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An Alternative History of

Psychoanalysis: Fact and Fiction in Irvin

D. Yalom’s When Nietzsche Wept

En Alternativ Historia Om Psykoanalys: Fakta och fiktion i Irvin D. Yalom’s När Nietzsche Grät

Ebba Paulsson

Karlstad University

English Literature C-essay

15 hp

Supervisor: Johan Wijkmark

Examiner: Åke Bergvall

Date 10.06.2017

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Abstract

ThisessayprovidesananalysisofthenovelWhenNietzscheWeptwrittenby

IrvinD.Yalom.Thenoveltakesplaceduringthelateeighteenhundredcenturyin

ViennaandthroughoutthisessayIexplorehowYalomhascreatedasetting,

wherehehasplacedsomeofmostprominentphilosophersofthistimeinhis

fictionalworldinordertoeducatethereaderaboutthebirthofpsychoanalysis

andgiveanalternativeversiontohowitemerged.IarguethatYalommanagesto

implementdifferentoriginaltheoriesinconnectiontopsychoanalysistoshow

howtheideascirculatingatthatpointinhistorycontributedtothedevelopment

ofpsychoanalysis.TheessaycomparestheoriginaltheoriesofFreud,Breuerand

Nietzschetothosebroughtforwardbythecharactersandillustratesthe

similaritiesinordertosupportYalom´salternativeversion.Inconclusion,this

essaydemonstrateshowYalomhascreatedanalternativeversionofthe

developmentofpsychoanalysisbyblendingoriginaltheorieswithfictiveevents

inordertoshowhowpsychoanalysiswasazeitgeistofitstimeandhadmore

thanonefoundingfather.

Keyword:WhenNietzscheWept,Irvin.DYalom,Psychoanalysis,alternative

historicalfiction,FriedrichNietzsche,SigmundFreud.JosefBreuer

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IrvinD.YalomwroteWhenNietzscheWept(1992)asanovelwiththeintentto

teachthereaderaboutthebirthofpsychoanalysisandtoshowhowitwasa

productoftheoriesandideasofitstime,ratherthanatheorydevelopedbya

singlemind.YalomisaprofessorinpsychiatryatStanfordUniversityandhas

manyyearsofexperienceinbothteachingpsychologyandworkingasa

psychotherapist.YalomhaswrittenseveralnovelsonthetopicsuchasLove´s

Executer(1989)andLyingOnTheCouch(1996),whereheuseshisknowledge

andexperienceinordertocreateanarrativearoundpsychoanalysisand

psychotherapy.AsstatedonthecoverofTheYalomReader(1998),“bothinhis

nonfictionandhisfiction,Yalomusesthelensofpsychotherapytoexplore

humannatureandshowsusthatthelinebetweenthetrueandtheimaginedis

notalwayseasytodistinguish”.

WithWhenNietzscheWept,Yalomstartsblendingrealeventsand

historicalfigureswithfiction,effectivelycreatingaworkofalternativehistory.

Thegenrealternatehistoryisbydefinition“agenreoffictioninwhichtheauthor

speculatesonhowthecourseofhistorymighthavebeenalteredifaparticular

historicaleventhadhadadifferentoutcome”(Collins),andthisispreciselywhat

Yalomdoesinregardtothehistoryofpsychoanalysis.Thisisagenrewithits

pointofdepartureinthequestion“whatif?”andinthenovelYalomplacesthe

historicalfiguresofSigmundFreud,Dr.JosefBreuerandFriedrichNietzscheat

thecreationofpsychoanalysisandpresentsascenariowhereNietzscheand

Breuer,ratherthanFreudarethedrivingforcesbehindpsychoanalysisandits

development.The“whatif”-questionsYalomasksinthenovelare:WhatifLou

Salomé,afterstudyingBreuerandFreud´streatmentoftheirpatientAnna.O,

hadcontactedhimandurgedBreuertotreatNietzschewiththesametalking

approachinordertocurehisdespair?WhatifBreuerhadacceptedand

Nietzschewouldhaveagreed?Inhisafterwordtothenovel,Yalomwritesthathe

wasinspiredbyaquotationhetookfromAndreGide´sLafcadio´sAdventures:

“Fictionishistorywhichmighthavetakenplace,andhistoryfictionwhichhas

takenplace”(104).

Thenoveltakesplaceduringtheyearof1882,atimeduringwhichallthe

charactersinthebooklivedandwereactiveinthesameintellectualcircles

(Yalom303),andthereforeYalomuseshistoricallyaccuraterelationshipsand

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settingsinordertoshow,indramatizedform,howpsychoanalysisevolved,

