rvnt tn t a b n, tn t dprmab nt b prvd rvtn, b n ccb tpp r n nt bk v bn dnd t accdt t radr ntrt t t ar mnt t b

ntrdctn t an mr nr a w t ntc dcpn

Dsgn

bk n t r ar ct t t m bc pttrn rr fr prt Srv, Radn, Rfrnc, and ar

uey a ma vrvw f t n ftr t ra flan td cncrnd t cp and prncp f nq, tc cncrn and k cncpt r prd ndpnd n w wc r ntndd t k tm ccbl pb t pp w av n prr knwd r prt nt bjct Srv wrttn t b rdab nd ncttrdb t ctmar cr rfrnc n ti n, t pt t nt ptc Lck f pcit prt d nt mp

n nbt t ndrtnd r vaat d nrnc manck f knwd, nt ack f ntnc Srv, trfr, mnt t b cnn t drw a map f t jct r nc w t tmt tt, and t nvt crtic rt-cptn n t pratn f d knd f cncptcrtrp t dnr f cr th ctin f wat ncnt, nd t mannr f t rprntatn w nt b t thlkn f vrbd, prtcar nt, prhap, t m f tnd t dcpn t t rv a wrttn n t bf

XII PA


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tt tr mt b an ltrnativ to a tcnic accont o t onn an an iiot' gi on t otr if lingitic i to b mrlvnt to popl in t wir worl.

edngsSom popl will b contnt to ra an prp rra tmmary Srvy. tr wil want to pr t bjct an owill t Srvy a t prliminary for mor til ty. TRing provi t cary tranition. For r t rar iprnt wit txts xtract from t pcialit itratr. Tro of t ring i qit iffrnt from t Sry. t i togt rr to focs on t pcic of wat i i n ow it ii in t orc txt. Qtion ar provi to frtr ti

rpo: ty r ign to irct ttntion to point in ctt ow t compar acro txt n ow ty l wit ti ic in t Srvy. T i i to giv rr n initiafmiliarity wit t mor pcialit iiom of t lingitic littr wr t i mit not b o raily accibl an toncorag tm into co critical raig.

efeencesn wy of moving into mor til ty i trog t

Raing. Anotr i trog t nnotat Rfrnc n ttir ction of ac book. Hr tr i a lction of work(book an articl) for frtr raing. Accompanying commnt inicat ow t al in mor tail wit t i ic in t iffrnt cptr of t rvy.

lossCrtin trm in t Srv aar in bol. T ar trm

in a pcil or tcnical n in t iciplin. Tir maning rma clar in t icion bt ty ar lo xplin in tGloary at t n of ac book. T Gloary i crorfrnc to t Srvy an trfor rv at t am tim aan inx. Ti nabl rar to ocat t trm an wat itigni in t mor gnra icion trby in ffct ingt Srvy a mmry work of rfrnc.

PREFCE XIII


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Us

Th sris has bndsignd so as to b xibl in us Each titl issara nd slfcontaind, with only h basic formt incommon. Th four" sctions of th format, as dscribd hr, can

b drawn upon and combind in diffrn ways, as rquird byh nds, or intrss, of diffrnt radrs. Som may b contntwith h Survy and th Glossary andmay no want folow upth suggstd rfrncs Som may no wish o vnur into hadings. Again, th Survy might b cnsidrd as appropriatriinry rading for a cours in applid linguistics or tacrducion, and th adngs mor appropriat for sminar discussion during th cours. n sor, thnotion of an inroducionwill mn diffrn tings to diffrnt popl, bt in all cass th

concrn is to provid accss to spcialis knowldg nd stimulan awrns of is signicnc This sris as a wol has bndsignd to provi this accss and promot tis warnss inrsc o dirn ras of languag sudy

HGW I O W O N

XI PRA


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Definitions ad background

Pragmatics is concerned with the study of meaning as communicated by a speaker (or writer) and interpreted by a listener or

reader). It has, consequently, more to do with the analysis of whatpeople mean by their utterances than what the words or phrasesin those utterances might mean by themselves. Pragmatics is thestudy of speaker meaning

This type of study necessariy involves the interpretation ofwhat people mean in a partcular context and how the contextinuences what is said It requires a consideration of how speakersorganize what they want to say in accordance with who they'retalking to, where when and under what circumstances

Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaningThis approach also necessarily explores how listeners can make

inferences about what is said in order to arrive at an interpretation of the speakers intended meaning This type of studyexplores how a great deal of what is unsaid is recognized as partof what is communicated We ight say that it is the investigationof invsible meaning. Pragmatics is the study of how more getscommunicated than is said.

This perspective then raises the question of what determnes thechoice between the said and the unsaid. The basic answer is tied to the notion of distance. Closeness whether it is physica, socia or conceptual implies shared experience On the assumption of how closeor distant the listener is speakers determine how much needs to besaid. Pragmatics is the study of the expression of relative distance

These are the four areas that pragmatics is concerned with. Tounderstand how it got to be that way, we have to briely review itsrelationship with other areas of linguistic analysis.

DEFINTONS AND BACKGROUN 3


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Syntax, semantics, and pragmtis

One rdonl dsnon n lngge nlss onss rg-ms wh snx nd semns yx s he sd o hereonshs eween lns forms, ow he re rrnged

seqene, nd whh seqenes re welored hs e osd generl kes le who onsderng n world o reerene or n ser o he forms emic s he sd of heeonshs eween lngs orms nd enes n he" worldh s, how words lel onne o hngs Semn nlsslso ems o eslsh he relonshs eween vedesrons nd ses of fs n he word s re re) orno, regrdess o who rodes h desron

Pgmic s he sd o e elonshs eween lngsorms nd he ses o hose forms In hs hreer dsnon,on rgms lows hmns no he nlss he dvngeo sdng nge v rgms s h one n lk oeoes nended menngs, er ssmons, her roses orgos, nd he knds of ons or exle, reqess) h here eformng when he sek he g dsdvnge s h llhese ve hmn ones re eremel dl o nlze n onssen nd ojeve w wo

m ml some hns nd ne some ohers who rovdngn ler lngs evdene h we n on o s he exsore o e menng of wh ws omned Exme [ s s sh oem se I herd he sekers, I knew hhe sd, I hd no de wh ws ommned

Her Sodd o?H ewho woldn?

hs, rgms s elng ese s o how eole

mke sense o eh oher lngs, n e rsngre o s ese eqres s o mke sense of eole nwh he hve n mnd

Reularty

Lkl, eole end o ehve n rl reglr ws when omes o sng lngge Some o h reglr derves rom he h eoe re memes of sol gos nd follow gener

4 SRE


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pattns of hvo pctd wtn th goup Wtn a famlaoca goup w noay nd t asy to pot an say ppo-pat thngs In a nw, unfamla soca sttng, w oftnusu ot wht to sy and woy tat w mght sa th wong

tnghn I st lvd n Sad Aaa tndd to answ ustonsn Aac aot my t (th uvalnt f How yo? wtth vnt of my fama outn sponss of Oay oFn Hov, I vnuly notc hat wn I asd sausto, pop gnay answd wth a pas that ad tlt manng of Pas t od I soon and to s th nwpsson wantng to pagmatcaly appoat n tat con-tt My st typ of answ wasnt wong my vocauly and

ponncaton wn naccuat but t dd convy t manngtat I was soc otsd wo answd n an unpctd wayIn ot wods, mo was ng communcat tan ws ngsad Intay I d not now tat I ad aned som ngustcfoms n th anguag wtut anng t pagmatcs of owtos foms a d n a gua pattn y socal ss

Anoth souc of gulaty n anguag us dvs fom thfact tat most popl wtn a ngust communy hav sma

asc pncs of th wold and sa a lot f nonngustcnowldg Lts sa tht, n th mddl of a covston I mn-on nfoon []

I fon n old cycl lyng on t goun Th chan wasustd ad th ts w at

You a nlly to sk why a can nd so ts w sddnyng mnton I can nomaly assum that you ll mat nfnc tt f X s a bcyc tn has chan and ts

(and many ot gula as caus f ths ty of assump-ton, t wou pagmatcay odd fo m to av pssd as

I fond an od cyc A cyc s a chn Th can wasstd A cyc aso has ts ts w at

Yu would phaps tn tat mo ws ng communcatdtan ws bg sad nd tha ou w bng tatd as somonwt no asc knowldg ( as stupd Onc agn ntng n

DE FN O NS AND ACKROND 5


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th us tat aow that pty sot o apt th poou it' ithat positio. ow thos okig o sytax woud athought it totay irat if you tid to say that duks do't dothat ad may th spak ad ant to say dog' . dd fo

a puy sytati pspti a st ik T bott ofktup a up to ay' is ust as wfod as [4]O on t smantis sid of t tab how th oud

ha b o. A ntity abd duk' has a aigfatur (aiat) whas a bott of kthu' wod b (oaiat) . Si a rb ik a up to' quis sothig aimatas its subjt th wod duk' is okay but ot a bott ofkthup'.

Satis is ao od ith th tutoditios of

popositios xpssd i sts. s popsitios gayosond to t basi ita aing of a sip aus ad atioay pstd by th tts q, ad r t's say thatth udyig maing atioship big xpssd i T duka up to May' is th popositio ad i th duk ikdMay' it is th poosition q s to propositins a oidby t ogia oto syo fo ojutio (adampsad'). Thus t opositia pstatio of t s

t i [4] is as i [5 ][] q

f is tu ad q is tu th q is tu. f ith o q is ottu ( i.. fas) th t outio of q is ssaiy fas.Tis typ of aaysis is usd xtsiy i foma smatis.

nfotuaty i this typ of anaysis wh q is tuit ogiay foows hat q is tu. oti that q i thispatiua as wod ha to b pssd as i 6]

[6] T duk ikd May ad a up to h. th yday wod f aguag us tis stat of affais is otidtia to t oigia situatio dsibd i [4] T is asu of two vts big dsibd ad w xpt thatsu i ts f ou to b td i th od oftio .

f ios som ati ad q is aoth atio ha a owhmig tdy to itpt t outio

DE FI NIINS AND AC KRUN D 7


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ad', ot as logcal &, but as the sequetal eresso adthe' hs s aothe eamle o more beg commucated thas s ad We ght roose that thee s a reguar rcle o laguage use hch ca be stated as

Iteret orde o meto as a relecto o order o occurece.

