AILUN International Graduate ProgramPsychology: From Pythagoras

to PresentMIT Press, 2009

Dr. John C. MaloneUniversity of Tennessee

Knoxville, Tennessee

If I have seen further, it is bystanding on the shoulders of giants.

(Isaac Newton, in Ferris, 1988, p. 362)

Bernard of Chartres used to say that we are like dwarfs on the

shoulders of giants. (John of Salisbury, 1159, Ibid., p. 41)

Gell-Mann...remarked...that if he had seen further than others,

it is because he was surrounded by dwarfs. (Ibid., p. 310)

What is Psychology?What is Psychology?

In 1890 William James defined psychology In 1890 William James defined psychology as “the study of mental life.” But he as “the study of mental life.” But he meant more than the mere study of meant more than the mere study of conscious experience. conscious experience. “Mental,” or “Mental,” or “mind” is defined by activity. It requires “mind” is defined by activity. It requires behavior that is: behavior that is:

(1) goal directed (1) goal directed (2) variable, teachable(2) variable, teachable(3) survive injury, but retain the(3) survive injury, but retain the

same goalssame goals

As I define psychology, it is the As I define psychology, it is the discipline concerned with the following discipline concerned with the following

questions:questions: The nature of mindThe nature of mind - is it different in kind from matter, or are both matter - is it different in kind from matter, or are both matter

and mind merely aspects of some underlying reality? Perhaps mind is all and mind merely aspects of some underlying reality? Perhaps mind is all that exists and matter is illusion. Or perhaps mind is illusory. Each of that exists and matter is illusion. Or perhaps mind is illusory. Each of these views had its defenders and continues to have defenders today.these views had its defenders and continues to have defenders today.

Statics & dynamicsStatics & dynamics - - is psychology best viewed as a process, as activity? is psychology best viewed as a process, as activity? Or may it be better treated as interactions among things? For example, is Or may it be better treated as interactions among things? For example, is sensation best seen as the taking in of copies of objects or as an activity sensation best seen as the taking in of copies of objects or as an activity we perform? we perform?

The nature of knowledge/beliefThe nature of knowledge/belief - what can we know and how do we know - what can we know and how do we know it? Is all knowledge and belief the product of sense experience or are we it? Is all knowledge and belief the product of sense experience or are we born with innate knowledge? Perhaps we are born with mental categories born with innate knowledge? Perhaps we are born with mental categories that determine how we will construe the world.that determine how we will construe the world.

What is the selfWhat is the self?? - Is the self a stable entity that is born, lives, and dies or is - Is the self a stable entity that is born, lives, and dies or is it a constantly-changing thing, so that we are not the same “self” in youth it a constantly-changing thing, so that we are not the same “self” in youth and in old age?and in old age?

The question of ethicsThe question of ethics - what is the best way to lead our lives and what is - what is the best way to lead our lives and what is the goal of life? Should we seek happiness, or is there a better goal, as the the goal of life? Should we seek happiness, or is there a better goal, as the Epicureans and Stoics believed?Epicureans and Stoics believed?

The nature of willThe nature of will - what is free will and is it only an illusion? How do we - what is free will and is it only an illusion? How do we account for our voluntary, “willed” acts? account for our voluntary, “willed” acts?

Also important to psychology is Also important to psychology is the nature of explanation and the nature of explanation and the definition of science, a topic the definition of science, a topic that I will consider very briefly.that I will consider very briefly.

PositivismPositivism

This is the view that our descriptions and This is the view that our descriptions and explanations of phenomena must be anchored in sense explanations of phenomena must be anchored in sense experience.experience.

In its simplest form, it demands that our accounts In its simplest form, it demands that our accounts be “sensible;” we must be able to refer our audience to be “sensible;” we must be able to refer our audience to happenings that are describable in sensory terms. For happenings that are describable in sensory terms. For example, example, phlogistonphlogiston was a substance proposed by two was a substance proposed by two German chemists, Johann Becher and Georg Stahl, in the German chemists, Johann Becher and Georg Stahl, in the 18th century to account for what we call combustibility. 18th century to account for what we call combustibility.

The problem with phlogiston was that it was The problem with phlogiston was that it was supposed to be a substance, but one that had no effects on supposed to be a substance, but one that had no effects on our senses and was thus undetectable. However, its our senses and was thus undetectable. However, its supposed existence could make sense of many chemical supposed existence could make sense of many chemical phenomena, as well as rusting, burning, and the like, and phenomena, as well as rusting, burning, and the like, and research based on the phlogiston theory may have research based on the phlogiston theory may have transformed alchemy into chemistry.transformed alchemy into chemistry.

Historians of science nonetheless treat the Historians of science nonetheless treat the phlogiston theory as an unprofitable diversion and an phlogiston theory as an unprofitable diversion and an impediment to the proper chemistry that was introduced by impediment to the proper chemistry that was introduced by Lavoisier. And phlogiston was surely not a concept Lavoisier. And phlogiston was surely not a concept compatible with the new positivism. compatible with the new positivism.

August Comte wrote a six-volume treatise, August Comte wrote a six-volume treatise, Philosophe Philosophe Positive, Positive, that described a progression in science from that described a progression in science from theocratic to metaphysical to positive. Theocratic accounts theocratic to metaphysical to positive. Theocratic accounts invoke the supernatural, whether fire and rain gods or the invoke the supernatural, whether fire and rain gods or the Judeo/Christian God, to account for the existence of nature Judeo/Christian God, to account for the existence of nature and the course of events. and the course of events.

Comte saw metaphysical explanations as an Comte saw metaphysical explanations as an improvement, though still unsatisfactory. They refer to improvement, though still unsatisfactory. They refer to “things beyond the appearances” - “things beyond the appearances” - Plato’s forms and Kant’s Plato’s forms and Kant’s noumena and Descartes’ intuitions - which refer to agents noumena and Descartes’ intuitions - which refer to agents that are incomprehensible, since they transcend the that are incomprehensible, since they transcend the senses.senses. The positivists will have none of this, correctly The positivists will have none of this, correctly charging that metaphysics is (literally) nonsense.charging that metaphysics is (literally) nonsense.

Comte was only one of a long line of thinkers, from Comte was only one of a long line of thinkers, from Francis Bacon through Ernst Mach and B. F. Skinner, who Francis Bacon through Ernst Mach and B. F. Skinner, who made a simple and powerful argument. made a simple and powerful argument. That is, if we wish That is, if we wish to explain something, we must stick with the sensory to explain something, we must stick with the sensory experiences that define that thing and if we devise a theory experiences that define that thing and if we devise a theory that relies on unobservable, “nonsensical” agents, we are that relies on unobservable, “nonsensical” agents, we are far astray. far astray.

Ernst Mach, an Austrian physicist and positivist, who Ernst Mach, an Austrian physicist and positivist, who is frequently misunderstood, was a modern positivist. He is frequently misunderstood, was a modern positivist. He argued against non-sensory constructs such as the atom argued against non-sensory constructs such as the atom and the electron, so he was routinely criticized for and the electron, so he was routinely criticized for disallowing things that were commonly accepted. disallowing things that were commonly accepted.