whilestillstayingtruetotheoriginaltheoriesofhischaracters.Inthescenario

Yalomcreates,FreudisayoungmedicalstudentandBreuerishismentoranda

prominentphysicianinVienna.Nietzscheisatthebeginningofhisphilosophical

careerandnotyetrecognizedbyhispeers.Hesuffersfrompoorhealth,severe

migrainesanddespair.LouSaloméwhomisthecauseofhisdespairisconvinced

ofhisexcellenceandiscertainofhisfutureimpactontheworld,andistherefore

keentoensurehisrecovery.Yalomusesthevoicesoftheserecognized

philosophers–Breuer,FreudandNietzsche–toputtheirideasandtheoriesinto

ahistoricalcontext,therebycreatesanarrativethattellsthestoryofhow

psychoanalysisstartstodevelop.Byincorporatingmanyoriginalideassuchas

Freud´stheoriesofanunconsciousmind,BreuerandFreud´sworkonhysteria

andtalkingcure,aswellasNietzsche´stheoryofeternalreturn,Yalomunfoldsa

storywhichisgroundedinhistoricallyaccurateeventsandtheoriesasthe

followingsentencefromhisafterwordexpresses“Giventheveryimprobable

historyofthefieldofpsychotherapy,alleventsofthisbookcouldhavecometo

passifhistoryhadrotatedonlyslightonitsaxis”.EventhoughFreudispopularly

andusuallythoughtofasthepointoforiginofpsychoanalysis,Yalomqualifies

thatbyincludingtheideasofothersaswell.Iarguethatinhisnovel,Yalomuses

thegenreofalternativehistoryfictioninordertoshowtheaffinitiesofthe

ideologicalandphilosophicalpositionsofthemaincharactersandtherebyalso

describesasortofzeitgeistinwhichpsychoanalysisaroseasatheoryand

treatment.

Iwillbeginwithabriefintroductionofthosecomponentsof

psychoanalysisthatareactiveinthenovelinordertoprovidethereaderwithan

understandingoftheconnectionsImakelateroninmyarguments.AsSaul

McLeodphrasesit,“psychoanalysisiscommonlyusedtotreatdepressionand

anxietydisorders”.AccordingtotheAmericanPsychoanalyticAssociation

(APSA),“psychoanalysisisbuiltonthetheorythatmanyofthefactorsthataffect

ourbehaviorandemotions,arehiddenintheunconsciousmindandthusweare

notawareofthem.Inexaminingwhatliesbeneaththesurfaceofhuman

behavior,psychoanalysisteachesusabouttheunconsciouspsychologicalforces

withinusoutsideofeverydayawareness”(AboutPsychoanalysis).TheAPSA

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reportshow“unconsciousfactorshavethepotentialtoproduceunhappiness,

whichinturnisexpressedthroughascoreofdistinguishablesymptoms,

includingdisturbingpersonalitytraits,difficultyinrelatingtoothers,or

disturbancesinself-esteemorgeneraldisposition”(AboutPsychoanalysis).

FurthermoreAPSAstatesthat“psychoanalysisasatherapy,alsoreferredtoasa

treatment,aimstodiscovercoreissues,totraceunconsciousfactorstotheir

originsandshowshowtheyhaveevolvedanddevelopedoverthecourseof

manyyears,andsubsequentlyhelpsindividualstoovercomethechallengesthey

faceinlife”(AboutPsychoanalysis).Onemethodthatiswidelyusedwithin

psychoanalysisandpsychotherapythatYalomalsochoosestogiveacentralpart

inhisstoryisfreeassociation.KristinM.Beystehnerdefinesfreeassociationas“a

methodthatentailsasituationwherethepatientspeaksaboutanysubject

matterwhatsoeverandtheanalystdrawsconclusionsbasedonwhatissaid”.

SaulMcLeodclaimsthatFreudisthefatherofpsychoanalysisanddevelopedthe

treatmenttotreatmentalillnessandfoundedthetheoryinordertoexplain

humanbehavior,astatementYalomcontradictsbyshowinginhisnovelthat

psychoanalysiscouldbeassignedmorethanonefatherandwasachildofits

timeratherthanofoneman’smind.

IintendtocomparetheideasofYalom´sfictionalcharacterswiththoseof

thehistoricfigurestoshowtheiraffinitiesandhowYalomshows,bymerging

themtogether,thattheyallcontributedtothedevelopmentofpsychoanalysis.

BydoingsoIwillshowhowYalomtellsastorywherepsychoanalysisisa

productofitstimeandintellectualclimate.FriedrichNietzschepublishedthe

TheGayScience(1882)wherehepresentsthetheoryofeternalrecurrence,also

referredtoaseternalreturn.ThetheoryplaysanimportantroleinYaloms´s

storyandhisalternativeversionofthebirthofpsychoanalysis,asIwillshowin

thisessay.Yalomappliesthetheoryofeternalreturntohischaracter’sdespair

andshowshowitcouldworkasatalkingtreatment.Thetheoryisrelevantto

psychoanalysisanditsaimtodiscovercoreissues,traceunconsciousfactorsto

theiroriginandreleasedespair.Hababexpressestheconnectionbetween

eternalreturnanditsabilitytoforceonetoreviewone’slifeas“eternal

recurrencewasawaytoforceattentiononlifeexactlyasitis,withno

alternative,notevennothingnessontheothersideoflife,noteveneternal

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novelty.IfonecouldsayYestoeternalrecurrence—theendlessrepetitionoflife

intheexactsameway—onecouldgenuinelysayYestolifeasitis.”Inother

words,thetheorycanbeusedtosearchdeepwithinoneselfinordertoarriveat

ahappierplace.Yalomplacesthetheoryofeternalreturninahistoricalsituation

andgivesitthetasktocuredespairbyinventingapsychotherapybasedon

Nietzsche´sideastogetherwithBreuerandFreud.Bydoingsoandinarelevant

wayusingtheoriginalideas,Yalomshowsthereaderhowpsychoanalysiscanbe

assignedtonotonlyFreuddiscoveryofanunconsciousmind,whichIwill

elaborateonlaterinthisessay,butalsoNietzsche´sphilosophicalideasand

Breuer´sresearchonfreeassociation.AsaresultitsupportsYalom´sversion

whereNietzschetogetherwithFreud´sandBreuer´sideascreatedanintellectual

environmentfromwhichpsychoanalysisemerged.