What s eressed s ot a rule o sta or sematcs Its't a ule at all. I s a ragatc cle hch requetluse to mae sese o hat e hea ad read, but hch e cagoe t does't al some stuatos

hee are ma other rcples o ths tpe hch l beeloed the ollog chaters I Chaer e ll start

th a eall spe ce the more two speaers have commo, the less laguage the'll eed to use to det amlarthgs hs ce accouts or the equet use o ords leths' ad that' to reer to thgs a shared hscal cotet (oreamle, Woud ou le ths or that ' ) . Elorg ths bas casect o aguage use s the stud o des

URY


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2Deixis and disance

Deixis is ecnicl em (om Geek) o one o e mos bsicings we do wi uences. I mens poning vi lnguge.

Any linguisic om used o ccomplis is poining is clled deictic expression Wen you noice snge objec nd skWs ? you e using deicic expession () o indice someing in e immedie conex Deicic expessions elso someimes clled indexicals. Tey e mong e s omso be spoken by vey young cilden nd cn be used o indicepeople vi person deixis (me you) o ocion vi spatial deixis(ee ee) o ime vi temporal deixis (now en). All ese

expessions depend o ei inepeion on e speke ndee sing e sme conex Indeed deicic expessions veei mos bsic uses in ceoce spoken inecion weeuences suc s [1] e esily undesood by e people pesenbu my need nslion o someoe no ig ee.

1 Ill pu is ee

(O couse you undesood Jim ws elling Anne e wsbou o pu n ex ouse key in one o e kicen dwes)

Deixis is cley om o eeing is ied o e spekesconex wi e mos bsic disincion beween deicic expessions being ne speke vesus wy om speke. n Englise ne speke o poxima ems e is ee now ewy om speke o dista ems e ee en.Poximl ems e ypiclly inepeed in ems o e spekeslocion o e deictic cente, so now is genely undesood s eeing o some poin o peiod in ime s e imeo e spekes uence is cene. Disl ems cn simply

DEIXIS AND DSTANE 9


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dcate aa om seaer', but, some laguages, ca be usedto dstgush etee ea addessee' ad aa om othseaer ad addessee' hus, Jaaese, the taslato o theoou that' l dstgush betee that ea addressee'

sr ad that dstat rom both seaer ad adessee' arth a thd term beg used o the oma ths ea seaer'kr

Prs dxs

he dstcto just descrbed olves erso des, th theseae (') ad the addessee ( ou') metoed he smlcto these oms dsguses the comlet o the use o lear these

dectc eessos, e hae o dscoe that each eso a coersat shs rom beg ' to beg ou' costatl ll ougchlde go through a stage the eag here ths dstctoseems olematc ad the sa thgs le Read ou a stor'( stead o me') he hadg oe a aorte oo

Peso des clearl oerates o a basc theeat dvso,eemled the oous or st eso secod eso( ou') , ad thd eso ( he', she', or t') ma aguages

these dectc categores o seaer, addressee, ad other( s ) areelaboated th maes o elate soca status (or eamle,addessee th hghe stas esus addressee t loe statusEessos hch dcate hghe status ae descred as i he dscusso o the ccumstaces hch lead to thechoce o oe o these orms rathe tha aothe s sometmesdescred as ia dii

al ello eamle o a socal cotast ecodedth eso des s the dstcto betee orms used or a

amar esus a oamla addessee some laguages hss o as the TN diii rm the rech oms u (amlar) ad vus (oama), ad s oud ma laguagescludg Gema (du/S) ad Sash (/sd) he choceo oe orm ll cetal commucate somethg (ot drectlsad) aout the seaer's ve o hs or her relatosh th theaddressee those socal ctets hee dvduals tcallmar dstctos betee the socal status o the seaer adaddressee, the hgher, older, ad more oerul seaer ll ted

1 SUY


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to use te tu verso to a ower, youger, ad less owerfuladdressee, ad be addressed by te vus form retur. Wesoca cage s tag ace, as for eae moder Sa,were a youg busessoma (ger ecoomc status) s ta

g to er oder cleag ady (lower ecoomc status), ow dotey address each other? a told that te age dstcto remasore owerful ta te ecoomc dstcto ad te oderwoma uses t ad te youger uses sted

e Sas ofamar verso sted) s storcayrelated to a form wc was used to refer to eter rst erso(seaer) or secod erso (addressee), but to trd erso(some oter). dectc terms, trd erso s ot a drect art

cat basc (Iyou) teracto ad, beg a outsder, s ecessarly more dstat. Trd erso roous are cosequetydsta forms terms of erso des. Usg a trd erso form,were a secod erso form woud be ossbe, s oe way ofcommucatg dstace (ad ofamlarty) . ca be doe Egls for a roc or umorous urose as we oe erso,wo very busy te tce, addresses aoter, wos begvery azy, as [] .

[] Woud s ges e some coffee ?

Te dstace assocated wt trd erso forms s also used tomae potetal accusatos (for eae, you ddt clea up)ess drect, as [3 a. ] , or to ae a otetay ersoa ssue seemle a mersoal oe, based o a geeral rule, as [3 b . ] .

[3] a . Somebody ddt cea u after mself.b. Eac erso as to cea u after m or ersef.

f course, te seaer ca state suc geera rues as alyg to

the seaer lus oter( s) , by usg te rst erso ura ( we) , as [].

[] We clea u afer ourselves aroud ere .

ere s, Egls, a oteta ambguty suc uses wcalows two dfferet terretatos. ere s a ui 'w(seaer lus oter(s), ecludg addressee) ad a iui 'w(eer ad aresee c) . Some aguaes grammaczets dstcto (for eae, ja as kemam for ecsve

rst erso ura ad keda for clusve rst erso ural) .

DIXI ND IAN


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Eglsh, the ambiguit reset i [ roides a sbtle ootuit o a hearer to decde hat as commuicated Either theare decdes that he o se is a member o the grou to homthe ule alies ( ie a addressee or a outsider to hom the ruledoes ot a ( ie ot a addressee this case the heaer getsto decide the id o more' that is beig commcated

he icseeclusie distictio ma also be oted i thederee etee saig Let's go' (to some rieds ad Let us go' (to someoe ho has catued the seaer ad reds heactio o gog is iclusie the rst, but ecluse i the secod

Spatial dexs

he coce o distace alread metoed s clearl releat tosatial deis, here the relatie locatio o eole ad thigs isbeg idicated Cotemorar Eglish maes use o ol toaders, hee' ad there', or the basic distictio, but i oldertets ad i some dialects, a much larger set o deictic eress iosca be oud lthough oder' (more distat rom seer) isstill used, ords lie hther' ( to ths lace ad thece' ( rom thatlace o soud archaic hese last to aderbs iclde the

meaig o motio toard or aa om the seaer Some erso motio, sch as come' ad go', retai a deictic sese hethe are used to mar moemet toad the seae ( Come tobed ' or aa rom the seaer ( Go to ed ' )

Oe erso o the cocet o motio toad seaer ( eecomig sible, seems to be the rst deictic meaig leared bchldre ad chaacterzes their use o ords lie this' ad here'( ca be see he ae distict om that' ad there' hich are

associated th thigs that moe out o the child's isual sace ca o loger be see) cosideig satial deiis, hoeer, it is imortat to

remember that locatio rom the seaer's ersectie ca beed metall as ell as hsicall Seaers temoraril aarom thei home locatio il oe cotiue to use here' to meathe (hsicall dstat) home locatio, as i the ere still i thatlocato Seaes also seem to be able to roject themseles itoother ocatos rior to actall beig i those locatios, as he

the sa 'll come later' moemet to addressee's locatio

UREY


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Ts s soemes escrbe as dii ji a e aeore use of s ossbles as ore ecolog allos us omaulae locao If ere eas e lace of e seaersuerace (a o eas e e of e seaers uerace) ,

e a uerace suc as [ 5 ] soul be osese.[ 5 ] I am o ere o.

oeer, I ca sa [5 ] o e recorer of a eleoe asergace, rojecg a e o ll al o a e someoe res o call e, a o o e I acuall recore ords. Idee, recorg [5] s a of ramac erforace for a fuure auece c I roj ec resece obe e requre locao. slar ecc rojeco s accolse a raac erforace e I use rec seec orerese e erso, locao, ad feelgs of soeoe or soeg else . or exale, I coul be ellg ou abou a s o a esore, as [6] .

[6] I as loog a s lle u a cage suc a saloo o s face. as le, , I so ua ere, llou se e free

Te ere of e cage s o e acual scal locao of eerso uerg e ors (e seaer), bu s sea e locao of a rso erforg e role of e u.

I a be a e rul ragac bass of saal exs s acuall yia dia Pscall close objecs ll e o bereae b e seaer as scologcall close. lso, somega s scall sa ll geerall be reae as scologcall dsa (for examle, a a oer ere ) . Hoeer, aseaer a also s o ar soeg a s scall close

for eamle, a erfume beg sffe b e seaer as scologcall dsa I o le a. s aalss, a or lea oes o ae a xe (.e seac) meag; sea, sese meag a coex b a speaer.

Slar scologcal rocesses seem o be a or our scos beee roxl a sal eressos use o areoral es.

IXI AN DANC


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i

mpral dxs

We hae alead oted the use o the omal om o' as dcatg both the tme cocdg th the seae's utteace ad

the tme o the seae's oce bg head (the heae's o') . Icotast to o', the dstal eesso the' ales to both asta. ] ad utue [b. ] tme elate to the seae's eset tme.

a. Noembe d, 1 963 I as Scotlad the.b e at 3 0 o Satuda a, I'l l see ou the.

It s oth otg that e also use elaboate sstems o odectc temoal eeece such as caleda tme (dates, as a. ] ad cloc tme (hous, as [b .] ) . Hoee, these oms o

temol eeece ae leaed a lot late tha the dectc eessos le esteda', tomoo', toda', toght', et ee',last ee', ths ee'. All these eessos deed o theteetato o og the eleat utteace tme. I e do'to the utteace ( .e . scbblg) tme o a ote, as [], o aoce oo, e o't o e hae a shot o a og atahead.

[] Bac a hou.

Smlal, e etu the et da to a ba that dslas the otce [9] , the e ll stll be ( dectcall oe da eal o the eed

[9] Fee Bee Tomoo.

The scholgcal bass o temoal des seems to be smlato that o satal des. We ca teat temoal eets as objectsthat moe toa us (to e) o aa om us (out o ie).Oe metaho used Eglsh is o eets comg toad the

seae om the utue (o eamle, the comg ee', theaoachg ea' ) ad gog aa om the seae to the ast(o eamle, das goe b', the ast ee' ) . We also seem toteat the ea o mmedate utue as beg close to utteace tmeb usg the omal ectic ths', as ths (comg) eee'o ths (cmg Thusay'.

e basc (but oe uecogzed) te o temoal des Eglsh s the choce o eb tese. Wheeas othe laguages

hae ma deet oms o the eb as deet teses, Eglsh

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a ol two bac form he pree a [a. ad he pat a [ b..