However, if you look into the history of the concept However, if you look into the history of the concept of the electron, you will find that Mach may have had a of the electron, you will find that Mach may have had a point. The electron apparently does not exist as a point. The electron apparently does not exist as a thingthing and we mislead ourselves if we believe in a subatomic and we mislead ourselves if we believe in a subatomic world of tiny solar systems, with nuclei and electrons as sun world of tiny solar systems, with nuclei and electrons as sun and planets.and planets.

ObjectivityObjectivity

This is of course the most frequently-cited This is of course the most frequently-cited characteristic of science and it is sad to be charged with characteristic of science and it is sad to be charged with failure to be “objective.” But what is objectivity? failure to be “objective.” But what is objectivity? We are We are told that to be “objective” is to be impartial-unbiased and told that to be “objective” is to be impartial-unbiased and we know, as did Aristotle, Francis Bacon, and many others, we know, as did Aristotle, Francis Bacon, and many others, that we are always biased. that we are always biased.

The trick is to be properly biased, which must mean The trick is to be properly biased, which must mean to be biased as are other people.to be biased as are other people. Objectivity, as reflected Objectivity, as reflected in agreement among observers, has its problems, however. in agreement among observers, has its problems, however. There have been many opinions shared by many people There have been many opinions shared by many people over many centuries that we regard as obvious nonsense. over many centuries that we regard as obvious nonsense. Many still believe in astrology, magic, and learning while Many still believe in astrology, magic, and learning while asleep, so asleep, so consensus need have nothing to do with consensus need have nothing to do with objectivityobjectivity and the essence of science. Maybe verifiability and the essence of science. Maybe verifiability is the hallmark of science and “objectivity.”is the hallmark of science and “objectivity.”

VerifiabilityVerifiabilityEdmund Halley had plans to calculate the distance of the Edmund Halley had plans to calculate the distance of the

planet Venus by observing its transit timeplanet Venus by observing its transit time[1][1] from two widely- from two widely-separated spots on earth. This was a fine idea in 1716, but the separated spots on earth. This was a fine idea in 1716, but the opportunity for such observations comes only rarely. In the case opportunity for such observations comes only rarely. In the case of Venus, the next opportunities would be in 1761 and 1769, by of Venus, the next opportunities would be in 1761 and 1769, by which time Halley would be over a hundred years old if he were which time Halley would be over a hundred years old if he were living at all. All he could do is urge others to do the work. living at all. All he could do is urge others to do the work.

And what kind of a criterion is verifiability? It specifies And what kind of a criterion is verifiability? It specifies that an objective statement concerns an observation that can be that an objective statement concerns an observation that can be repeated by the same observer or by someone else.repeated by the same observer or by someone else. For example, For example, the action of sulfuric acid on marble is capable of objective the action of sulfuric acid on marble is capable of objective description – I may observe it repeatedly or we may observe it. description – I may observe it repeatedly or we may observe it. Notice that this way of defining “verifiable” makes clear that it is Notice that this way of defining “verifiable” makes clear that it is essentially the same as essentially the same as intersubjectiveintersubjective, or equivalent to , or equivalent to public public knowledgeknowledge. Agreement by more than one observer is a simple . Agreement by more than one observer is a simple case of verification and, as we know, verification is not enough!case of verification and, as we know, verification is not enough!

Peirce and Popper: RefutabilityPeirce and Popper: Refutability

Karl Popper (1963) argued persuasively that Karl Popper (1963) argued persuasively that verification is a poor criterion for “objectivity” or verification is a poor criterion for “objectivity” or “scientific meaningfulness“scientific meaningfulness,” using an argument ,” using an argument similar to that made by physicist and philosopher similar to that made by physicist and philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce (sic) in 1874. Charles Sanders Peirce (sic) in 1874.

That is, if one were truly to verify That is, if one were truly to verify something, say the relation between thunder and something, say the relation between thunder and lightning, one must make enough observations of lightning, one must make enough observations of thunder-lightning to be confident of the thunder-lightning to be confident of the relationship. But how large must that sample be?relationship. But how large must that sample be?

As Peirce pointed out, there is no As Peirce pointed out, there is no large enough number of observations that large enough number of observations that we can make to assure certaintywe can make to assure certainty,, given given the number of potentially-observable the number of potentially-observable instances that have occurred over the instances that have occurred over the millennia, each of which might have millennia, each of which might have provided a counter instance. provided a counter instance.

This holds for observations and for This holds for observations and for experiments of whatever kind and Peirce experiments of whatever kind and Peirce suggested that conducting an experiment suggested that conducting an experiment to determine whether some part of nature to determine whether some part of nature is orderly or not is equivalent to putting a is orderly or not is equivalent to putting a spoonful of saccharine into the ocean in spoonful of saccharine into the ocean in order to sweeten it. order to sweeten it.

In the same vein, Popper argued that In the same vein, Popper argued that refutabilityrefutability is the hallmark of scientific is the hallmark of scientific statements, since nothing can be truly statements, since nothing can be truly verified, for the same reasons given by verified, for the same reasons given by Peirce.Peirce. But statements can be shown But statements can be shown false, given a single counter-instance. false, given a single counter-instance.

I need only one case of an object I need only one case of an object falling in a vacuum and accelerating faster falling in a vacuum and accelerating faster than 32 feet per second per second and a than 32 feet per second per second and a “law” is broken. Refutability, not “law” is broken. Refutability, not verifiability is the criterion for objectivity, verifiability is the criterion for objectivity, or the guide to deciding whether or the guide to deciding whether statements or questions are meaningful or statements or questions are meaningful or vain.vain.

Meaningful QuestionsMeaningful Questions

By meaningful questions, Peirce and Popper meant By meaningful questions, Peirce and Popper meant those that we can hope to answer decisively. Such those that we can hope to answer decisively. Such questions must be cast in such form that refutation is questions must be cast in such form that refutation is possible.possible. We cannot ask, to use an example from Peirce, We cannot ask, to use an example from Peirce, whether the taking of the communion is really properly whether the taking of the communion is really properly interpreted by the Catholic Church or by Protestant interpreted by the Catholic Church or by Protestant denominations: is the taking of the sacraments really the denominations: is the taking of the sacraments really the taking of the body and the blood of Christ or is it symbolic? taking of the body and the blood of Christ or is it symbolic?

What experiments could be performed and what What experiments could be performed and what observations could be made to settle the issue?observations could be made to settle the issue? None that None that we can conceive, hence the question is not meaningful. By we can conceive, hence the question is not meaningful. By the same token, Popper was inspired to adopt the criterion the same token, Popper was inspired to adopt the criterion of refutability when he was struck by the apparent of refutability when he was struck by the apparent irrefutabilityirrefutability of Freudian theory, compared with the of Freudian theory, compared with the refutability of Einstein’s theory of relativity. refutability of Einstein’s theory of relativity.