Yalom´schoiceofcharactersisbaseduponamixofhistoricallyexisting

relationshipsandfictionalrelationships,whichsupportsthenotionthatallthe

theoriespresentedinthenovelcontributedtotheemergenceofpsychoanalysis.

Firstly,LouSalomé,whointhestorytakesituponherselftoinitiatearescue

missionforNietzsche,livedduringthistimeandwasinfactromantically

involvedwithhim(Martin6).ThewaytherelationshipbetweenFreudand

Breuerisportrayedinthenovelissimilartotherealrelationshipthetwohad.

Theyhada“long-lastingfriendshipandcollaborationwheretheolder,eminent

physicianJosefBreuerwasmentoringFreud”(Milton,Polmear&Fabricius42-

43).BasedonfindingsmadebytherealJosefBreuerinregardtofreeassociation

withhistreatmentofhispatientBerthaPappenheim–whowentunderthe

pseudonymAnnaO.–thetwofriendsandcolleaguespublishedthebookStudies

onHysteriain1895.Atthetimeinwhichthenoveltakesplace,thehistoricfigure

JosefBreuer“wasarecognizedphysicianwhereasSigmundFreudwasonlyjust

qualifyingasadoctor”(Breuer&Freud,ix),whichisalsohowtherelationshipis

describedinthenovelandthereforsupportsYalom´sversionwhereFreudwas

notthesinglemindbehindpsychoanalysis,butmanyideasofthattimeservedas

influencerstothebirthofpsychoanalysis.

Besidethetwoprotagonists,theabove-mentionedcharacterofBertha

PappenheimplaysanimportantpartinunderstandingwhyYalomexploresthe

scenarioofBreuerandNietzschemeeting.InYalom´sscenario,sheistheobject

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ofBreuer´sobsessionandcauseofhisdespair.ItisbecauseofBreuer´sprevious

workwithBerthaPappenheimthatSaloméchoosestocontactBreueroutofall

physiciansinAustria.Saloméhasheardabouthisworkonhysteriawherehehas

previouslyexploredthetalkingtreatmentandsheisconvinceditwillworkon

Nietzsche.ThisshowshowYalomletsBreuer´sresearchonfreeassociation,

whichcanbefoundinStudiesonHysteria,serveasaconnectingpointinbringing

Nietzsche,BreuerandFreud´sideastogetherandthatlateronresultsinthe

developmentofpsychoanalysis.Drawingonthefactthattherelationship

betweenthecharactersofNietzscheandLouSalomé,BreuerandBertha

PappenheimaswellasBreuerandFreudareportrayedinasimilarwayasthe

historicalfiguresrelationshipstooneanother,Yalomcreatesascenarioinwhich

theideasandtheoriesthecharactersdiscoverinfluenceeachotherandwhenput

togetherdeveloppsychoanalysis.ByfictionalizingthescenarioofNietzsche

beingthepatient,YalomappliesNietzsche´sphilosophicalideasto

psychoanalysisandshowshowtheymanagetocuredespair.Yalomuseshis

characterstoshow,ratherthantellthereaderaboutthefoundationsof

psychoanalysisandbydoingsoheprovidesavirtualinsider’sperspectivetothe

developmentofthetalkingtreatment.

Beforepsychoanalysisandpsychotherapyasamedicaltreatmentwas

developed,despairwasnotconsideredtobesomethingonecouldapproachwith

atalkingtreatment,whichisalsotheattitudeofthecharactersbeforetheyhave

appliedtheirtheoriesinordertofindacurefordespair.Thestoryopensin

VenicewhereBreuerspendshisvacation,whenhereceivesanotefromLou

Saloméaskingforameeting.Duringtheirencounter,LouSaloméurgesBreuerto

trytotreatherfriendandformerlover,thephilosopherNietzsche,withthesame

methodoftalkingtreatmentthatshehasfamiliarizedherselfwithfromhis

previousresearch.InthenovelNietzschesuffersfromdespairafterLouSalomé

endstheirloveaffairbyleavingNietzscheforanotherman,hisfriendPaulRee.

SaloméisafraidthatNietzsche´smentalstateandseveremigrainesmightdrive

himtocommitsuicideandisthereforedesperatetofindhelp.Breuerismost

hesitanttotherequestandatfirsthandhefailstoseehowheasamedical

doctorcouldtreatsomeonesufferingfromdespairofthemind.Breuerquestions

hisabilitytohelpNietzsche,thereasonbeingthatpsychoanalysiswasnotyet

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developedandtherewasnosuchthingastherapeutictreatmentinvolving

doctor-patienttalks(Borch-JacobsenandShamdasani1). Thefollowing

conversationbetweenthecharactersBreuerandSalomé,illustratestheattitudes

towardsdespairasamedicalsymptom:“‘SupposeDoctorBreuer,weconsider

despairtobeasymptom.Couldn´tyouapproachitinthesamemanner?’‘Despair

isnotamedicalsymptom,Fraulein;itisvague,imprecise.EachofAnnaO.´s

symptomsinvolvedsomediscretepartsofherbody…’”(Yalom10).Thispassage

isimportantfortheunderstandingofthestagebeforepsychoanalysiswas

developedanditshowsthatthetheoriesandmethodsdevelopedbyYalom´s

charactersweregroundbreakingforthattime.