[10 a. I lve er ow.

b. I lved here .Te pree ee e promal form ad the pa ee hedtal form. Sometg avg ae place e pa a [ a. pcall reated a da fom te peaer' crre tao.Perhap le obvol oetg a reaed a ereelulel (or mpoble from he peaer' curret ituao alo mared va the dal (pa ee form a [ b. .

[ a . I could wm (whe I wa a cld .

b. I cold be Hawa (f I ad a lo of moe.The pa tee alwa ed Eglh oe claue atar eve preeted b e peaer a o beig cloe o preeealt a [ 12 .

[ 1 2 a . If I had a act . . .b. If I wa c . . .

eter of e dea epreed [ 1 2 are o be reated a havgappeed pat tme. Te ae preeed a dectcall da

from te peaer' curret ao. So dtat deed a heacal commcae e egave (we fer ha e peaer ao act ad ot rch.

I order o derad ma Egli codtoal cotrcto(cldg hoe of e form Had I ow ooer . . .' we ave toecogze at emporal de e remoe or dtal form cabe ed o commcae o ol dace from crret me butalo dtace from crret real or fac.

Oeixis and grammar

Te bac dtco peeed o far for pero patal ademporal de ca all be ee a wor oe of he mot commo trcral dco made Eglh grammarhabetwee drec ad drec (or reported peech. alreadecrbed e decc epreo for pero (o) place(ere' ad tme ( h eveg' ca all be terpreed wt he

ame cotet a the peaer wo uer [ 3a. .

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a e you panning to be here this evening?b ased her if she was paning to be there tht

evenng

When the contex shis as for exape n [ b to one in which reort the prevos utterance then the previos tterance isred deicticay as eative to the circstaces of asingNote that the proxia fors presented in [ a have shie tothe corresponig dista fors in 3 b. his very regr difference in ngish reported discourse ars a distinction betweenhe near speae eaning of direct speech and the away frospeaer ening of indirect speech he proxia deictic forsof a direct speech reporting conicate ofen draaticay

sense of being in the se context as the tterance he distaldeictic fors of indirect speech reporting ae the originaspeech evet see ore reote

t should no be a surprise to earn that eictic expressions wereal to be found in the pragatics wastebaset heir interprettion depends on the context the speaer's intention and theyexress reative distance Given heir sa size an extremeywide rnge of possibe uses deictic exressions aways conicate uch ore than is sad

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3Reerence and inerence

Throughout the preceing iscussion of eixis there ws n

ssumption tht the use of wors to refer to peope n thingsws retivey strightforwr mtter. t is inee firy esy forpeope to o but it is rther ifcut to expin how they o it Weo now tht wors themseves on't refer to nything Peoperefer. We might best think of referee s n ct in which speker or writer uses inguistic forms to enbe isteer orreer to ientify something

Those inguistic forms re referg expressos which cn beproper nouns for exmpe Shkespere' Cthy Revueto'

Hwii' noun phrses which re enite for exmpe theuthor' the singer' the isn' or inenite for exmpe mn' womn' beutifu pce' n pronouns for exmpehe' her' it them' The choice of one type of referring xpression rther thn nother seems to be bse to rge extent onwht the speker ssumes the istener rey knows n shrevisu contexts those pronouns tht function s eictic expressions for exmpe Tke this'; Look t him!' my be sufcient

for successfu reference but where ientiction seems moreifcut more eborte noun phrses my be use for exmpeRemember the o foreign guy with the funny ht?'.

Reference then is cery tie to the speker's gos for exmpe to ientify something n the speker's beiefs i.e. cnthe isteer be expecte to know tht prticur something? inthe use of nguge. For successfu reference to occur we mustso recognize the roe of ieree Becuse there is no irect retionship between entities n wors the istener's tsk is to infer

correcty which entity the speker intens to ientify by using

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A smlar dstncton can be found wth dente noun phrases.Durng a news report on a mysterous death the reporter may say3 wthout nowng for sure f there s a perso who could be thereferent of the dente expresson the ler'. hs would be anatrbutve use (.e. whoever dd the llng') based on thespeaer's assumpton that a referent must exst.

3 here was no sgn of the ler.

owever f a partcular ndvdua ha been dented as havngdone the lng and had been chased nto a budng but escapethen utterng the sentence n 3 about that ndvdual would be areferental use based on the speaer's nowledge that a referet

oes exst.he pont of ths dstncton s that expressons theseves can-not be treated as havng reference (as s often assumed n seantctreatments) but are or are not nvested' wth referental func-on n a context by a speaer or wrter. peaers ofen nvte us toassume va attrbutve uses that we can dentfy what they'reang about even when the entt or ndvdual descrbed maynot exst as n 2 ome other famous members of that groupare the tooth fary an anta laus

Names and referens

The verson of reference beng presente here s one whch theres a basc ntetontoent' an a recogntonofntenton'colaboraton at wor. hs process nee not oly wor betweenone speaer ad on stener; t appears o wor n terms of conventon between a members of a communty who share a com

mon language and culure hat s there s a conventon thatcertan referrng expressons wl be used to dent certan entteson a reguar bass. t s our day eperence of the successfu op-eraon of ths conventon that may cause us to assume that refer-rng epressons can ony desgnate very specc enttes. hsassumpton may ead us to thn that a name or proper noun ehaespeare' can only be use to dent one specc person anan epresson contanng a comon noun sch as the cheesesanwch' can only be used to dent a specc thng. hs belef

s staen. truy pragmatc vew of referece aws us to see

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how a person can be identied via the expression the cheese sandwich and a thing cn be identied via the nae Saespere

or exape it wod not be strange for one student to asanother the estion in 4 and receive the rey in 4b

a Can borrow yourb eah its over there on the tabe

Given the context jst created the intended referent and theinferred referent wod not be a person but probaby a boo(notice th pronon it )

n restrant one waiter brings out an order of food fornother waiter and ass hi [ 5a and hears [ 5 b in repy

[5 a Wheres the cheese sandwich sitting?b Hes over there by the window

Given the context the referent being identied is not a thing buta person (notice the pronoun he)

he exapes in and 5 ay aow s to see ore cearyhow reference actuay wors he haespeare exape in [sggests that there is a conventiona (and otentiy cturespecic) set of entities that can be identifed by the se of a writers

nae Let us ca the things the writer prodced his wodow us to ae sense of the sentences in [6

[6 a Shaespeare tes p the whoe botto shefb Were going to see Shaespeare in Londonc hated Shaespere at shoo

Obviosy this convention does not ony ppy to writers butaso to atists a coposers b usicians [ nd nyother prodcers of objects

a Picssos on the far wab he new Mozart is better vae than the Bachc My Roing Stones is issing

here appears to be a amai i between proper naesand objects that wi be conventionay associted within a sociocturay dened conity with those nes Using a propernae refrentiay to identi any sch obj ect invites the istenerto ae the expected inference (for exape from nae of

writer to boo by riter) and thereby show hisef or hersef

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o e a memer of he same comuiy as he speaer. suchcases i is raher ovious ha more is eig commuicaed hais said.

The aure of referece ierpreaio jus descried is alsoha allos reaers o mae sese of espaper headlies usigames of couries a exemplied i a . whee he refere is oe udersood as a soccer eam o as a goverme ad i 8. hee i is o e udersood as a goverme o as a socceream.

8 a. Brazil is World Cup.. Japa wis rs oud of ade alks.

The roe of c-e

may of he precedig exaples our ailiy o ideifyieded eferes has acually depeded o more ha ourudersadig of he referig expessio. has ee aided y heliguisic aerial or accopayig he referig expres-sio Whe 8a. appeared as a headlie Brazil as a referrigepressio ad is Wod Cup as par of he coex ( he res

of he ewspaper was more coex . The coe clearly limis heage of possile iepreaios e igh have for a word lieBrazil is cosequely misleadig o hi of referece eigudersood solely i erms of our ailiy o ideify referes viahe referig expressio. The refeig expressio acually pro-vides a a f f ha is a umer of possil refees.eurig o a previous example e ca show ha whie hephrase he cheese sadwich says he same he difere coexsi 9a . ad 9 . lead o a diffee ype of ierpeaio i eachcase (i.e . ood i 9a. ad perso i 9. .

9 a. The cheese sadich is ade wih hie read .. The cheese sadich lef ihou payig.

f course coex is us a liguisic par of he evirome ihich a eerrig expressio is used. The physical evirome or is perhaps more easily recogized as havig a poerfulpac o how reerrg expressos are o e ierpreed. The phys-ical coex of a resaura ad perhaps eve he speech cove-ios of ose who wo here ay e crucial o he ierpreaio

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of [9 b Siilary, it is use to ow that a hospita is the cotetfor [, detist's oce for [b, ad a hote receptio for[.

[10 a he herattc must't be moved.b Your teirty just cacelledc A coupe of rooms hve compaied bout the heat.

he epes i [ 10 provide some support for aysis ofreferece tat depeds o ocal cotet d the loc owedgeof the participats may crucialy deped o familiarity with theocal sociocultura covetios as the bass for iferece (foremple, if a perso is i a ospital wih iless , the he or she

ca be idetied by urses via he me of the iess . hese co-vetios may differ substaiay from oe social group toaoter ad may be mared differetly from oe lauae oaother Referece the is ot simply a reaioship betwee themeaig of word r phrase ad a obj c or perso i the wordt is soci act, i which the speker ssumes hat the word orphrase cose to idetif a object or perso will be iterpretedas the speer iteded

Anaic efeence

he precedig discussio as bee cocered with sigle acts ofreferece most of our ta ad writig, however, we he oeep rc of who or what we are taig botor more ta oesetece t a time Aer he iiial itroducio of some etity,speaers wil use arious epressios o maitai reerece, as i [ .