Many common questions are meaningless - Many common questions are meaningless - unanswerable because there are no observations unanswerable because there are no observations that could allow their refutation.that could allow their refutation.

““Are humans basically good or evil?” “Are Are humans basically good or evil?” “Are all things in the process of self actualization?” all things in the process of self actualization?” GoodGood is an undefined - or vaguely defined - is an undefined - or vaguely defined - attribute and self actualization is a name for the attribute and self actualization is a name for the fact that things change over time. fact that things change over time.

Could any observations answer either Could any observations answer either question? What of astrology, an ancient discipline question? What of astrology, an ancient discipline as popular now as it was three thousand years as popular now as it was three thousand years ago? Can an astrological prediction be tested - ago? Can an astrological prediction be tested - shown to clearly be wrong? Or are the shown to clearly be wrong? Or are the predictions sufficiently vague that a believer can predictions sufficiently vague that a believer can find confirmation in them? find confirmation in them?

When believers overzealously seek When believers overzealously seek confirmation of predictions made in confirmation of predictions made in chemistry, physics, or biology, the case is chemistry, physics, or biology, the case is different. Consider the almost-daily different. Consider the almost-daily discovery of cures for cancer and the discovery of cures for cancer and the demonstrations of cold fusion in the late demonstrations of cold fusion in the late 20th Century. 20th Century.

In the case of “the cancer cure of the In the case of “the cancer cure of the moment” and cold fusion, accepted moment” and cold fusion, accepted criteria for testability and falsifiability criteria for testability and falsifiability settle the questions for most researchers.settle the questions for most researchers.

In astrology, such issues can never In astrology, such issues can never be settledbe settled. That is why astrology is not . That is why astrology is not science - we might wonder whether much science - we might wonder whether much of psychology is in a similar state. of psychology is in a similar state.

Progress in ScienceProgress in ScienceBoring and the ZeitgeistBoring and the Zeitgeist

Many accounts for the progress of science Many accounts for the progress of science emphasize the influence of the times in which advances emphasize the influence of the times in which advances occuroccur. .

Thus, Newton attributed his success to his Thus, Newton attributed his success to his predecessors, such as Galileo and Kepler, who provided the predecessors, such as Galileo and Kepler, who provided the “shoulders of giants” on which he stood. Freud’s insights “shoulders of giants” on which he stood. Freud’s insights on unconscious motivation were amply supported in on unconscious motivation were amply supported in Fechner’s writings and his theories of biological drives and Fechner’s writings and his theories of biological drives and energy were held earlier by his teacher, Ernst Brücke, in energy were held earlier by his teacher, Ernst Brücke, in whose laboratory Freud worked during his student years. whose laboratory Freud worked during his student years.

Where would Darwin have been if there were not Where would Darwin have been if there were not ideas of evolution in the air all around him? His ideas of evolution in the air all around him? His grandfather, Erasmus, as well as Malthus and Wallace, grandfather, Erasmus, as well as Malthus and Wallace, more than paved the way; given the more than paved the way; given the ZeitgeistZeitgeist of the early of the early 19th century, someone was bound to propose a plausible 19th century, someone was bound to propose a plausible theory of evolution by mid-century. If not Darwin, someone theory of evolution by mid-century. If not Darwin, someone else would have played the part.else would have played the part.

Edwin G. Boring, whose views (1950) on the Edwin G. Boring, whose views (1950) on the history of psychology exerted tremendous influence history of psychology exerted tremendous influence during the 20th century, was a prime exponent of the during the 20th century, was a prime exponent of the Zeitgeist (Hegel’s “spirit of the times”) interpretation Zeitgeist (Hegel’s “spirit of the times”) interpretation of the progress of science. of the progress of science.

According to this view, progress is an accretion, According to this view, progress is an accretion, the building up of facts and the evolution of theories, the building up of facts and the evolution of theories, so that Newtons, Faradays, Freuds, and Madam Curies so that Newtons, Faradays, Freuds, and Madam Curies are inevitable, given their precedents.are inevitable, given their precedents.

This is the point of view taken for granted by This is the point of view taken for granted by the public at large and by the traditional philosophy of the public at large and by the traditional philosophy of science, whose job it is to pass on the “received view.” science, whose job it is to pass on the “received view.” It is the way that all of us are taught to see the It is the way that all of us are taught to see the progress of science, both in high school courses and in progress of science, both in high school courses and in college. And this view has to be at least roughly true, college. And this view has to be at least roughly true, since we have seen progress over the centuries, at since we have seen progress over the centuries, at least in technology. But did this all happen gradually, least in technology. But did this all happen gradually, as a function of the as a function of the ZeitgeistZeitgeist??

Kuhn’s RevolutionsKuhn’s Revolutions

Kuhn wrote of the moment, in 1947, when while Kuhn wrote of the moment, in 1947, when while reading Aristotle he made his own great insight.reading Aristotle he made his own great insight.

Over the last thirty years, “The Structure of Scientific Over the last thirty years, “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” has sold over a million copies, an Revolutions” has sold over a million copies, an

astonishing number for a work of serious scholarship.astonishing number for a work of serious scholarship.

““I’m much fonder of my critics...than my fans...”I’m much fonder of my critics...than my fans...”

Kuhn even tried to take back the word “paradigm,” Kuhn even tried to take back the word “paradigm,” suggesting instead “exemplar.” suggesting instead “exemplar.”

(All four quotations are from Gladwell, (All four quotations are from Gladwell, 1996, p. 32)1996, p. 32)

Thomas Kuhn, with a PhD in physics, Thomas Kuhn, with a PhD in physics, published an unlikely best seller, published an unlikely best seller, The Structure of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions Scientific Revolutions (1962), for a series of (1962), for a series of monographs called the International Encyclopedia monographs called the International Encyclopedia of Unified Science. Philosophers had made of Unified Science. Philosophers had made science, the most exciting of disciples, dull and science, the most exciting of disciples, dull and plodding - the Zeitgeist raises enthusiasm in few. plodding - the Zeitgeist raises enthusiasm in few.

Kuhn argued that the progress of science is Kuhn argued that the progress of science is not the slow accretion of accomplishments by one not the slow accretion of accomplishments by one generation that lays a foundation for the next. generation that lays a foundation for the next. Instead, it is a series of “intellectually violent Instead, it is a series of “intellectually violent revolutions,” separated by peaceful interludes.revolutions,” separated by peaceful interludes.

The fact that he specifically excluded The fact that he specifically excluded psychology and other social sciences need not psychology and other social sciences need not concern us - his book stirred sociology and concern us - his book stirred sociology and psychology as much as it did the natural psychology as much as it did the natural sciences, where it clearly applied. sciences, where it clearly applied.