YalomusestheformoftalkingsessionsbetweenNietzscheandBreuer,

whereNietzschetakestheroleofthetherapistandapplieshisphilosophical

ideastoBreuer´sdespair.Furthermore,Yalomusesthenarrativearoundthe

sessionstomergeNietzscheandBreuer´smindsinordertoshowhowtheir

ideas,inarelevantmannercouldhavecontributedtothedevelopmentof

psychoanalysis.AfterfurtherconvincingbySalomébackinVienna,Breuer

agreestotakeonNietzscheashispatientandexploretalkingasthetreatmentof

hisdespair.YalomconcoctsasecretplanbetweenBreuerandSaloméinorderto

integrateNietzsche´stheoriestothestory.Withthesecretplantocure

Nietzsche´sdespairbylocatingtheoriginalcause,Yalomintroducesthebasicsof

psychoanalysis:“thetheoryofmakingunconsciousthoughtsandmotivations

consciousandbyidentifyingandunderstandingthecoreissue”(McLeod).

SaloméissurethatNietzschewouldnotagreeuponsuchatalkingtreatment

sincehenevertalksaboutpersonalfeelings.InsteadSaloméandBreuercomeup

withtheplantogetNietzschetoengageinsessionswhereNietzschecanbe

convincedtohelpBreuerwithhisdespairbyapplyinghisphilosophicalideas,

andinreturnBreuerwillmonitorhishealth.Nietzschewhosuffersbadlyfrom

hismigrainesagreestoenrollattheLautzerclinicinorderforBreuertomonitor

hishealth,whileheinreturnhelpsBreuerwithhisobsessionforhisformer

patientBerthaPappenheim.AsYalom´sstorytakesoffandthesessionsbegin,

thesecretplanplaysoutdifferentlythanBreuerandSaloméhadinmind.Instead

ofgettingNietzschetoopenupbyBreuer´sconfessions,therolesofdoctorand

patientreverseasBreuerexperiencesgreatreliefbyunveilinghisinnerthoughts

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toNietzsche.Yalomcreatesascenariowhere“Nietzscheapplieshis

philosophicaltheoriestoBreuer´sangstandtherebycreatesanarrativethat

portraysaphilosophicalpsychoanalysisofsortwhereheputsNietzscheinthe

roleofthetherapistanalyzingBreuer”(Schuster133).Bydoingso,Yalomshows

howNietzscheandBreuer´stheories,whenmergedtogetherworkinthesame

manneraspsychoanalysisdoes–itprovidesareleaseofdespair.Byusingthe

sessionstoapplytheirtheoriesontodespair,Yalomshowshowthebirthof

psychoanalysisasatooltocuredespairwasaproductnotonlybyFreud,but

waspartofthezeitgeist,theideasinintellectualcirculationatthetime,

specifically,thoseofBreuerandNietzsche.

AlongthesessionsbetweenNietzscheandBreuer,thereisaparallel

narrativerunningthroughoutthenovelthatYalomusestobringNietzsche´sand

Freud´sideastogether.Inthispartofthestory,Yalomintroducesmanyofthe

historicalFreud´stheories,whichwillbediscussedinmoredepthlateroninthis

essay.YalomalsousestheparallelnarrativetoanalyzeNietzsche´soriginal

theoriesthroughFreud´sperspectiveandbydoingsoconnectsthemto

psychoanalysis.Inthefollowingpassage,Yalomintroducesthereadertothe

basicnotionofpsychoanalysisandpsychotherapywhenBreuerandFreud

discussNietzsche’swork:

Psychologicalsurgery-it´sinterestingtohearyouputitinthatway,´said

Breuer.´Perhapswe´redevelopingawholemedicalsubspecialty.Wait,

there´ssomethingelseIwantedtoreadtoyouthatseemsrelevant.´

HeturnedthepagesofHuman,AllTooHumanforacoupleof

minutes.´Ican´tfindthepassagenow,butitspointisthattheseekerafter

truthmustundergoapersonalpsychologicalanalysis-hetermsit`moral

dissection´…Heclaimsthatinordertodiscoverthetruth,onemustfirst

knowoneselffully.Andtodothat,onemustremoveoneselffromone´s

customarypointofview,evenfromone´sowncenturyandcountry-and

thenexamineoneselffromadistance!(Yalom86)

HereYalommanagestodramatizethefirsttraceofpsychoanalysisasatheory.

HedoessobylettingBreuertellFreudaboutwhathereadinNietzsche´sbook

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Human,AllTooHuman.Nietzsche´soriginalthoughtsinthebook,whichBreuer

triestoexplaintoFreud,correspondtopsychoanalysissincethefundamental

aimofpsychoanalysisisto“breakdownourowndefensesinordertoeffectbasic

changesinthestructureofourpersonalityandbehavior”(Tyson18).Byusing

thisparallelnarrativeYalomshowsthereaderhowFreudandNietzsche’sideas

worktogetherandbydoingso,hemanagestoshowthereaderthat

psychoanalysiswassurelyinspiredbythemboth.