[ the lm, a ma ad a woma were tryig to wash a ce ma was hodig the cat whie the woma pouredwater o it He said somethig to er ad they statedaughig

glish iitial referece, or itroductory metio is ofteideite ( ma a woma, a ca ] te ete ouphrases { te m', the cat, the oma ad the proous ( ,e her', they re empes of subseue referece to ready

itroduced referets, geeray ow as aphoric referece, or

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anapoa In cica s scond o susut xs-sion is t anaphor and iniia xpsion is anteedent

It is tmptig o tin of anapoic fc as a pocss ofconinuing to idti xa sa ntit s dnod ancdnt In a cass a assupio mas i diffnco inptaion u in os cass so cang offc is dscid t anapoic fnc mus iptddiffn I xamp [] fo a cip iitia fingxpssio six potaos idnis soig diffn fom tanpoic poou ic ust inptd as t sixpd and sicd potaos

[1 ] P and sic six poatos Pu i cod satd wa

is aso a vsa of antcdntanapo pattn som-is foud at t giing of stois as in xmp [1 ]

[ 1 ] I und t co and aost stppd on i T as aag sa in dd of pa

o a t pooun i is usd st and is difcut o ipuni fu noun ps is psntd in nxt in is pa- is tcica no as ataphora and is uc ss comon

a aa poa is a ag of xpssions ic a usd fo poicfnc in Engis T os tpica fos a ponos scas it in [4a] ut dnit noun pass a so sd fo x-ap sics i [1 4

[14] a P a oion and sic i op t sics ino ot oic Coo fo t inus

n t intptaio uis us to idntif an ni as ioo (?) fo t inus in [14] and no inguisic xps-sio is psn it is cad zero anaphora o ellpss T us of zoanapoa as a as of aintaining fnc ca cas anxpcatio tat istn i a to inf o o at tspa itnds o idnf I is aso anot vious cas of moing counicad tan is said

T lstn s also xptd o ma o spcc ps oinfnc n apoc xpssios don s o inuisica conctd o ancdns Tis poin as nod in

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Capter wit te icyce' eape, ad is furter illustratedi [1 5

[ 5 a just reted a ouse e itce i really bg

b We ad Cardoay wit dier e wie was theest partc e us cae o tie, ut e did't stop

Maig sese of [5a reuires a iferece ie if is a ouse,te as a itce) to mae te aaporic coectio Suchifereces deped o assued wledge wic, as i [ ,ay be uc more specic ie Cardoay is a id of wie) additio, te iferece ca be cosidered so autoatic for some

speaers for eaple, a bus as a driver), that tey ca gostraigt to a prou for aaporc reerece, as i [ 5. tiseape, ote tat te atecedet te us) ad te aaporhe') are ot i graatical agreeet ie ormally a buswould e it') s poited out already, successful referece doesot deped o some strictly literal, or graatically correct,relatiosip etwee te properties of th referet ad the referrig epressio cose e word sadwich ca idetif a perso ad te proou e' ca be a aapor for a thig he key

to aig sese of referece is that pragatic process werebyspeaers select liguistc epressios with the itetio of idetfig certai etities ad wit te assuptio tat listeers willcollaborate ad iterpret those epressios as te speaeriteded

e social dimesio of referece may also be tied to te effectof collaoratio e imediate recogitio of a teded referet, eve we a miial referrig epressio for eaple, a

proou) is used, represets sometg sared, somethig icoo, ad ece social closeess Succesful referece eastat a itetio was recogized, via iferece, idicatig a idof sared owedge ad hece social coectio he assuptio of sared owledge is also crucial ivolved i te study ofpresuppositio

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4Presuppositon and entailment

In the preceng cuon of reference there w n ppe to

the e tht peker ue certn nforton reyknown by ther tener. Becue t trete known uchnforton w genery not be tte n coneuenty wcount prt of wht councte but not he techncter preuppoton n entent re ue to ecrbe two ferent pect of th kn of nforton.

It worth notng t the outet tht preuppoton n entent were conere to be uch ore centr to prgtc nthe pt thn they re n. In re recent pproche there h

been e nteret n the type of technc cuon octewth the ogc ny of thee phenoen Wthout oentroucton to tht type of nytc cuon however tbecoe very fcut to unertn how the current retonhpbetween entc n prgtc eveope Much of wht foow n th chpter egne to utrte the proce of thnkng through nuber of probe n the ny of oe pectof nvbe enng Let begn by enng our ter.

preuppoion oethng the peker ue to be the cepror to kng n utternce Speker not entence hve preuppoton. n entailmen oethng tht ogcy foowfro wht erte n the tternce Sentence not pekerhve entent.

We cn entfy oe of the potenty ue nfortontht wou be octe wth the tternce of []

] Mry brother bought thre hore

In proucng the utternce n ] the peker w nory be

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:

epected to have the pesuppoitios that a peso caled Myeists ad that she has a bothe he speae ay aso hod theoe specic pesuppositios that May has oy oe bthe adthat he has a lot of moey l of these pesupostios ae thespeae's ad al of the ca be wo, i act he setece i [ will be teated as havi the etaiets that May's bothebought soeth, bouht thee aimas, bouht two hoses,bouht oe hose, ad may othe simla oica coseueceshese etalets folow fo the setece, eadess ofwhethe the speae's beiefs ae iht o wo, i fact hey aecomuicted without be said Because of its oica atue,howeve, etaiet is ot geealy discussed as ch i co

tepoay paatics as the moe speaedepedet otio ofpesuppositio

Presuppostn

ay discussios of the cocept, pesupposito is teated as aeatoship betwee two popositios f we say that the setecei [2a cotais the popositio p ad the setece i 2b cotais the popositio the, usi the sybo to ea pesupposes', we ca epeset te eatioship as i [ 2

[ 2 a May's do s cue (= )b May has a do (= )c p

teestiy, whe we podue the opposit of the setece i2a by eati it (= N p) as i 3 a , we d that the ea toship o f pesuppos itio oes't chae hat is, the s aepopostio q, epeated as [3 b , cotiues to be pesupposed byN p as show i [3

[3 a May's do is't cuteb May has a doc N p

(= N p )( = )

his popety of pesupposto is geeay descbe a s ay ud ai Basicay, it meas that te pesuppositioof a stateet wi emai costat ( e still tue eve whe thatstateet is eated s a futhe eape, coside a situatio

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hch yo dsagree (via a egave as i . wih someoe whohas areay made he saeme a. .

a. veryody ows ha Joh is gay.

. veryody does ow ha Joh is gay.c. John s gay.d. p q & NOT p q

(= p )

(= NO p)= q )

oce ha alhogh oh speaers dsagree ao he validiy ofp ( .e. he saeme a. hey oh assme he rh ofq ( .e.. i mag heir saemes. The proposion q, as sho d s prespposed y oh p ad O p, remaing cosander egao.

Types of prespposo

he aaysis of how speaers assmpios are ypicall expressedprespposio has ee associaed ih he se of a arge mer ofords phrases ad srcres. We shal cosider hese igscforms here as idicaors of a uii which ca oyecome aca prespposos coexs wih speaers.

s already israed exampes 1 o 3 he possessie co-

srcio n glish s assocaed h a prespposio of ex-isece. The iia u s o ony assmed o eprese i possessive cosrcios (for exampe yor car yo have a car more geeray i ay deie o phrase .By sg ay of he expressos i 5 he speaer s assmed oe commie o he exsece of he eies amed.

5 he Kg of Swede he ca he gr ex doorhe Coig Crows

We shal recosider he asis of exseial presppososaer rs we shod oe ha here was a differe ype ofprespposio prese . he er ow occrs asrce veryody os ha q, h q as he prespposi-io. The prespposed formao foowg a er ie owa e reaed as a ac ad s descried as a fai uii; mer of oher vers sch as reaize i 6a. ad regre as wel as phrases ovg e ih aware 6c. odd

. ad gad [6e. have facve prespposios .

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S did't rliz e ws ill ( H ws ill)b W rret tlli i W tod i)c ws't wr tt sh ws

rrid S ws rrid)d t is't odd tt erly H l rly) ' ld tht it's over ( t's over

hr r lso br of oter fors wic y bst btrtd s t sorc of lxicl prsppositios Grly spi, i lial puppii te us of o for with its ssertedi is covtiolly itrprtd wit t prsppositiott otr (ossrtd) ei is drstood c tieyo sy tt soeo med' to do soethi, the ssertedi is tt t prso succeeded i som wy Wh yo sytt soo did't e', th ssrted i is tt teprso did ot sccd bot css, owvr, tre is prsppositio (ossertd) tt t prso trid' to do tt soti So, d' is covetiolly itrprted s assertigsccdd' d presuppsig trid' ter expls, ivolvit lxicl its, stop', strt', d i', r prseted, wittir presppositios, i [7

7 H stoppd soib y strtd complii H sd to so) y wre't

coplii beforec Yo're lt i Yo were te before )

te cs of leicl prsuppositio, th sper's se of priclr xpssio is t to presuppos otr (stte) cocpt,wres i t cs of fctive prsppositio, t us of pr-ticr exprssio is te to presppose th trt of te i-

fortio tt is sttd er it dditio to prsppositios wic r ssocitd wit ts of crti words d phrses, tr r lso uual pupii tis cse, certi setece strctrs he bee yzd s covetiolly d relrly prespposi tht prt ofth strctr is lrdy ssmed to be tre We mit s thtspers c s sch structures to trt ifrmtio s presp-posd (i e ssmed to be true d ce to b ccepted s tre byt listr For expe, the estio costrctio i

lis, s sow i [ 8 d 8b , is covetioy iterpreted

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h he pesuposo ha he fomao afe he fom( .e . Whe ad Whee s aeady ow o be he case.

[8 a. Whe dd he eave? He lef

b. Whee did you buy he bie? You bough he be he ype of pesupposo lusaed [8 ca lead lsees obeeve ha he fomao peseed s ecessay ue, aheha us he pesupposo of he peso asg he ueso.o exampe es say ha you ee sadg a a esecooe eveg. You dd oce hehe he afc sga hadued o ed befoe a ca hough he eseco. he caas mmedaely volved a cash. You ee ess o he

cash ad lae you ae ased he ueso [9 [9 Ho fas as he ca gog h a he ed ih?

f you aswe he ueso as ased (Jus ase he ueso!ad esmae he speed of he ca he you ould appea o beaccepg he uh of he pesupposo ( . e. he ca a heed lgh . uch sucuaybased pesupposos may epesesube ays of mag fomao ha he speae belevesappea o be wha he se shoud beleve.

o fa, e have oy cosdeed coexs whch pesuppos-ios ae assumed o be ue. hee ae howeve, examples of o-facie pesupposios assocaed wh a umbe of vebs Egsh. - uii s oe ha s assumed o o beue. ebs le deam mage ad peed, as show [ 10 ae used wh he pesupposo a ha folos s o ue.

10 a. deamed ha as ch. as o chb. We imaged e wee Hawa. We ee o

Hawac. He peeds o be l. He s o le have aeady oed a he ed of he dscusso of dexs aucue hat s eed h a oface peuposo (f had a yach .. . . deed, hs ype of sucue ceaes a uaua uii meag ha ha s pesupposed s ooy o ue bu s he oppose of ha s ue o coay oacs . cooa sucue of e ype sho [ ] geeaycae a couefacua codoa pesuposes ha h fomao he clause o ue a h me of uace.