The influential little book proposed that The influential little book proposed that science was a social enterprise characterized by science was a social enterprise characterized by revolution revolution not evolution. Far from an orderly not evolution. Far from an orderly accumulation of facts that add to a universally-accumulation of facts that add to a universally-shared view of reality, shared view of reality, Kuhn argued that science Kuhn argued that science shows revolutionary struggles, leading to shows revolutionary struggles, leading to fundamental changes in the way that whole fundamental changes in the way that whole sciences are construed.sciences are construed.

Later viewpoints are not necessarily more Later viewpoints are not necessarily more “scientific” than earlier ones and there is nothing “scientific” than earlier ones and there is nothing essentially unscientific about Aristotelian essentially unscientific about Aristotelian dynamics, phlogistic chemistry, or the dynamics, phlogistic chemistry, or the thermodynamics of caloric. These world views thermodynamics of caloric. These world views were simply replaced by other world views, were simply replaced by other world views, following a sequence that probably has more to following a sequence that probably has more to do with the do with the sociology of sciencesociology of science than with than with “science versus pseudoscience.” “science versus pseudoscience.”

Kuhn used the term Kuhn used the term paradigmparadigm to refer to a to refer to a set of beliefs shared by virtually all workers in a set of beliefs shared by virtually all workers in a scientific field.scientific field. Newton’s mechanics serves as a Newton’s mechanics serves as a familiar example - a paradigm that treats space, familiar example - a paradigm that treats space, time, and mass as absolutes and that successfully time, and mass as absolutes and that successfully accounts for an amazing variety of phenomena, accounts for an amazing variety of phenomena, ranging from the motion of a projectile to the ranging from the motion of a projectile to the falling of leaves to the orbiting of planets. falling of leaves to the orbiting of planets.

This paradigm, that treats the universe as This paradigm, that treats the universe as dead, purposeless matter obeying universal dead, purposeless matter obeying universal mechanical laws, replaced the mechanics of mechanical laws, replaced the mechanics of Aristotle, which envisioned the universe as filled Aristotle, which envisioned the universe as filled with purpose and composed of “essential with purpose and composed of “essential natures.”natures.” With Newton’s triumph, we no longer With Newton’s triumph, we no longer saw plants as “trying” to grow and stones falling saw plants as “trying” to grow and stones falling due to their “jubilance” in returning to earth.due to their “jubilance” in returning to earth.

A paradigm includes all the beliefs that are A paradigm includes all the beliefs that are taught to professionals in a field and no one taught to professionals in a field and no one ignorant of the paradigm can be taken seriously ignorant of the paradigm can be taken seriously as a scientistas a scientist.. Newtonian physics, Darwinian Newtonian physics, Darwinian evolution, and the astronomy of Copernicus were evolution, and the astronomy of Copernicus were all paradigms, as were their predecessors, the all paradigms, as were their predecessors, the physics of Aristotle and the chemistry of the physics of Aristotle and the chemistry of the phlogiston theory. phlogiston theory.

But, as Kuhn described paradigms, it is But, as Kuhn described paradigms, it is clear that there have been none in psychology, clear that there have been none in psychology, since no general framework of interpretation has since no general framework of interpretation has been universally accepted. While philosophers of been universally accepted. While philosophers of Newton’s time might question the fundamental Newton’s time might question the fundamental status of time, no physicists did and, while some status of time, no physicists did and, while some question the details of evolutionary theory, no question the details of evolutionary theory, no biologist questions the theory in general aspects. biologist questions the theory in general aspects. No such state of affairs has existed in psychology. No such state of affairs has existed in psychology. But…But…

The History of ParadigmsThe History of Paradigms

Given a paradigm, Given a paradigm, normal sciencenormal science never never involves real discoveries; rather, research is involves real discoveries; rather, research is concentrated on concentrated on puzzle solvingpuzzle solving,, or showing how more or showing how more and more phenomena of interest can be explained and more phenomena of interest can be explained within the framework of the paradigm. within the framework of the paradigm.

The scientists of the Enlightenment of the 18th The scientists of the Enlightenment of the 18th and 19th centuries were not trying to discover new and 19th centuries were not trying to discover new phenomena - they were trying to fit all phenomena phenomena - they were trying to fit all phenomena into the mechanical space/mass/time framework that into the mechanical space/mass/time framework that Newton had used to explain the motion of bodies. Newton had used to explain the motion of bodies. Does the fall of a stone exemplify the same laws Does the fall of a stone exemplify the same laws shown in the flight of an arrow or of a comet? Are the shown in the flight of an arrow or of a comet? Are the bodies of animals bodies of animals andand of humans merely complicated of humans merely complicated clockwork mechanisms? All efforts aimed to show that clockwork mechanisms? All efforts aimed to show that the laws at hand could encompass all reality.the laws at hand could encompass all reality.

The normal science paradigm chugs on for The normal science paradigm chugs on for years or for centuries, with ordinary puzzle solving years or for centuries, with ordinary puzzle solving sometimes bothered by sometimes bothered by anomaliesanomalies,, or findings that or findings that seem foreign to the paradigm. In physics, the finding seem foreign to the paradigm. In physics, the finding that heavier objects do not fall faster in a vacuum was that heavier objects do not fall faster in a vacuum was a difficult anomaly for Aristotelian physicists. When a difficult anomaly for Aristotelian physicists. When anomalies become numerous enough or serious anomalies become numerous enough or serious enough, the paradigm is modified to deal with them. enough, the paradigm is modified to deal with them.

This blurs the paradigm, of course and, in the This blurs the paradigm, of course and, in the classic example, the geocentric theory of Ptolemy classic example, the geocentric theory of Ptolemy endured for over a thousand years because Ptolemy endured for over a thousand years because Ptolemy had modified it so much with added eccentrics and had modified it so much with added eccentrics and epicycles. It thus accounted for otherwise anomalous epicycles. It thus accounted for otherwise anomalous observations of heavenly bodies, but everyone knew observations of heavenly bodies, but everyone knew that it was so bizarre that it could represent no that it was so bizarre that it could represent no conceivable reality. conceivable reality.

Kuhn proposed that the final stage is Kuhn proposed that the final stage is that of that of crisiscrisis,, where the paradigm is where the paradigm is defended by the old generation of defended by the old generation of scientists, if only because it is in that scientists, if only because it is in that paradigm that their reputation and prestige paradigm that their reputation and prestige is invested. Younger scientists lack that is invested. Younger scientists lack that baggage and so join their senior dissenters baggage and so join their senior dissenters who have brought about the crisis. who have brought about the crisis.

All of this finally leads to the All of this finally leads to the dissolution of the paradigm and its dissolution of the paradigm and its replacement by a new one. Aristotelian replacement by a new one. Aristotelian physics would never have left unless physics would never have left unless Newton’s paradigm had been there to Newton’s paradigm had been there to replace itreplace it..

Do Revolutions Really Occur?Do Revolutions Really Occur?