Yalomusesthethemeofdespairinhisnovelinordertoshowhowthe

differenttheoriesofthattime,putforwardbyhischaracters,togetherarrivea

curefordespair.Thereaderisawarefromthestartofthenovelthatthesource

ofNietzsche´sdespairlieswiththeunrequitedloveandabandonmentby

Salomé.Thishowever,isbeyondNietzsche’sinsight,oratleastheisunwillingto

acknowledgeit.Breuer´smissionisforNietzschetorealizeandadmithisdespair

inthehopethatitwillcurehim.Breuerisunhappyinhismarriageandfeels

moretrappedbytheresponsibilitiestowardshisfamilyeverydayashisfree

mindtakesescapetohisoldpatientBerthaPappenheim.Duringthesessions,the

twoprotagonistsBreuerandNietzschearriveattheconclusionthatinorderto

cureBreuer´sangst,they,orBreuerhimself,needtofinditssource,which

NietzschebelievestobetheobsessionforBerthaPappenheim.Duringa

conversationwithNietzsche,Breuerrememberstheapproachheusedforhis

formerpatientBerthaPappenheimasdescribedinthefollowingpassage:

AndBreuerproceededtodescribehowhehaderasednotonlyeachof

Bertha´ssymptomsbytrackingdownitsoriginalcausebut,finally,every

partofherillnesswhenhehelpedherdiscoverandre-experienceits

fundamentalcause-thehorrorofherfather´sdeath.(Yalom160)

NietzscheisintriguedbytheapproachBreuerusedinhistreatmentofBertha

Pappenheimanditleadshimtowardsthenotionthatbyidentifyingthesourceof

despaironecanfindthewayoutofdespair:”Ilikethepossibilityofyourbeing

helpedbyyourowndiscovery.Foronecanneverreallybehelpedbyanother;

onemustfindthestrengthtohelponeself.Perhapsyou,likeAnnaO.,must

discovertheoriginalcauseofeachofyourpsychologicalproblems”(Yalom160).

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Thispassageisimportanttothenovelbecauseitiswherethecharactersfirst

realizethattheyneedtoapplythesameapproachBreuerusedwhentreating

BerthaPappenheimtothemselves,andthefirsttraceofYalomapplying

Nietzsche´stheoriesinordertosuccessfullycuredespair.Nietzschesuggests

thatBreuermustlocatethecauseofhisobsession,whichcauseshimangstand

despair.Accordingtopsychoanalysis,“untilwefindawaytoknowand

acknowledgetoourselvesthetruecausesofourrepressedwoundsandfearswe

hangontothemindisguised,self-defeatingways”(Tyson13).Onceagain,Yalom

managestoweavehistoryintohisfictionalworldwhenheusesthecaseof

BerthaPappenheimandthefindingsfromthebookStudiesonHysteria,whichhe

inarealisticmannerappliestohischaractersforthestorytomoveforwardand

showhowtheoriginalideasofhischaractersarerelevanttopsychoanalysisand

howtheycouldhaveinfluencedthedevelopment.

InthebookAnOutlineofPsychoanalysis1949,Freudrecountsthesevery

ideasoffindingthesourceofaproblem,oftenlocatedinone’sunconsciousmind,

inordertocureit,whichfurthersupportsthemethodYalom´scharactersuseto

curedespairandonecanseethesimilaritiesbetweentheoriginaltheoryandthe

onebroughtforwardinYalom´sfictiveversion.ThehistoricalfigureFreud

“producedamulti-layeredviewofthehumanmind”(McLeod),whichiscertainly

alsotrueforYalom´scharacterFreud.AsBilliginformsus,thehistoricalFreud

referredto“psychoanalysisasadepthpsychologysinceitsaimistostudythose

processesinmentallife,whicharewithdrawnfromconsciousness”(12).This

notionisputforwardinthefollowingpassagefromthenovelwhereFreud

arguesforhiscaseofanexistingunconsciousmind:

Iagree,itdoesseemridiculous-yetlookattheevidenceforit,lookatall

thescientistsandmathematicianswhohavereportedsolvingimportant

problemsindreams!And,Josef,thereisnocompetingexplanation.No

matterhowridiculousitseems,theremustbeaseparate,unconscious

intelligence.I´msure-.(Yalom40)

ThehistoricalFreudrecognizedtheimportanceofunconsciousmentalactivity

(Beystehner)andwiththatinmind,onecanseehowYalomcontextualizesthe

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realFreud´spersuasionofanexistingseparatemind.Bypresentingtheidea

throughhisnarrative,Yalomstrategicallyutilizesalternativefictiontoprovide

aninsightintoFreud´sreasoningandapreconceptionofthenotionofthe

unconsciousmind,whichisimportantforthefurtherdevelopmentof

psychoanalysisinthestory,anditalsoplacesthetheoryinanintellectualand

historicalcontext.Lateronduringtheconversation,Breuerexpressesconcern

forFreudandhisprovocativestatements,whichIbelieveYalomdoesinorderto

illustratetheground-brakingmindofFreudcomparedtohispeers.Furthermore

itservesapedagogicalpurposetousea“Socraticdialogue”whereYalomshows

thereaderhowtheargumentisbuiltbychallengingtheideaandusesreasoning

toarriveattheconclusiongradually.ThiswayofmixingFreud´soriginaltheory,

withfictionandputtingtheideaintohistoricalcontext,Yalomteachesthereader

aboutoneofthebasiccomponentsofpsychoanalysis.Byanalyzingtheoriginal

theoryofanunconsciousmindandtheoneportrayedinthenovel,onecansee

theaffinitiesbetweenthetwo,whichfurthersupportsYalom´snotionthat

Freud´stheoryoftheunconsciousmindwasoneofthecontributingideastothe

developmentofpsychoanalysis.