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. ,

i i

-1

[ f ou were m fried, ou would hae heped me. You are ot m fried)

he eistece of ofactie presuppositios is part of a iter

estig proem fo the aalsis of utteraces with comple structures, geerall ow as the projectio prolem, to beepored i the et sectio

dicators of potetial presuppositios discussed so far aresummarized i ale

Type Example

eistential the Xfactive I reget eaving

non-factive He pretended to be happyleica He managed to escapestrctral When did she die?counterfactua If I weren't i,

AB L Ptetia presuppsitis

he projection probem

Presu pposition

X eists 1 left

He wasn't hapy He tried to escape She died 1 am il

here is a basic epectatio that the presuppositio of a simpesetece wil cotiue to e true whe that simple setecebecomes part of a more comple setece his is oe ersio ofthe geeral idea that the meaig of the whoe setece is a combiatio of the meaig of its parts Howeer, the meaig ofsome presuppositios (as parts) doest surie to become themeaig of som comple seteces (as wholes ) his is owas the poeio pobem eampe [2, we are goig to see

what happes to the presuppositio (e was il) which isassumed to be true i the simple structure of [2., but whichdoes ot project ito the complex structure [ 2h. . order tofolow this tpe of aalsis, we hae to thi of a situatio iwhich a perso might say imagied that elly was ill adobod realized that se was ill

[2 a Nobody reaized that Kel was i.. ell was illc.

p q

(= p ) (= )

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(At this point, te seaker ttering [1 2a .]presuppses [1 2b.] . )

d . I imagined tat Kely was ill.e. Kelly as not ilf . NOT q

At this point, te speaker uering [1 2d.pesupposes [1 2e.], te opposite of [1 2b. . )

g. I imagined tat Kely was ill and nobodyealized that se was ill.

h. & OT q

(= )(=NOTq)

= & )

(At this point, aer combining & , the pesupposi-tion q can no longer be assmed t be true. )

n an example like [12], te tecnica analysis may be straightorwad, but itay be difcult to thin of a context in whichsomeone would talk like that. Peras example [13] will contextalie beter. In an episode of a TV soap opera, two charactersae the dialg in [1 .

[ 1 3 Shirley: It's so sad. George regrets getting May pregnant.Jean: Bt he didn't et er regnant. e kno that

now.

f we combine two o te tterances from [1 3 ] , we ae thesequence George regets etting ary prenant; but he didn'tet he pregnant'. dentiing te dierent propositions inoled,as in 14 , we can ee tat te presposition q in [14b.] does notsrie as a pesupposition of te cobined utterances in [14e .]

[14] a. George rerets gtting ary regnant. = )b. George got ary pregnant. = q)c . q

d He didn't get he pregnant. (= )e. George regrets geing ary pregnant,

but he didn't get er regnant. ( & )f. & NOT q

ne way to tin about the wole sentence pesented in [14e. isas an utteance by a person reorting what happened in tea opera tat a. at ern w not ae t resppoiton q e that orge got ar regnant) is true wen ttering

[4e .

P E P O I T I O N AN E N A E T 3 1


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! ' :

'

i

I

: i

1

", \ : , 1 "

A simple explanation for he fact that presuppositions don'proj ec' is- ha hy are destroyd by entaiments Remembr haan enailmen is somehing a necessaril folows fro what isassered ale [13], Jan's ueranc of he ddn' g hrpregnan' acually ntails Gorg ddn' ge Mar pregnan' as alogical consequence Thus, when he perso who wached hsoap opera tells you tha George regrets getng Mary pregnan,b he didn' ge her pregnan', ou have a presposion q andan enailmen NO q The nailmnt (a neessary consequnceof wa is said) is simply or owrl han he prsoso(an arier assmption)

he power of entailmen can also be used o cancel existential

prespposiion Normally w assue ha when a person ses adenie descriion of the y he (for examp, King ofEnland'), h or se rsoss e xistnc of e endscribd, as n e ranc of [15a] Also, n any trance ofhe form doesn' xs', as i [I 5b], here s an aent hahere is no B does the spaker of [1 5 b] also still hav he presuoson of t xisence of h eniy dscrid?

[1 5] a Th King of Enland vsid s

b T King of Englnd dosn' is!nsead of thinkng tha a spakr who ers [I5] smlanosl blievs ha here is a King of England presupposition)and that here is not a King of England = entalmen) , we recogize ha e niment is more powerf than he presposiion W abandon he exisnial prsupposiion

As already mpasized, i ay b bes to t o all he typs of prespposions illusaed in abl 41 as poenal presuposiions' whch onl become acal presupposons when inended speakers o be rcognized as sch wihin uteraces Spakerscan indeed indicae that th poential prespposiion is not beingpresened as a srong asson ossessive constrcions suchas his car' hav a poena rsupposiion ie e has a car)which can e presented tnaively via xpressions sch as orsomeng' , as n [16]

[ 16] a Wha's ha guy doing in the arkng lo? H's lookng for is car or soehng

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[ b. , e speake s o commed o he pesupposo (ehas a ca as a assumed ac. s woh emembe ha see he wod o pase ha as a pesupposo. speak-es ca hae pesuposos.

deed entaimens

eea seak, eame s o a pamac cocep (.e.ha o do wh speake mea, bu sead s cosdeed apue oca cocep, sbozed b Some eampes ofeame fo e seece [ 17 ae peseed [ .

[ 7 Roe chased hee sues. ( p)

[ a. Someg cased hee sues. q)b. Roe dd someh o hee sues. rc. Roe cased hee o someh. s)d. Some happeed. t)

epese he eaoshp o eame bewee [17 ad[ a . as p q, we hae smp smbozed a oca c-seuece. Le us sa ha ue he seece [17, espeak s ecessa come o e uh of a e ae um-

be o bkoud eime (o some of whch ae peseed [ a.d.. a occaso of ueace [17, howee, espeake wl dcae ow hese ealmes ae o be odeed.h s, e speake w commucae, pca b sess, wcheame s assumed o be he oeoud, o moe mpoao epe eded meag, a a oes. Fo eampe, ue [19a. , he speake dcaes ha he foeoud eie, ad hece e ma assupo, s a Roe cased a

cea umbe of sues .[19 a. Roe cased sues.

b. O chased hee sues.

[19b. , e focus shfs o oe, ad he ma assumpo sha some cased hee sues. e uco of sess Esh s, s appoach, cea ed o mak e maassumo of e seake poducg a ueace. s such, aows e speake o mak o e see wa he ocus o he

essae s , ad wha s be assumed.

TIN ND NTIL MT 3 3


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A ver mar fto exted a trtre aed a itet' otrto Eg, a ow ]

[] a It wa 'V tat aed te qrre

It wa't wo too yor moeI ot exampe [], te peaer a ommate wathe or e eeve te teer a aeady e tkg e teforegrod etamet I [] tt foregrod entamentoeone too or oe eg ade te ared owedge order fo te de of peroa repoty to e made Tetterae [] a e ed to attrte te oregrod etamet to te teer } wtot ata tatg t for exe, a

a poe aato It oe ore exampe of more eg ommated ta ad

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5Cooperation and iplicature

n much of the pecedng dscuson we hae assumed that

speakes and stenes noed conesaton ae geneaycoopeatng wth each othe Fo exampe fo efeence to e successfu t was poposed that coaoaton was a necessay facto.n acceptng speakes pesuppostons stenes nomay hae toassume that a speake wo says m ca eay does hae the cata s mentoned and snt tyng to msead the stene. Thssense of coopeaton s smpy one n whch peope hang a conesaton ae not nomay assumed to e tyng to confuse tcko wthhod eeant nfomaton om each othe. n most c

cumstances ths knd of coopeaton s ony the statng pont fomakng sense of what s sad.

n the mdde of the unch hou one woman asks anothe howshe kes the hamuge she s eatng and ecees the answen .

A hamuge s a hamuge

Fom a puey ogca pespecte he epy n seems to haeno communcate aue snce t expesses somethng competeyoous. The exampe n and othe appaenty pontessexpessons ke usness s usness' o oys w e oys' aecaed tautoogies. f they ae used n a conesaton ceay thespeake ntends to communcate moe than s sad

When the stene heas the expesson n she st has toassume that the speake s eng coopeate and ntends to communcate somethng That somethng must e moe than usthat the wods mean. t s an addtona coneyed meanng

caed an mplcature. By statng he speake expects that the

COORAION AND MPICAR 3 5


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listeer wil e able to wor out, o the basis of what is areadow, the ipicature iteded i tis cotet

Give the opportuiy to evaluate te hamburger, the speaerof [ has respoded witout a evaluatio, thus oe ipicatureis that she as o opiio, either good or bad, to epressepedig o othr aspects of the cotet, additioal impicatures (for eampe, the speaer tis all haurgers are tesae ight e iferred

plicatures are primary eampes of more beig commuicatedta is said, ut i order for them to be iterpreted, soe basiccooperative pricipe must rst be assumed to be i operatio

he cpertive pricipe

Cosider the foowig scearo ere is a woa sittig o apar bec ad a arge dog ig o te groud i frot of tebech ma comes alog ad sits dow o the bech

[2 Ma: oes your dog bite?Woma: No

(he ma reaces dow to pet te dog e dog

bites he ma's hadMa: c Hey! ou said our dog does't biteWo: He does't But tat's ot dog

e of the proems i this sceario has to do with comuicatio Specical, it sees to be a prolem caused y the ma'sassumptio tat more was commuicated ta was said t is't aproe wit presuppositio because the assuptio i yourdog' (ie te woma has a dog is true for ot speaers heprob em is the ma's assumpto tat is uesti oes your dgbite?' ad the woma's aswer No' oth app to te dog i frotof them Fro the a's perspective, te woa's aswer provides ess iformatio ta eected oter words, she mightbe epected to provide te iformatio stated i the last ie fcours, if se had metioed this iformaio earlier, the storywouldt be as fuy For the evet to be fu, te woma has togive less iformatio tha is epected

he cocept of tere beig a epected amout of iformatio

provided i coversatio is just oe aspect of te ore eeral

3 6


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ea that people oled a coersato wll cooperate wtheach other. (f course the woma ] may actually be cat-g that she oes ot at to tae part ay cooperate terac-to wth the strager. most crcumstaces the assumpto ofcooperato s so perase that t ca be stated as a oopeieiipe of coersato ad elaborate four subprcples,called mxim, as show able 5 . 1

he cpeative piciple: ae your coersatoal cotrbu-to such as s reured, at the stage at whch t occurs, by theccepte purpose or drecto of the tal exchage whch youare egaged.

he maxmsQuatit

. ae your cotrbuto as formatve as s reured (for thecurret purposes of the exchage .