Kuhn saw science as a social enterprise that Kuhn saw science as a social enterprise that advances through the violent overthrow of one paradigm advances through the violent overthrow of one paradigm by another. by another. Russell Hanson (1958/1965Russell Hanson (1958/1965) proposed a ) proposed a similar theory but emphasized the way that people similar theory but emphasized the way that people conceive things, so that the change from Aristotelian to conceive things, so that the change from Aristotelian to Galilean physics is a “Gestalt shift,” or a new perspective Galilean physics is a “Gestalt shift,” or a new perspective on the world. Hence, his view was revolutionary, like on the world. Hence, his view was revolutionary, like Kuhn’s, but occurring at the level of individual scientists. Kuhn’s, but occurring at the level of individual scientists.

Others, like the philosopher Laudan, combined the Others, like the philosopher Laudan, combined the evolutionary and the revolutionary accounts, really no evolutionary and the revolutionary accounts, really no trick, showing that great individuals were more trick, showing that great individuals were more important than Boring allowed and softening the important than Boring allowed and softening the disruptive influence of revolutions in science. disruptive influence of revolutions in science. But thank But thank heaven for Thomas Kuhn, whether he exaggerated his heaven for Thomas Kuhn, whether he exaggerated his case or not. Finally there was something case or not. Finally there was something interestinginteresting in in the philosophy of science!the philosophy of science!

Is Science Possible?Is Science Possible?

An unintended effect of Kuhn’s book was its An unintended effect of Kuhn’s book was its appeal to cranks, who would publish manuscripts that appeal to cranks, who would publish manuscripts that the authors felt were “paradigmatic,” while “the the authors felt were “paradigmatic,” while “the postmodernists used his book to suggest what he never postmodernists used his book to suggest what he never believed: that his scientific paradigms were as faddish believed: that his scientific paradigms were as faddish and ephemeral as trends in art” (Gladwell, 1996, p. 32). and ephemeral as trends in art” (Gladwell, 1996, p. 32).

Kuhn had emphasized social/cultural influences on Kuhn had emphasized social/cultural influences on science, providing a welcome revision of the logical science, providing a welcome revision of the logical positivist “introductory chapter” model. positivist “introductory chapter” model. However, in the However, in the late 20th century, the social/cultural aspects of science late 20th century, the social/cultural aspects of science were stressed to an extreme degree by humanists who were stressed to an extreme degree by humanists who might be called “postmodernists.”might be called “postmodernists.” They argue that They argue that science is wholly a social enterprise, as are art and science is wholly a social enterprise, as are art and literature, and that there is no such thing as objective literature, and that there is no such thing as objective truth.truth.

This is a position that is difficult for This is a position that is difficult for many people to understand, let alone many people to understand, let alone accept.accept. In particular, chemists, physicists, In particular, chemists, physicists, and other physical scientists may have and other physical scientists may have more difficulty in comprehending it than more difficulty in comprehending it than do their colleagues in the humanities. do their colleagues in the humanities.

One writer tried to help by translating One writer tried to help by translating postmodern thought into words that are postmodern thought into words that are understandable to scientists. A biological understandable to scientists. A biological anthropologist and anatomist named anthropologist and anatomist named Cartmill (1991) offered this simplified Cartmill (1991) offered this simplified description:description:

First, objective reality is a myth. There is First, objective reality is a myth. There is no “other” out there to be objectified. All others no “other” out there to be objectified. All others are part of the self. All so-called realities are are part of the self. All so-called realities are subjective, and all of them are constructs….subjective, and all of them are constructs….

Facts are arranged and negotiated, not Facts are arranged and negotiated, not discovered. Second, since different reality discovered. Second, since different reality constructs are incommensurate with each other constructs are incommensurate with each other and potentially infinite in number, observation and potentially infinite in number, observation and experiment can never force us to choose one and experiment can never force us to choose one to the exclusion of all others. to the exclusion of all others.

It follows from this that any claim to know It follows from this that any claim to know something about a real world is at bottom a something about a real world is at bottom a power grab, a bid to eliminate cultural and power grab, a bid to eliminate cultural and political diversity by dictating the terms and political diversity by dictating the terms and content of everybody’s discourses. Therefore, content of everybody’s discourses. Therefore, scientists’ claims to knowledge are really political scientists’ claims to knowledge are really political claims, dressed up as detached objectivity... claims, dressed up as detached objectivity...

Richard Rorty: What we rely on for truth

•Religion: pre-17thC

•Science/Philosophy: post-17thC

•Literature: 20thC, but only imaginative literature, with no arguments or

“facts”

Such an astounding proposal is actually Such an astounding proposal is actually only the extreme of very reasonable viewsonly the extreme of very reasonable views and and they are held by advocates who are unaware that they are held by advocates who are unaware that less extreme contextualist views have been held less extreme contextualist views have been held by many others, such as Wundt, Meade, Kantor, by many others, such as Wundt, Meade, Kantor, and Skinner. and Skinner.

Those authors were not advocating the Those authors were not advocating the abandonment of science; they promoted merely a abandonment of science; they promoted merely a change from the primitive mechanical science of change from the primitive mechanical science of the Enlightenment. This seems to have been the Enlightenment. This seems to have been realized by Cartmill, who was not totally opposed realized by Cartmill, who was not totally opposed to all forms of this view.to all forms of this view.

He proposed that scientists deal with He proposed that scientists deal with postmodern critics by emphasizing technologypostmodern critics by emphasizing technology. . We may never be able to answer questions like, We may never be able to answer questions like, "Do we really understand thermodynamics, and "Do we really understand thermodynamics, and how can we be sure?" But what of the question, how can we be sure?" But what of the question, "Do we really know how to make automobiles, or "Do we really know how to make automobiles, or are we just kidding ourselves?" are we just kidding ourselves?"

The answer here is that we The answer here is that we dodo know and know and the ancient Greeks did not. the ancient Greeks did not. This supposes that This supposes that advances in technology must correspond in some advances in technology must correspond in some way to advances in understanding of reality, a way to advances in understanding of reality, a case that is not necessarily easy to make.case that is not necessarily easy to make. Perhaps a wiser method for dealing with the Perhaps a wiser method for dealing with the recent crop of "pop" critics of science is Cartmill's recent crop of "pop" critics of science is Cartmill's proposal that all students (and postmodernists) proposal that all students (and postmodernists) dissect a human body, "which is one of the great dissect a human body, "which is one of the great transforming experiences." transforming experiences."

The Two Strains in Ancient The Two Strains in Ancient Greek Thought Greek Thought

It is not always recognized that there were It is not always recognized that there were two clear strains in early Greek thought - the two clear strains in early Greek thought - the naturalist scientific and the mystical scientific.naturalist scientific and the mystical scientific. The philosophers of Miletus, beginning with The philosophers of Miletus, beginning with Thales, were the naturalists. They showed that Thales, were the naturalists. They showed that mind and body are not necessarily natural mind and body are not necessarily natural divisions of reality - it is possible, even "natural," divisions of reality - it is possible, even "natural," to see all reality composed of one substance, not to see all reality composed of one substance, not two. two.