IntheparallelnarrativebetweenBreuerandFreudthatYalomusesin

ordertoanalyzeNietzsche´stheoriesthroughtheirperspective,heallowsthem

toreachabreakthroughafterdiscussingoneofNietzsche´smigraineattacks,

whichleadsthemtobeevenmoreconvincedoftheexistenceofanunconscious

mindanditsroleincuringdespair.Thefollowingpassageisimportantsinceit

explainstothereaderhowthereasoningaroundthetalkingtreatmentarosein

thestory,torevealtheunconsciousandwhythatismeaningfultothe

developmentofpsychoanalysis:

YouknowwhomI´dpreferasapatient?Thatotherone-theonewho

calledforhelp!´

´Youmeantheunconsciousconsciousnesstrappedinsideyourpatient.´

[…]´Yes,it´dbealotsimplertoworkwithhim.YouknowSig,maybethat

shouldbethegoalofthetreatment-toliberatethathiddenconsciousness,

toallowhimtoaskforhelpinthedaylight.(Yalom152)

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TheincidentBreuerdescribestoFreudiswhentheotherwisewithdrawnand

composedNietzsche,whilesufferingaseveremigraineattack,beggedfor

Breuer´shelp.BecauseofthatBreuerrealizesthereissomeoneelsedeepinside

ofNietzschewhomhehasnotmetbeforeandfurtherconvinceshimthatFreud

mustberightinthematteroftheunconsciousmind.Thecharacter´sreasoning

correspondstoFreud´soriginalwork;hencetheideasthatarecommunicated

arebasedonfactsandthereforesupportYalom´snotionthatthiswasoneofthe

theoriescirculatingatthetime.InmyopinionYalomincorporatesthediscovery

ofanunconsciousmindandemphasizesitssignificanceinthenovel,inorderto

providethereaderwithanunderstandingforthefurtherprocessand

developmentofpsychoanalysis.Byallowingthecharacterstoarriveatthe

notionthattheyhavetosearchwithinthemselvestolocatethecauseoftheir

despair,thestorymovesforwardandshowshowthetheoryofanunconscious

mindthatFreudwasdevelopingduringthispointinhistoryplayedapartinthe

birthofpsychoanalysis.

Animportantcomponentinpsychoanalysisanditsformastherapyisfree

association,whichYalomusesthroughhischaractersinordertoinvestigatethe

unconsciousmind.Theactoffreeassociationcorrespondstopsychoanalysisand

moresotopsychotherapy,whichisatypeoftherapythatisinspiredbythe

investigationofthemindwithafocusontheunconscious(Ernest4).Yalom

introducesthereadertofreeassociationas“chimneysweeping”,whichconnects

backtoBerthaPappenheimwithwhomBreuerfirstdevelopedthemethod.AsI

mentionedearlierinthisessay,thereasonwhySaloméapproachesBreuerfor

helpinthenovelisbecauseofhisandFreud´sworkonhysteriaandBerta

Pappenheim´scase.Yalomplaceschimneysweeping,orfreeassociation,atthe

centerofthedevelopmentofpsychoanalysisastheprotagonistsuseitduring

theirsessionstolocatetheoriginalcauseofdespairwithinthemselves..The

novelmovesfromaprematurestageoffreeassociation,inBreuer´searlywork

onBerthaPappenheim,tolateronputtingitintopracticesothatthereadercan

experiencetheeffectofit.Thefollowingpassageisfromaconversationbetween

BreuerandNietzsche,whereNietzschesuggeststhatBreuershouldapplythe

samemethodheusedonBerthatohimself.

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Perhapsyoumustlearntospeakmoreclearlytoyourself.Inthelastfew

days,Ihaverealizedthatthephilosophiccureconsistsoflearningto

listentoyourowninnervoice.Didn´tyoutellmethatyourpatient,

Bertha,curedherselfthroughtalkingabouteveryaspectofherthoughts?

Whatwasthetermyouusedtodescribethat?´

Chimneysweeping.Actuallysheinventedtheterm-tosweepherchimney

meanttounplugherselfsothatshecouldventilateherbrain,cleanseher

mindofalldisturbingthoughts.(Yalom186)

Thetheorybehindfreeassociationorchimneysweepingisnotfictionbutbased

onfactspresentedinnarrativeform,andasMilton,PolmearandFabriciusreport

“JosefBreuertoldSigmundFreudthatheandAnnaO.haddiscoveredthevalue

ofcatharsis.AnnaO.wouldgainreliefandtemporarystabilityfrompouringout

allherthoughtsandrecentmemoriesconcerningtheoriginofasymptom,what

shereferredtoas´talkingcure´or´chimneysweeping´”(43).Drawingonthat

source,itisevidentthattheconceptofchimneysweepingisanaccuratereport

oftherealJosefBreuer´sworkonhysteriaandtherebyitsupportsYalom´s

versionofhowpsychoanalysisevolvedfromthetheoriescirculatingatthattime.

OnecanconnectBreuerandFreud´soriginalideasbehindfreeassociationfrom

thebookStudiesonHysteriaandthechapteronBreuer´sworkonAnna.Owith

thosebroughtforwardinthenovel,whichfurthershowshowYalomstages

originalcomponentsofpsychoanalysisinfictionalformandbydoingsoshows

thereaderhowthetheoryoffreeassociationcontributestothebirthof

psychoanalysis.InFreud’sAnOutlineOfPsychoanalysis,freeassociationis

definedinthefollowingway:

Infreeassociationthepatientreportswithoutcensor-

shipwhatevergoesthroughhismind.Noexceptionsaretobe

made;itmattersnotwhetherthethoughtsarepainful,embarrassing,

inconsequentialorimportant.Allmustbesaid.If

thisisdoneresultssimilartothoseachievedunderhypnosisare

obtained.(Freudxii)