. Do ot mae your cotrbuto more formate tha sreure.

Qualit y to mae your cotrbuto oe that s true. . Do ot say what you belee to be false .

. Do ot ay that for whch you lac adeuate edeceRelati Be releat.

Mae Be perspcuous. Aod obscurty of expresso.. Ao ambguty. Be bref (aod uecessary prolxt . Be orerly.

BL 5 . The cpeative piciple fllig Gice 9t s mportat to recogze these maxms as ustated assump-tos we hae coersatos We assume that people are ormally gog to prode a aprorate amout of formato(ule the woma ] we assume that they are tellg thetruth beg releat, ad trg to be as clear as they ca. Becausetese rcples are assumed ormal teracto speaersrrely meto them. Hoeer there are certa ds of expres-

sos speaers use to mar that the may be dager oft fully

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I

I

"

erng the prnple Tee n of epreon re lleege

HedesTe mprne of he mm f qu fr pere nern n Engl m e e mere e nmer f epre-n we e ne t w we're ng m n e llre The nt pre n 3 the n pre n3 e ne e ltener regrng e r o he nemen

[ 3 A r nw, e'e mrre

m e men, I g w weng rngon her nge

'm t re rg, er w ereeemon n Hw

e l' le w e, ge

The onern net for e emle n [3 mg e reen rr nng ple nwn t e peer ne, or edes, f pe n l e e o hw he

eer n f e qu mm, e l hren [, pre n the ore f ee' n f erreen n

[ A pr w, m ere f g S, lng r r, we re r f

n wn't re w ll e el, w n e

n rp

Mrer e e epet f rlene fr e m feio) n e f n e mle f eer' wen e tng le O, e w' n g n menon ome ptenll nnnee frmn rng ner Seerl eem e epren le nw', or well, nw

',

nte t te m e e o on o oe o nnrelen erl wnt Sme erenw m ege he ee reene reown e nt phe n [ , fr n e mee

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[ 5 ] a I don' no if i i ipoan, u om of a mng

Ti a ound i a du uion, u o andiing i i?

o o ang u , u i i ad o udg?

aan of paion of manner ma ao adpa o podu dg of p own in iniiapa in [6a] , ad duing an aoun of a a

[6] a Ti ma a i onfud, u I m ing in aa

I' no u if i a n, a ad noig

I don' no i i i a a a, u I in oa a vng

of ap of dg a good iniaon a pa a o on awa of maim, u a an oo a a ing o ov Pap u foao ounia pa' onn a i in udg o oopaiv onvaiona pan

T a, ov, o iuan pa man foo paion of opaiv pinip In ou-oom ad aoo, in and udn a on adupon o pop ig i a aad non o opop ( vioaing uani mai u piaizdiniuioa a i a difn fo onvaion

Hov, vn in onvaion, a pa ma op ou' of ai paion uing pion i o ommn' o

ip a ad' in pon o a uion ining apf u pion i a, aoug a pia no ainfoaiv a i uid' in on, a naua in-pd a ouniaing o an i aid ( i pa no an Ti ia aion (i mu omingpia' of in o an appan vioaion of h aii aua o noion of onvaiona impiau

CO O PEAON AND MP C ATRE 39

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: i

, I i

. I: '

Conversatonal mpl cature

The bas assumpion in conversaton s that, unless otherwiseindated, he partipants areadhering to the ooperative prin-

ple and the mxims. In example [7 , Dexter may appear to e vo-latng the requrements of the quntty maxm.

[7 Crlene: I hope you brought he bread and the cheese. Dexter: Ah, I brought the bread.

Aer hearng Dexter's response in [7, Charlene has to assumethat Dexer s cooperatng and not totally unware of he quan-tty maxm. But he ddn't menton the cheese. If he had roughtthe heese, he would say so, beause he would e adherng to the

quntity maxim. He must intend that she infer that what s notmentioned was not brought. In this case, Dexter has onveyedmore than he said via a conversational implicaue.

We an represent the strucure of wh was sad, ith (= bread) and (= cheese) as n [8] Using the symol +> for an mpl-aure, we can also represent the addtonal onveyed meanng.

[8 Carlene: & c?Dexter: (+> NOT c)

I s mportan to note tha it s spekers who ommunate mean-ng via mplatures and t s lsteners wh reognze those om-muniated meanings va inferene. The inferenes seleted arehose whhwill preserve the assumpton of ooperaon.

Generalzed conversatonal plicatures

In the ase of example [7 , partularly as represented n [ 8 ] , nospecal akground knowledge of the next of utterane isrequired n order o make the necessary nferenes. The sameproess of alulatng the implcature wll take plae f Doobesks Mary abou nvtng her friends Bella = ) and Cathy (= c) toa party, s n [9a. , and gets the reply n [ . . The ontex s df-ferent from [] , but the general process of denfng the implia-ture is the same as in 8 ]

[9 a. Doobie Did you nvte Bella and Cathy? ( & ? )b. Mary: I nvited Bella. ( > O )

40 SURVEY


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e o spea owedge s eued te cotext to cacu-ate te additioa coveyed eg, s i [7] to [9 ] , it s caed aeeized oeio impiue e commo exape iEgs ivoves ay pase wt a deite atice of te type

aa suc as a gade ad a cd as i [10] ese pasesae typcay tepeted accodig to te geeaized covestoa pcatue tat a ot speaes

] was sittig a gade oe day. cd ooed ove tefece.

e ipicatues [ 10] , tat te gade ad te cid metioedae ot te speaes, ae cacuated o te picipe tat f tespeae was capabe of beg oe specc ( .e. moe fomative,fowig te uatity maxi, te e o se woud ave saidy gde ad my cd.

umbe of ote geeaized covesatoa impicatues aecooy commucated o te basis of a scae of vaues ad aecoseuety o as scaa pcatues.

caar mpicaures

etai ifomatio is aways couicated by coosig a odc expesses oe vaue fo a scae of vaues. s s patcu-ay obvous i tems fo expessg uatity, as show tescaes ] , wee tes ae sted fom te hgest tote owest vaue.

[ ] < a, most, may, some, few< aways, ofte, soeties

e poducg a utteace a speae seects te wod fom

te scae wic is te most foatve ad tutfu (utty aduaty the cicumstaces, as i [12] .

[ 12] studyig iguistcs ad ve competed some of teeuied couses.

B coosig some i [12], te speae ceates a mpcatue ot a. is s oe scaa picatue of utteig [2] eass o s ta, w ay fom a scae sasseted, te egatve of a fs ge o te scae s impc

ated. e st scae [] ad a, ost, ad may, ge

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1

. 1

th some' Gie te deito of scr implicture, it shouldfolow tt, sy some of te reured courses', the spekerlso cretes oter mplictures ( for emple, +> ot most, +> otm.

Ifthespeaker goesontodescribethoselingusticscourss as in[ 1 3 , te we c idet some more sclr implictures

[ 1 3 e're sometimes rey terest

By us sometmes' [13, te speker commuctes, implcture, the etie of forms hier o te scle of freuec(+> ot lws, +> ot oe

here re my sclr implctures produced by the use ofepressos tt we my ot mmedtel cosider to be prt of scle For emple, te utterce of [ 4 will be iterpreteds implicti +> t certi' s hiher lue o the scle ofikelihoo' d [4b +> ot must' o scle of obgtio' d > ot froze' o scle of co dess '

[14 t's possible tht they were deledb hs sould be stored coo plce

e oticeble feture of sclr implctures is tht whespeers correct themsees o some det, s i [, te tp-icl ccel oe of the sclr implctures

[ ot some of this jewelr Ho ou ctuly thk ot most of t tere

[ , te speker iitiy mplictes +> ot most' b syisome' , but the corrects herself b ctul sserti most' ht ssertio is stl ikey to be iterpreted, howeer, wth sclr implcture (+> ot ll

Paicarized conversationa picatres

the precedig emples, the impctures he bee ccultedwtout specl kowlede of prtculr cotet Howeer,most of te tme, our coerstos te pce i er specic co-texts i which loclly recogized ifereces re ssumed Suchifereces re reured to work out the coeed mes whichresult from piuized ei impiue As iustr

tio, cosder emple [ 1 , where om's respose does ot

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appa on fac o ade o lvanc A imp elvananw wold be Ye o o )

[16] ick: He, coming o e wild pa oig?

Tom: M paen a viiingIn od o make Tom pon levan, ic a o daw onom amd knowldge a one collg den in i ingpc anoe o ave Tom will be pnding a vning wii paen, and ime pen wi paen i qie coneqenl +>om no a pa)

cae a b fa mo common, pariclazed conaional implicae a pical calld impicae fe example, in wi e pak appa no o ade oie o o ) maim of manne, i peend n [ 1 7]

[ 17] Ann: W a o going w dog?Sam: To V

I e local conx of pak, dog i known o oiz e wd e, and o ae bng aken ere, o Sam podc a moe laboae, pld o i l bif) veion of ieag, implicaing a e doen wan e dog o know e

anwe o qeon j akedIn [ 1 8], Leila a wakd no Ma ofce and noiced alle wor n er de Ma repone eem e maximf lvanc

[8] Lila: Woa ! a o bo gon caz?Ma: L go ge ome coffee

In od o pev ampon of coopeaion, Leila willav o inf ome loca aon fo xamp, bo ma b

nab) w Ma mak an appanl nonlvan mak implicae e i nial a Ma canno anwe ion in a con

In addion o e fai poaic examle of implicae, a o moe naining ample, a in [19] and [0], pone iniiall appa o o levance

19] : Do o k iccm?Eni: I Pope Caolc?

CO O PE RA O N A M P CAUR E 43


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I

[20 Ber Do egern e hmrger?Erne Do ken he lp ?