To a lesser extent, the philosophers of the To a lesser extent, the philosophers of the Greek colony of Elea, in what is now Italy, were Greek colony of Elea, in what is now Italy, were also natural ists. But, while they agreed that mind also natural ists. But, while they agreed that mind and matter were one, they taught that truth was and matter were one, they taught that truth was discernible only through reason, not through bare discernible only through reason, not through bare sense experience. sense experience.

Monists Dualists(Metaphysical & Epistemological)

Natural scientists unnatural scientists Pythagoras

Milesians Eleatics

Thales Xenophanes

Anaxagoras Parmenides

Anaximenes Zeno Plato

Pluralists Aristotle Augustine

Empedocles Avicenna

Anaxagoras Aquinas Descartes

James (and all of us)

These two groups were the These two groups were the naturalistic strain in Greek thought and naturalistic strain in Greek thought and they are usually given appropriate they are usually given appropriate attention by philosophers, and historians attention by philosophers, and historians of psychology. of psychology.

However, differences in the opinions However, differences in the opinions of Milesians and Eleatics in the sixth of Milesians and Eleatics in the sixth century B.C. were negligible when the century B.C. were negligible when the teachings of either group were compared teachings of either group were compared with those of the with those of the Pythagoreans, who Pythagoreans, who combined the dualism and mysticism of combined the dualism and mysticism of Eastern religion with the science of the Eastern religion with the science of the Greeks. Greeks.

PythagorasPythagoras

The dualism, which separates matter and mind, The dualism, which separates matter and mind, body and soul, God and the world, won however a body and soul, God and the world, won however a

place in Greek philosophy even at this early place in Greek philosophy even at this early period, when Pythagoreanism arrayed Orphic period, when Pythagoreanism arrayed Orphic

mysticism in a cloak of science.mysticism in a cloak of science.

(Zeller, 1883/1964, p. 41)(Zeller, 1883/1964, p. 41)

For a thousand years scientist-mystics For a thousand years scientist-mystics followed the teachings of Pythagoras, whose followed the teachings of Pythagoras, whose ideas had immense and lasting influence, aside ideas had immense and lasting influence, aside from that exerted on his followers. from that exerted on his followers. It may seem It may seem odd that science and mysticism coalesced for odd that science and mysticism coalesced for long, but that has frequently happened in historylong, but that has frequently happened in history. .

Even Isaac Newton, perhaps the most Even Isaac Newton, perhaps the most important figure in the development of western important figure in the development of western science, was obsessed with alchemy and religious science, was obsessed with alchemy and religious mysti cism - John Maynard Keynes, having gone mysti cism - John Maynard Keynes, having gone through a trunk of Newton's papers that he through a trunk of Newton's papers that he bought at auction, was shocked at what he found bought at auction, was shocked at what he found and called Newton "the last of the magicians" and called Newton "the last of the magicians" (Ferris, 1988, p. 104). (Ferris, 1988, p. 104).

Pythagoras established a school in Pythagoras established a school in southern Italy, at Croton, and taught advanced southern Italy, at Croton, and taught advanced material to those he admitted as Students material to those he admitted as Students (called "Esoterics") and presented only rough (called "Esoterics") and presented only rough outlines to those called Auditors. Records could outlines to those called Auditors. Records could thus arise from either group, making it difficult thus arise from either group, making it difficult to sort the essential from the trivial. to sort the essential from the trivial.

Even Heraclitus, who was almost a Even Heraclitus, who was almost a contemporary, seriously misunderstood him. contemporary, seriously misunderstood him. Kathleen Freeman noted that sifting the Kathleen Freeman noted that sifting the genuine precepts of Pythagoras from later genuine precepts of Pythagoras from later modifications and counterfeits and correctly modifications and counterfeits and correctly inter preting their meaning "was even in ancient inter preting their meaning "was even in ancient times a thankless task” (1953, p. 256).times a thankless task” (1953, p. 256).

It was Pythagoras who coined the word, It was Pythagoras who coined the word, "philosophy.""philosophy." He was born on the island of He was born on the island of Samos in Ionia, the Greek colonies in western Samos in Ionia, the Greek colonies in western Asia Minor, and moved as an adult to Croton, one Asia Minor, and moved as an adult to Croton, one of a number of Greek colonies in what is now of a number of Greek colonies in what is now southern Italy. He influenced contemporaries at southern Italy. He influenced contemporaries at the nearby colony of Elea, Xenophanes and the nearby colony of Elea, Xenophanes and Parmenides, and he influenced Plato.Parmenides, and he influenced Plato.

Religious ViewsReligious ViewsPythagoras' religious teachings were a modification of Pythagoras' religious teachings were a modification of

Orphism, the worship of nature that was always the real Orphism, the worship of nature that was always the real religion of the ancient Greeks;religion of the ancient Greeks; the pantheon of gods (Zeus, the pantheon of gods (Zeus, Apollo, Athe na, and so on) represented only the official Apollo, Athe na, and so on) represented only the official religion, not the religion of the people. religion, not the religion of the people.

That was Orphism, also called the cult of Bacchus or of That was Orphism, also called the cult of Bacchus or of Dionysus. According to one of many versions of the myth, Dionysus. According to one of many versions of the myth, Bacchus/Dionysus was born the son of Zeus and his daughter Bacchus/Dionysus was born the son of Zeus and his daughter Perse phone. He was killed by the titans (e.g., Chronos, Perse phone. He was killed by the titans (e.g., Chronos, Oceanus, Prometheus), who tore him apart and ate him.Oceanus, Prometheus), who tore him apart and ate him.[1][1] Luckily, the goddess Athena rescued the heart and gave it to Luckily, the goddess Athena rescued the heart and gave it to Zeus, who ate it and produced from it a new Dionysus. Zeus, Zeus, who ate it and produced from it a new Dionysus. Zeus, understandably angered, destroyed the titans with understandably angered, destroyed the titans with thunderbolts. From their ashes, including Dionysus-as-thunderbolts. From their ashes, including Dionysus-as-digested, came humanity. Here is an early version of the idea digested, came humanity. Here is an early version of the idea of death and rebirth that is part of many religions, as well as of death and rebirth that is part of many religions, as well as the belief that people are partly earth-born (the titans were the belief that people are partly earth-born (the titans were considered non-divine) and partly divine.considered non-divine) and partly divine.

In practice, devotees would seek ecstasy in In practice, devotees would seek ecstasy in dancing by torchlight on mountaintops, arousing dancing by torchlight on mountaintops, arousing "enthusiasm," or communion with the god. "enthusiasm," or communion with the god. Eventually, the sacrificial goat would seem to be Eventually, the sacrificial goat would seem to be Dionysus himself and he would be attacked, torn Dionysus himself and he would be attacked, torn to pieces, and eaten, re-enacting the acts of the to pieces, and eaten, re-enacting the acts of the titans. Orphism was predominately feminine and titans. Orphism was predominately feminine and many husbands hesitated to interfere with these many husbands hesitated to interfere with these celebrations.celebrations.