15

AsBreuerandNietzsche´sworkduringtheirsessionsstartstoreachits

goaltocuredespair,YalomincorporatesNietzsche´stheoryof“eternalreturn”

intothenarrativeandgivesitanimportantroleasanothercatalystthatfinally

bringsBreuersomeclarityregardinghischoicesinlife.Yalomincludeseternal

returnintopsychoanalysisintheformofathoughtexperiment.Duringoneof

theirlastsessionsinthenovel,NietzschedecidesthatBreuerismatureenough

tohandlehistheoryofeternalreturnandconductsathought-experimenton

Breuer,whichhebelieveswillsetBreuerfreeofhisdespair:

Josef,trytoclearyourmind.Imaginethisthoughtexperiment!Whatif

somedemonweretosaytoyouthatthatthislife–asyounowliveitand

haveliveditinthepast-youwillhavetoliveoncemore,andinnumerable

timesmore;andtherewillbenothingnewinit,buteverypainandevery

joyandeverythingunutterablysmallorgreatinyourlifewillreturnto

you,allinthesamesuccessionandsequence…(Yalom249)

ThispassageisaturningpointforBreuerwhenNietzscheforceshimto

scrutinizehislifeandthechoiceshemade.Whiledoingso,Breuerrealizesthat

hehimselfhasnotbeeninchargeofhislife,whichleaveshimwithafeelingof

dissatisfactionandunhappinessbecauseofwherehischoiceshasleadhim.The

angstdriveshimtore-thinkhiswholelifeandtheconsequenceis,whichwillbe

discussedfurtherlateron,thatheisfinallyfreeofdespair.

InordertoillustratehowNietzsche´sphilosophyofeternalreturncould

beappliedtopsychoanalysisanditsaimtocuredespair,Yalomintroducesthe

theoryasathought-experimentthatNietzscheperformsonBreuer.Aslaidoutin

TheGayScience,Nietzsheexplainsthetheoryitinthefollowingway:“Imagine

theofexistenceturnedupsidedownagainandagain,andyouwithit,speckof

dust”(194).Inthenovel,Breuerexperiencesangstbecausehedoesnotlivehis

lifeinawaywherehewouldliketore-livehispastormakethesamechoices

overandoverforalleternity,whichistheideaofeternalreturn.Theconceptof

eternalreturn,thateverythingthathaseverbeenandthatiswillreturn,

eternallyandidenticallyiswhattherealFriedrichNietzschebasesmuchofhis

16

workuponandisamongthemostimportantthoughtsoftheWestern

philosophicalworld(Chapelle17).Drawingonthatsource,IbelieveYalomuses

thisthough-experimentastheclimaxinBreuerandNietzsche´squestofcuring

despairsinceitissucharevolutionarytheoryandYalomshowsthatitisrelevant

inordertocuredespairandthereforerelevanttopsychoanalysis.Thetheoryof

eternalreturnistakenfromNietzsche´soriginalwork,whichmeansthattheidea

doesnotcomefromYalom´simagination,ratheritshowshowYalomoncemore

stagesanoriginalideainfictionalforminordertoteachthereaderabout

complextheoriesandshowthereaderthatitwasoneoftheimportanttheories

ofthattimeandhowinconnectstopsychoanalysisandpsychotherapy.

Thetheoryofeternalreturncouldworkwhenappliedtopsychotherapy

asthethoughtexperimentshowsandtherebyYalomhypothesizes,infictional

form,howitcouldhavecontributedtothedevelopmentofpsychoanalysis.

NietzschemanagestofindtheoriginofBreuer´sdespairbyusingthethought-

experimentandasthesourceofhisdespairisoutintheopen,thereadergetsto

witnesshowBreuerisreleasedfromhisangst.Inthefollowingpassage,Yalom

allowsthereaderstoparticipateduringhischaracters’fictionalbreakthrough

whileusingtheconceptofeternalreturn:

Thesequestions-youknowtheanswer!No,I´venotchosen!No,I´venot

livedthelifeIwanted!I´velivedthelifethatassignedme.I-therealI-

havebeenencasedinmylife.´

Andthat,Josefis,Iamconvinced,theprimarysourceofyourAngst.

(Yalom248)

Yalom´sstorygoesonandheletshischaractersconnecttheirtheoriesoffinding

theoriginofdespairaswellaseternalreturnandheshowshowtheyaresomeof

corecomponentsofpsychoanalysisandconnectsthemtothediscoveryto

Breuer´srecoveryinthefollowingway:

‘Ibelieve´,Breuer,responded,´thatthemostpowerfulfactorwasmy

identificationoftherightenemy.OnceIunderstoodthatImustwrestle

withtherealenemy-time,aging,death-thenIcametorealizethat

17

Mathildeisneitheradversarynorrescuer,butsimplyafellowtraveler

trudgingthroughthecycleoflife.Somehowthatsimplestepreleasedall

myfetteredloveforher.TodayFriedrichIlovetheideaofrepeatingmy

lifeeternally.Finally,IfeelIcansay`Yes,Ihavechosenmylife.And

chosenwell.(Yalom282)

Breuerhasnowidentifiedthecoreissuesforhisangstandthepassageshows

howBreuer,withthehelpoftheconceptofeternalreturn,hasreviewedhislife

andidentifiedhiscoreissuesandbydoingsorealizedhisproblemsandangst

didnotliewithhiswifebutwiththefearofaginganddeath.Thethought

experimentofeternalreturnforcedBreuertoanalyzehislifeandmakethe

necessarychangesinordertosayyestohislife.WiththehelpofNietzsche,

Breuerreachesapointwherehelovestheideaoflivinghislife,withallthe

decisionshemadeinthepastandinthepresentmoment,againandagainforall

eternity.Bybeingabletosayyestohislifeandidentifyinghiscoreissues,Breuer

isfinallyfreefromdespair.Inotherwords,Yalompresentsanalternative

versionofhowthefirststepsofpsychoanalysistookplaceandhowthetheories

circulatingatthistimetogetherinfluencedthebirthofpsychoanalysis.