In [19, Erne' repone doe no prode e' or no' nwer

Ber m me h Erne eng oopere, o he onerErne' Pope' qeon nd lerl he nwer Ye' So, henwer nown, e nre of Erne' repone lo mpl-e h he nwer o he qeon w Ool, e' Andonl onee menng n h e , ee henwer w o oo, he qeon dd no nee o e kedEmple [20 proe he me pe of nferenng whn

nwer Of ore no ' pr of he mplre

Popeies o convesatoa picatues

So fr, ll he mlre we he ondere he een edwn oneron, wh he nferene beng mde peoplewho her he erne nd emp o mnn he mponof oopere neron Bee hee pre re prof wh ommned n no d, eker n lwden h e nended o ommne h menngoneronl mplre re denle he n e eplldene or lernel, renfore) n dfferen w o ke mple eme, ere ndrd mle oe wng nmer, he peker men only nmer, hown n [21

[2 1 Yo he won e dollr +> e)

A own n [22, howeer, qe e for peker o pend e mplre +> onl) ng he epreon le'

[22, or o nel he mplre b dng frer nformon, often followng he epreon n f' [22 , or o renforehe mplre wh ddonl nformon, n [22

[22 Yo'e won le e ollr Yo'e won e dolr, n f, o'e won en ! o'e won dollr, h' for mor hn on

We he lred noed wh mn o e preo empleh mplre n e lled he lener nferen

In erm of er denng propere, hen, oneronl

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pcatures ca be cacuated suspeded caceed ad re-rced. e of these prpertes appy to covetoa mpcat-ures.

Conventona mpctes

ctrast to a the coversat pcatures dscussed so ar mpu are t bsed o the cooperatve pr-cpe or the mams. hey dt have to occur coversatad they dt deped speca cotexts or ther terpretat.t ue eca presupposts covetoa mpcatures areasscated wth specc words ad resut addtoa coveyed

eags whe thse wrds are used. he Egsh cojuctut s oe of these words. he terpretato o ay utterace the type p but q w be based o the cojuct p & q pusa pcature of cotrast betwee the formato p adthe forato q [3 ] the fact that Mary suggested bac p s cotrasted va the cveta mpcature of but wthy chosg whte ( q)

[23] a. Mary suggested bac but chose whte.b. P & q (+> P s ctrast t q)

ther Egsh words such as eve ad yet aso have cve-oa mcatures. Whe eve s cuded ay seecedescrbg a evet there s a mpcature of cotrary to e-pectat . hus [2] there are to evets reported ( . e. Johscog ad Johs hepg wth the coveta mpcature oeve addg a cotrary t epectat terpretato o thoseevets.

[2] a. ve Joh ae t the party.b. He eve heped tdy up aerwards .

he cvetoa pcature yet s that the preset stua-t s epected to be deret or perhaps the opposte at a terte. utterg the stateet [2a. ] the speaer produces apcature that she expects the stateet es s here p te true ater as dcated [2 b. ] .

[ ] a. es st here et. p)

b . P s true (+ p epected to be true aer D M L


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t may e possle to treat te socalled dfferet meags ofad glsh dscssed haper ) as staces of covetal mpcatre dfferet strctres We two satemetscoag satic formato are joed by ad, as [6a , themplcatre s simply addito or pls Whe he two statemets coa dyamc, actorelated formatio, as [6,the mpcatre of ad s ad the idcatg seece

[ a Yesterday, Mary was happyad ready to wor ( & q, +> us q )

She pt o er clothes ad lethe hose ( & q + > q aer )

Becase o f he dfferet mplcares, he two pars of [6a cabe reversed wh lttle dfferece meag, t here s a bgchage meag if the wo pars of [6b re reversed

For may ligists, he otio of mpcatre s oe of ecera coceps pragmatcs A mplcatre s ceraly aprme eample of more beig commcate tha s sad Forhose same lgsts, aother ceral cocept pragmatcs s heobsevato a tteraces perfor actos, eerally ow asspeech acs

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6Speech acts and events

attemptg to express themselves, people o ot oly prouce

tteraces cotag grammatcal structures a ors, theyperform actos va those utteraces. f you or a stuatohere a boss has a great ea of poer, the the bos's utteraceof the expresso s more tha ust a statemet.

] You're re.

he utterace ] ca be use to perform the act of eg youremploymet. Hoever, the actos performe by utteraces oot have to be as raatc or as upleasat as ] he acto

ca be qute pleasat , as the complmet performe by 2a.] ,the acolegemet of thas 2b.] , or the expresso of surprse 2.].

2] a. You're so elcous.b. Youre elcomec. You're crazy

Actos performe va utteraces are geeraly cale seechacts a, Eglsh, are commoly gve more specc labels,

sch as apology, complat, complmet, vtato, promse, orrequest.

hese escrptve terms for fferet s of speech acts applyto the speaer's commucatve teto proucg a utterace. he speaer ormally expects that hs or her commucatve teto ll be recogze by the hearer. Both speaer ahearr are usually helpe ths process by the crcumstacessurroug the utterace. hese crcumstaces, clug othertteraces, are calle the seech event may ys, t s the

EECH ACT AN E VENS 4


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i

nte of te pee eent tt detemne te ntepetton of ntene perfomng prtlr pee t On wntr d,te peer ree fo p of te, eleng tt t een

fl mde, te p, nd prode te tterne n 3 t lel to e ntepeted omplnt

[3 T te ell old!

ng te mtne to rel ot mme' d wt tepeer eng gen gl of ed te te eer, tng pnd podng te tterne n 3 , t lel to e ntepreted pe f te me ene n e nterpreted two dfferentnd of pee t, ten ol no mpe one ttene to one

ton oepondene wll e pole It lo men tt tere more to te nterpretton of pee t tn n e fond n tetene lone

Speech acts

On n oon, te ton pefomed podng n ttenewll ont of tree relted t Tee rt ocuoa ac,w te t of erne, or prodng menngfl ln

gt expeon f o e dl w tll formng teond nd wod to ete menngfl ttene n lnggefor exmple, ee t' foregn or o're toneted) , ten omgt fl to pode lotonr t Prodng Aha okofan Engl wll not normll ont loton t, wee[ wll

[ 'e jt mde ome offee

Motl we don't jt proe welfrmed ene wt noppoe We fom n tterne wt oe nd of fnton nmnd T te eond dmenon, or te ocuoa a Teillotonr t pefomed te ommnte fore ofn terne We mgt er to me ttement, n oe, nexplnton, o for ome ote ommnte ppoe T lo generll known te locutary fce of te tn

We do not, of oe, mpl te n rne wt fn_ton wtot ntendng t to e n effet te trd dmen

on, te prcuoary ac Dependng n te mtne, o

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ill utt 4] on t assumption tat t a will cogniz tffct you intendd fo xampl to account fo a wonfulsll o to gt te ea to din som coff . Tis is also gn-ally nown as t perloutonar eet

f ts t dimnsions t most discussd is illocutionayfoc. nd t tm spc act' is gnally inteptd quitaoly to mean only t illocutionay foc of an uttanc. illocutionay foce of an utteanc is wat i counts as. Tsam locutionay act as son in 5a. ] can count as a pdiction[5 b.] a pomis [c .] o a aning [d.] . Ts iffent analyss[ b.d. ] of t uttanc in [a . ] psnt diffnt illocutionayfocs.

5 ] a . ll see you lat. = b. [I pdict tat .c. pomis you tat] Ad. I wan you tt

n poblm wit t xampls in [5] is tat te same uttancan potntialy av quit diffnt illocutionay focs fo x-apl pomis vsus waning. ow can spaks assum tatt intnd illocutionay oc will b cognizd y t a?

at qustion as bn addessd by considing two tingslloutionay Foc Indicating vics and felicity conditions.

IFIOs

most obvious dvic fo indicating t illocutionay focet Il lotonar Fore Indatng Deve o IFD is an xpssion oft typ sown in 6 w te is a slot fo a vb tat xplicitly

ames t illocutionay act bing pfomd. Suc a veb can balld a erormatve verb (Vp .

[6] I p you tat . . .

t pcding amps 5..] pomis' an wan' oud t pefomativ vbs and if stat wod b vy cla s. Spas do no alays pfom ti spec acts soplicitly but ty somtimes dsci te sec act being p-md. magin t tlpon convsation in [ btwn a

an tying to conact May and May's find.

SPEEC ACS AD VENS 49


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I'1 1 . \i : l .1(

' j

' I

[7] Him: Can 1 talk o Mary?Her: No, she's no ere.Him: 'm sking youan 1 talk to her ?Her And ' elng you-SE S NOT ERE!

In ths sceno, eah speaker s dsrbed, an drawn atentiono, the illocutionary force ( ask' an ell' ) o heir ueranes .

Most of he tme, however, there is no performative verb menioned. Oer FDs ich cn e idente are word order,stress, and intonato, as sown in h different versions of hesame basic eleents (YG) n [8].

[8] a. You're going [ te you Y]b. You're going? [ reques conrmation abou YGc. Ae you going ? [ ask you f Y

Whe oher devices, such as a owered voice qualt for a wrnng or a hrea, ht e used o indicae ilouionary force, euerance also as o e roduced under eran onvenonacondiions to ount as aving he inended ilocutionary force.

Felicity conditions

Tere are erain xeced or aproprat irumsances, ehnically known as feliciy condiions, for the performance of aspeeh at o e reognized as intended. or som cear cases,such as [9] , he performance ill be infeliitous (inaproprte) ifhe speaker s not a spei person in a specal conex (in hiscase, a j udge in a outroom).

[9] 1 senene you o six months inprison.

n eeryday conexts among ordinay peope, tere are aso precondtions on speech acs. There are general condiions on the artiipants, for exampe, hat they an unerstand the langugeeing used and ta tey are not playacn or eng nonsensica.Ten there are conen condiions. r exampe, for both a promiseand a wrning, he conen of he uerance must be aou afure even. A uer onen coniion for a romse ereshat he uture evet will be a ture act of the speaker.

The preparato condions for a romise are sgniaty differ

ent rom ose for a wrning. When 1 promise to do somehing,

50 SURVEY


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t a two pptory conditions st th vnt wi not hp-n by itsf an scon t vnt i hav a bcial ffct.n I utt a waing t a t foloing paatoy conditins it isn't car tat t a nos th vt wil occu thsa dos think th vnt i occu and t vnt will not ava bncia ffct atd to ts cnditions is th Sinceri condition tat fo omis t spa gnuinly intnds to cary outt futu acion and fo a aning t sak gninybivs tat t futu vnt i ot av a bnci ffct.

inally t is th essental condition hich covs t facttat by t act of utting a pomis I tby intnd to cat anbigation to cay out th action as prois In othr os th

ttanc changs my stat fo nonobigation to oigtion.iary with ring undr t ssntia coition t utt-anc cangs my stat fro noninfing of a bad futu vntt infoming Tis ssntia condition ts combins with asication of hat must b in t uttanc contnt th con-t and t sakr's intions in od fo a scic sc actt b appoiaty ficitusy pfomd.