The Pythagoreans did not accept these The Pythagoreans did not accept these barbaric aspects of Orphism and in fact they were barbaric aspects of Orphism and in fact they were usually vegetarians who forbade animal sacrifice usually vegetarians who forbade animal sacrifice and emphasized the importance of intellectual and emphasized the importance of intellectual over sensual pleasures. over sensual pleasures.

The Air is Full of SoulsThe Air is Full of Souls

Not only did the many members of the cult of Not only did the many members of the cult of Dionysus/Bacchus believe in souls, they believed in the Dionysus/Bacchus believe in souls, they believed in the transmigration of souls, or metempsychosistransmigration of souls, or metempsychosis.. Depending Depending on the good or evil done during a lifetime, a man might on the good or evil done during a lifetime, a man might be reborn as a man, a woman, a horse, dog, insect, or be reborn as a man, a woman, a horse, dog, insect, or other animal. Proper living meant upward other animal. Proper living meant upward transmigration, the endpoint being life in a star. transmigration, the endpoint being life in a star.

One corollary of the doctrine of metempsychosis One corollary of the doctrine of metempsychosis is the possibility that a stray soul could enter any body.is the possibility that a stray soul could enter any body. Pythagoreans believed that the air itself was full of souls; Pythagoreans believed that the air itself was full of souls; the constant motion of dust particles seen in a shaft of the constant motion of dust particles seen in a shaft of light (Brownian movement) was evidence for that. These light (Brownian movement) was evidence for that. These souls can affect our dreams and send omens to both souls can affect our dreams and send omens to both humans and animals (Freeman, 1953, p. 253). humans and animals (Freeman, 1953, p. 253).

ThemistocleaThemistoclea

Interestingly, a woman may have supplied Interestingly, a woman may have supplied the ethical portion of the Pythagorean philosophy. the ethical portion of the Pythagorean philosophy. According to Menage (1690/1984), According to Menage (1690/1984), Themistoclea Themistoclea (Theoclea/Aristoclea) may have been the sister of (Theoclea/Aristoclea) may have been the sister of Pythagoras. She was priestess of Apollo at the Pythagoras. She was priestess of Apollo at the famous oracle at Delphi,famous oracle at Delphi, where questions put to the where questions put to the god, accompanied by offerings, were answered god, accompanied by offerings, were answered through the priestess. through the priestess.

It appears that in this way Pythagoras It appears that in this way Pythagoras received many of the ethical principles that he received many of the ethical principles that he espoused. Themistoclea is also the first recorded espoused. Themistoclea is also the first recorded woman to be called a philosopher, a title made woman to be called a philosopher, a title made possible by Pythagoras' coining the term possible by Pythagoras' coining the term "philosophy" - the love of truth for its own sake, "philosophy" - the love of truth for its own sake, rather than for some immediate practical purpose.rather than for some immediate practical purpose.

The Music of the SpheresThe Music of the Spheres

The Pythagoreans are best known for their The Pythagoreans are best known for their doctrine that the key to reality lies in numberdoctrine that the key to reality lies in number.. Everything had a number that "explained" it - the Everything had a number that "explained" it - the soul was 4, as was health, the earth was 2, the soul was 4, as was health, the earth was 2, the sun was 1, justice was 4 or 9, and even number sun was 1, justice was 4 or 9, and even number itself had a number: 10. itself had a number: 10.

Ratios, consonances (symphonies), and Ratios, consonances (symphonies), and harmonies were everywhere. Even the planets in harmonies were everywhere. Even the planets in their orbits made music, "the music of the their orbits made music, "the music of the spheres," which we don't hear because we are so spheres," which we don't hear because we are so accustomed to it (though Pythagoras claimed to accustomed to it (though Pythagoras claimed to hear it, according to Freeman, 1953, p. 82). It is hear it, according to Freeman, 1953, p. 82). It is in music that the power of number showed itself in music that the power of number showed itself most clearly. Imagine quantifying something that most clearly. Imagine quantifying something that mysterious!mysterious!

Suppose you pluck a string (line AE in the Suppose you pluck a string (line AE in the figure) that produces a tone that we figure) that produces a tone that we A----------B----------C----------D----------EA----------B----------C----------D----------Ecall "f". While it sounds, you clamp the string at 3/4 of call "f". While it sounds, you clamp the string at 3/4 of its length (at B). When this shorter segment (BE) is its length (at B). When this shorter segment (BE) is plucked it makes a pleasing "consonant" sound, plucked it makes a pleasing "consonant" sound, probably because of a sharing of harmonics (see the probably because of a sharing of harmonics (see the clear and authorita tive discussion of this subject in clear and authorita tive discussion of this subject in Handel's classic 1989 text.). Handel's classic 1989 text.).

Every third harmonic of the higher frequency Every third harmonic of the higher frequency (3/4 of the string – 300Hz, 600Hz, 900Hz, 1200Hz…) (3/4 of the string – 300Hz, 600Hz, 900Hz, 1200Hz…) matches every fourth harmonic of the sound produced matches every fourth harmonic of the sound produced by the previous vibration of the whole string (400Hz, by the previous vibration of the whole string (400Hz, 800Hz, 1200Hz…). When the ratio of the lengths of 800Hz, 1200Hz…). When the ratio of the lengths of the two vibrating strings is composed of small whole the two vibrating strings is composed of small whole numbers, the number of matches of harmonics is numbers, the number of matches of harmonics is greatest and the more "consonance" results. This 4:3 greatest and the more "consonance" results. This 4:3 ratio produces a "fourth," or an increase in pitch of ratio produces a "fourth," or an increase in pitch of four steps (f, g, a, b). four steps (f, g, a, b).

Pythagoras also found that when the string Pythagoras also found that when the string was clamped so as to form a ratio of 3:2, a was clamped so as to form a ratio of 3:2, a pleasing sound was produced. This would be the pleasing sound was produced. This would be the case if, after BE was plucked, a clamp were case if, after BE was plucked, a clamp were placed at C, two/thirds of the previous length, and placed at C, two/thirds of the previous length, and the string again plucked. the string again plucked.

This is a "fifth" (an increase in pitch of five This is a "fifth" (an increase in pitch of five steps - b, c, d, e, f) and likewise probably depends steps - b, c, d, e, f) and likewise probably depends on matching harmonics for its pleasing sound. on matching harmonics for its pleasing sound. Finally, when he plucked AE and clamped the Finally, when he plucked AE and clamped the string at C, producing a ratio of 2:1, plucking CE string at C, producing a ratio of 2:1, plucking CE (or AC) produced a consonant sound raised an (or AC) produced a consonant sound raised an octave, or eight steps (as in f, g, a, b, c, d, e, f).octave, or eight steps (as in f, g, a, b, c, d, e, f).

Musical harmony was thus explainable by Musical harmony was thus explainable by ratios of small numbers – how wonderfulratios of small numbers – how wonderful!!