AlthoughthemainfocusinthenovelhasbeenonNietzsche´ssupportfor

Breuer,byapplyinghisphilosophicalideas,Nietzschealsoreachesanewinsight

thatintheendhelpshimwithhisowndespair.Nietzscheishauntedbythefear

ofdyingaloneandhefinallyreachesamomentwhenhespeaksouthisfears:

No,notsadness!Onthecontrary,whenItalkedtoyouafewminutesage

aboutdyingalone,Ifeltapowerfulsurgeofrelief.NotsomuchwhatI

said,butthatIsaidit,thatIfinally,finallysharedwhatIfelt´

´Tellmemoreaboutthatfeeling´

´Powerful.Moving.Aholymoment!That’swhyIwept.That’swhyIweep

now.I`veneverdonethisbefore.Lookatme!Ican´tstopthetears´

´It´sgoodFriedrich.Strongtearsarecleansing´

Nietzsche,hisfaceburiedinhishands,nodded.´It´sstrange,butatthe

verymomentwhenI,forthefirsttimeinmylife,revealmylonelinessin

allitsdepth,inallitsdespair-atthatprecisemoment,lonelinessmelts

18

away!ThemomentItoldyouIhadneverbeentouchedwasthevery

momentIfirstallowedmyselftobetouched.Anextraordinarymoment,

asthoughsomevast,interioricepacksuddenlycrackedandshattered.

(Yalom299-300)

Asthesourceofdespairisbroughtoutintolight,justaspsychoanalysisaimsto

achieve,thedespairitselfisdissolved.YalomdemonstrateshowNietzsche

himselfconcludesthatwhenheforthefirsttimeopensupandspeaksthewords

ofhisloneliness,thefearofitevaporates.Thereaderfinallygetstoseetheresult

ofthetalkingtreatmentthatYalomhasbeendevelopingthestorytowardsby

stagingtheoriginaltheoriescirculatingatthat,inordertoshowhowthey

togetherinfluencedthedevelopmentofpsychoanalysis.

Toconclude,inthisessayIhavepresentedhowYalomusesthegenreof

alternativehistoryinordertoshowtheaffinitiesoftheideologicaland

philosophicalpositionsofthemaincharactersandtherebyalsodescribeasortof

zeitgeistfromwhichpsychoanalysisemerged.Ianswerthequestionwhatcould

havehappenedifJosefBreuerandthephilosophersFriedrichNietzscheand

SigmundFreudwereputinascenariowheretheirrespectiveideasofthattime

weremergedandintegratedwithoneanother.Inthenovel,Yalomcreatesa

storyinwhichthatscenarioleadsthemtodiscoveratreatmentfordespairand

togetherarriveattheaimofpsychoanalysis,namelytocureangstbydiscovering

andrevealthesourceofdespair.Bydoingso,Yalompresentshisalternative

versionofhowpsychoanalysiswasbornandshowshowpsychoanalysiswas

derivedfromthetheoriescirculatingatthepointinhistory.Yalomacknowledges

Freudandhisgroundbreakingtheoryoftheunconsciousmindasoneofthe

importantcontributionstopsychoanalysis,howeverheshowsthat

psychoanalysiswasmoreaproductofitstimeandtheideascirculatingatthat

time,thantheworkofasinglemind.

Byblendingandmergingthedifferenttheoriesactiveinthenovelandby

connectingthemtopsychoanalysis,Yalommanagestoshowhowtheyindeedare

relevantandapplicabletothetalkingtreatmentthataroseduringthattimeand

thereforerepresentthespiritofthattime.FurthermoreIpointouttheaffinities

betweentheoriginaltheoriesoftheunconsciousmind,theuseoffree

19

associationandeternalreturnandthosebroughtforwardbythecharactersin

thenovel.IshowhowYalom´salternativeversionofthebirthofpsychoanalysis

supportsthenotionthatithadmorethanonefatherandemergedasaresultof

theintellectualatmosphereinViennaduringthelatenineteenthcentury.

Byplacingthetheoriesandideasintoanarrative,thenoveltellsthe

readersomethingaboutthispointinhistoryandsuccessfullyattemptsto

educatethereaderonthisotherwisecomplextopic.Astheauthorputsit,he

“invitesthereadertobepresentatthefictionalconceptionandbirthof

existentialtherapy,asweknowittoday”(Yalom374).Yalomusesthetechnique

ofshowingratherthantellingtoreachhisaimofeducatingthereaderabout

psychoanalysisanditsfoundations.

Intheformoftalkingsessionsbetweentheprotagonists,Yalom

dramatizesthefirsttracesofpsychoanalysisandappliesNietzsche´s

philosophicalideastopsychoanalysisandmanagestoshowtheyarerelevantto

psychoanalysisandtherebyhowtheycouldhavecontributedtotheevolvement

ofpsychoanalysis.

20

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