The erfortive hyohess ay to thin about t spc acts bing fomd via utt-acs is to ssum tht undying vry ttac U) t is aaus simia to [6] sntd ai containing a pfomativb Vp) whic ks t illocutionary foc xpicit. Tis isn as t performative hypothesis and t basic foat of thndying claus is sown in [ 10]

10] I hby) V you tat) U

this cas t subjct ust b st son singua ( ' 1 ,llwd by t dvr by' indicating that th uttncunts as' an action by ing utd. h is also a form-ativ vb Vp) in t rsnt tns and an indict objct in sc-d pson singula yu'. Tis undying caus i awaysa xlicit as in [ b ] and [ b. ] at in uttancs suc as[ a . ] and [ a s imicit.

[ ] a. Clan up tis ss !b. I by od you tat you clan up tis mss

SPE EC ACTS AN EVENTS 5


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i

[ he wor ws doe y le d yselfb heeby tel you tht the wor ws doe y ie d

mysef

ples lie [ ad [ (orlly wthout herey' , reused y speers s expii pefomie ples le [d [ re impii pefomie soetes clled pimypefomie

he dtge of ths type of alyss s tht t es clear j ustwht eleets are volved te productio d terpetatoof utterces syta, reeie proou ( le myself' i [ 2 euies the occurrece of a atecedet ( this cse ' withithe sme setece structure he epict performtie i [

proes the ' e emet Smly, whe you sy to soeoe, ot youself', the reee i yoursef' s ade possle y theatecedet you' the eplicit vesio ( order you tht you do ityourself' othe dvtage s to show tht some aders suchas oestly', or derl cluses such s becuse y e lte',s show [ 3 , turlly ttach to the eplict perforatecuse rther tha the mplct versio

[ 3 a Hoestly, he's a scoude

Wht te s t, because y e lte? [ 3 , t is the teg pat (the perforte er that s begdoe hoestly' d, [ 3 , t s the ct of sg (the perfortie ag tht s eg justed by the ecuse ay e lte'cuse

here re some techcl disdvatges to the perortehypothess For emple, utterg the eplict performte erso of cod [ b hs much ore serous mpct th

utterig the implcit veso [ he two versios e co-seuetly ot eulet t s also dcult to ow eactly whatthe performtive er (or vers mght e for soe uttercesltough the speer ad hearer ight recogze the uterce i[4 s isult, t would e very stage to have [ 4 s epct ersio

[14 You're dumer th roc ? herey sult you that you're duer tha roc

he elly pctical proble wth ay lyss bsed o deti

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g epct performatves s that, prcpe, we smp do otw how ma performatve erbs there are a aguagestead of trg to st a the possbe epct performatves, adthe dstgush amg a f them, some more geeracasscatos of tpes of speech acts are usua used

peech act cassication

e geera casscato sstem ts ve tpes of geera fucts performed b speech acts decarats, represetatves,pressves, drectves, ad commssves

Di are those ds f speech acts that chage the

rd va ther utterace As the eampes 5 ustrate, thepeaer has to have a spca sttutoa re, a specc cotext, order to perorm a decarat approprate

5 a Prest ow pruce u hubad ad wfeb eferee You're uc Jur Forema e d the defedat gut

usg a decarato, the speaer chages the word va wordsi are thse ds f speech act that tate what

the speaer beeves to be the case r ot Statemets of act,serts, cocusos, ad descrptos, as ustrated 6,e a eampes of the speaer represetg the wrd as he or sheeeves t s

6 a The earth s atb homsk dd't wrte abut peautsc. t was a warm su da

usg a represetatve, the speker maes words t the wrd

(f beefEi are those ds of speech acts that state what the

peaer fees he epress pschogca sttes ad ca be state-ets f peasure, pa, es, dses, j, or sorrow As us-trted [ 7 , the ca be caused b somethg the speaker doesor the hearer does, but the are about the speaer's eperece

1 a 'm rea sorr!b. ogratuats!

c h, es, great, mmmm, ssahh!

C CT ND NT 3


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i

j

,

"

J'. , l

sig a epessie, he speae maes wods he wold( of feelig)

ieie ae hose ids of speech acs ha spees use o ge

smeoe else o do somehig hey epess wha he speaerwas hey are commads, odes, euess, sggesios, ad, asillusaed i [ 8] , hey ca be posiie o egaie

[ 8 ] a Gimme a cp of coffee Mae i blacb Could you led me a pe, please c o ouch ha

usig a diecie, he speae aemps o mae he old hewods ( ia he heae)

om miie ae hose ids of speech acs ha speaes se o comm hemseles o some fuure acio hey eess wha hespeae ieds hey ae pomises, hreas, refusals, pledges,ad, as show i [9], hey ca be pefomed by he speaeraloe, o by he speae as a membe of a goup

[ 9 ] a ll be bacb m oig o ge i igh e imec We will o do ha

usig a commissie, he speaer deraes o mae he wold he wods (ia he speaerhese e geeal fcios of speech acs, wih heir ey fea

ues ae summaized i able 6

Drc and indirect spec acs

diee appoach o disiguishig ypes of speech as ca emade o he basis of sucue faily simple sucural disicio

beee hee geeal ypes of speech acs is poided, i glish,by he hee basic seece ypes As show i [20] , hee is a easilyrecogized elaioship bewee he hee srucual foms(declaraie, ierogaie, imperae) ad he hee geeralcomuicaie fucios (saeme, uesio, commaeues)

[20] a Yo wea a sea bel (declaaie)b o ou wea a sea bel? (ieogaie)c Wea a sea bel ! (impeaie)

Wheee hee is a de elaioship bewee a suue ad a

5


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h at t Dto o t sakX stuato

laatos ods hag th old auss stats mak ods t th old bls Xxsss mak ods t th old ls Xts mak th old t ods wats Xommsss mak th old t ods tds X

BL 6 . The ve geeal fucts f speech acts fllgeale 99

to, w ha a di h Wh th s a -

dt latosh bt a stutu ad a uto, w hav aidi h Thus, a dlaatv usd to mak a statmt sa dt sh at, but a dlaat usd to mak a qust s adt sh at As llustatd 21] , th utta 21a] s dlaatv Wh t s usd to a a statmt, as aahasd 2 1b ] , t s utog as a dt sh at Wh t s usd toak a ommaqust, as aahasd 21 .] , t s utoing asan indirect speech act.

21 ] a ts old outsd.b h tll ou about th ath. hb qust o ou that ou los th doo

Dt stutus a b usd to aomlsh th sam basto, as 22 ] h th sak ats th addss ot tostad ot o th Th bas uto o all th uttas 2] s a ommadqust, but ol th mat stutu 2a] sts a dt sh at. Th togat stutu

22b.] s ot bg usd ol as a qusto, h t s a -dt sh at Th dlaat stutus 22] ad 2d.] also dt qusts.

2] a Mo out o th ab Do ou ha to stad ot o th ?. You stadg ot o th .d Youd mak a btt doo tha a do

O o th most ommo ts o dt sh at

glsh as show 2 3 ] , has th om o a togatv, but s

D 5 5


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1

/

no ypcy ued to ak a queion ( e we don expec" ony ananer, we expect cion) The exmple in [23 are normlyunderood requet

[23 Coud you pa he ?b Woud you open h?

Indeed, there typcl pattern in Engh whereby king queon bou the hearer umed aby ( Cn you? , Coudyou? ) or future ikelhood wh regrd o dong omehng ( Wyou? , Woud you? ) normally coun a eque to ctuly doha omething

Indirec peech c re generly ocated with greater

poene in Egih han direct peech act In order o undertand wy, we have to ok a bigger pcure thn u ingeuernce performng nge peech c

Speech evens

We can rea n indrect eque (for exampe, the utteance in[23 ) a beng mer of kng wheher he necery condiionfor a reuet are in pce For exmple, preparory condition

h he peker aume he herer i abe o, or N pefom hection conent condon concern ture con, ht he hearerWLL perform the acion Th pern i iure n [2]

[2] Indirec requet

Conten Future ac of WLL you do X?condition

h Preprorycondion

herer hearerWLLdoX)

Hearer be o N you do X?perform act hearer NdoX)

c uesioning a hererbed condon for makng areque reul n n indirec reque

There i denite dfference beween kng omene o do X nd

king omeone if he precondion for doing X re in plce, a in

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2] Askig bou pecodiios echicly does cou sakig eue, bu does llow he hee o ec s f heeques hd bee de Becuse eues is imposion by hespeke on he hee, i is bee, mos soc cicumsnces, fohe speake o vod diec imposiio vi diec eques Whehe speke sks bou pecodiios, o dec eues s mde

The peceding discussio s esseilly bou oe peso yig ge ohe peso o do somehg wihou iskig efusl causig ofee Howeve, his pe of suio does o coisf sige uece is soc suio vovg picipsho ecessily hve socl eioship of soe kid, d who, specic occsio, m hve picul gols

We c ook he se of ueces poduced i hs kid of siu-a s peeh ee A speech ee is cvy i whch pcips iec vi lguge i soe coveio wy o aivea soe oucome my clude obvious ce speech c,sch s do ell lke hs as i speech eve of copi-g, bu wil so iclude ohe ueaces ledg up o d sub -sequely ecig o ha cel co os cses, equess o e by es of sgle speech c suddely ueedequesig s pc speech eve, s lused i 25 ]

25] Him: Oh, My, m gld youe hee He Whs upHim: c ge y copue o wokHe: s bokeHi: do hik soHe: Whs dogHm: I don kow m useless wih compuesHe Wh kd s

Him: s Mc Do ou use hemHe YehHim: Do you hve iueHe: SueHim: Oh, gea

he exeded eco 25] my be called equesigspeech eve hou a cea spec ac o eues oc ahee s o cul eques fo hm o he o do yhig

e mgh chceze he queso Do you hve miue s

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prereque', allowng he recever o ay ha he buy or hhe ha o be oewhere ele I h coex, he repone Sure aken o be an acknowledgeen no only f havn e aval

able, bu a wllngne o perfor he unaed acon The analy of peech even clearly anoher way of udyng how orege councaed han ad

The uefune of peech ac anay n llurang he kndof hng we can do wh word and denng e of he convenona uerance form we ue o perfor pecc aconHowever, we do need o look a ore exended neracon oundernd how hoe acon are carred ou and nerpreedwihn peech even

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7Poiteness and interaction

n much o the preceng scusson the small-scale scenaros

presente to llustrate language n use have been populate bypeople wth vrtually no socal ves. Yet much o what we sayan a great eal o what we communcate s etermne by oursocal relatonshps. A lngustc nteracton is necessarly a socalnt

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ANH310DV01 Pragmatics