Pythagoreans stressed the constant Pythagoreans stressed the constant changes and conflicts in the world and the changes and conflicts in the world and the ideal state of ideal state of harmonia.harmonia. This applied to This applied to their views on health, since that too is a their views on health, since that too is a harmony, achieved largely through diet. harmony, achieved largely through diet. Pythagoras believed that all food has Pythagoras believed that all food has pharmacological effects and should be pharmacological effects and should be treated as drugs; the drug effect is treated as drugs; the drug effect is apparent in the case of wine, where the apparent in the case of wine, where the effects are extreme. But all foods have effects are extreme. But all foods have pharmacological properties. pharmacological properties.

EpistemologyEpistemology

Pythagoras proposed a geometrical atomism that Pythagoras proposed a geometrical atomism that was adopted in its entirety by Plato in the was adopted in its entirety by Plato in the TimaeusTimaeus, , predictably enough, based on number.predictably enough, based on number.

The four elements later attributed to Empedocles The four elements later attributed to Empedocles were given specific geometrical forms so that earth was were given specific geometrical forms so that earth was assumed to be composed of tiny cubes, six-sided figures. assumed to be composed of tiny cubes, six-sided figures. Fire, prickly as it is, was made of tiny tetrahedrons, four-Fire, prickly as it is, was made of tiny tetrahedrons, four-sided pyramidal figures, while water is so slippery because sided pyramidal figures, while water is so slippery because of atoms shaped as icosohedrons, twenty-sided figures very of atoms shaped as icosohedrons, twenty-sided figures very nearly spherical. Air was composed of octohedrons, or nearly spherical. Air was composed of octohedrons, or eight-sided particles.eight-sided particles.

Later this “copy theory” was modified to a “like-Later this “copy theory” was modified to a “like-knows-like” version. So the fire-in-your-eye knows the fire knows-like” version. So the fire-in-your-eye knows the fire of light, the earth of your body knows objects by touch, and of light, the earth of your body knows objects by touch, and so on. The theory became attached to Empedocles, a so on. The theory became attached to Empedocles, a physician in Agrigentum, Sicily.physician in Agrigentum, Sicily.

Pythagoreans constituted a cult, for Pythagoreans constituted a cult, for whomwhom the opinions of the opinions of Pythagoras were Truth. Countless bits of wisdom were attributed Pythagoras were Truth. Countless bits of wisdom were attributed to him and followers memorized as many as they could. Critics, to him and followers memorized as many as they could. Critics, such as Heraclitus, charged that they measured wisdom merely in such as Heraclitus, charged that they measured wisdom merely in terms of the number of allegorical precepts that a person had terms of the number of allegorical precepts that a person had memorized. Some examples from Freeman (1953, p. 255) of memorized. Some examples from Freeman (1953, p. 255) of these precepts are: these precepts are:

- "Do not poke the fire with a sword." (Or irritate the angered - "Do not poke the fire with a sword." (Or irritate the angered person.)person.)

- "Do not eat beans." (Since they appear to hold a tiny embryo...)- "Do not eat beans." (Since they appear to hold a tiny embryo...)

- "Shoe the right foot first.“- "Shoe the right foot first.“

- "Do not speak without a light."- "Do not have intercourse with a - "Do not speak without a light."- "Do not have intercourse with a woman wearing gold.”woman wearing gold.”

Pythagorean PreceptsPythagorean Precepts

Milesian Naturalists and Milesian Naturalists and Eleatic Rationalists Eleatic Rationalists

Do the earliest Greek thinkers really have anything to do with our

understanding of psychology? One eminent author (Brett/Peters, 1912/1965, p. 37) wrote:

“To those who think of psychology exclusively in terms of rats in mazes, neurotics in the consult ing room, intelligence tests, and brass instruments, it cannot seem anything but odd to start the story of psychology with the early Greek cosmologists.”

He then went on to show how basic ideas of Freud and many others were appreciated by the ancients.  

Early philosophers are often described as concerned solely with the physical world and we are told that only with Socrates and the Sophists did consideration of the human psyche begin. This is false - the earliest Greek thinkers were materialist monists, a view that has clear and important implications for psychology, as we will see below.

The Materialist Monists of MiletusThe Materialist Monists of Miletus 

The city of Miletus lies on the coast of Asia Minor and was a center for commerce and industry in the sixth century B.C. Many writers have speculated on the reasons that this was the site for the first human thoughts that we would call "philosophical." That is, the Milesians were the first to show serious concern for matters that were not obviously utilitarian.  

The Egyptians, Babylonians, Persians, and other civilizations had devised calendars, made astronomical observations, invented writing, and accomplished many building projects that seem amazing even today. But they were invariably done in the service of practical matters, such as agriculture, navigation, commerce, and industry.

The Milesians were the first to seriously The Milesians were the first to seriously wonder about the nature of reality - the question, wonder about the nature of reality - the question, ""what is real?" is the question of ontologywhat is real?" is the question of ontology. They . They asked questions about the origin and nature of asked questions about the origin and nature of knowledge - knowledge - ""what can we know and how do we what can we know and how do we know it?" is the question of epistemologyknow it?" is the question of epistemology.. They They wondered wondered what ways of living are best if one is to what ways of living are best if one is to find happiness, thus asking questions of ethicsfind happiness, thus asking questions of ethics.. And in all of this they speculated on the nature of And in all of this they speculated on the nature of mind, beginning the study of what we call mind, beginning the study of what we call psychology. psychology.

Thales and the First Scientific Thales and the First Scientific StatementStatement

Some say that soul is diffused Some say that soul is diffused throughout the whole universe; and throughout the whole universe; and it may have been this which led it may have been this which led Thales to think that all things are full Thales to think that all things are full of gods. (Aristotle, of gods. (Aristotle, de Anima, de Anima, 1.2, 1.2, 405a19)405a19)

Thales (636-545) was one of the "seven sages" Thales (636-545) was one of the "seven sages" of ancient Greece, as listed by later historians and of ancient Greece, as listed by later historians and commentators. A total of 27 people appeared in commentators. A total of 27 people appeared in various "lists of the seven,"various "lists of the seven," but only Thales and a few but only Thales and a few others (for example, Solon and Bias) appeared on others (for example, Solon and Bias) appeared on every list. As an engineer, Thales altered the course of every list. As an engineer, Thales altered the course of a mighty river (the Halys) while serving on a military a mighty river (the Halys) while serving on a military expedition for Croesus, the king of Lydia. He invented expedition for Croesus, the king of Lydia. He invented the manhole, predicted an eclipse on May 28, 585 the manhole, predicted an eclipse on May 28, 585 B.C., cornered the market on olive presses after B.C., cornered the market on olive presses after predicting a rich harvest, and experimented with predicting a rich harvest, and experimented with static electricity, which he viewed as related to static electricity, which he viewed as related to lightning. lightning.

The prediction of the (solar) eclipse was The prediction of the (solar) eclipse was possible because of his knowledge of Babylonian possible because of his knowledge of Babylonian observations that led to what was called the Saros - a observations that led to what was called the Saros - a period of 18 years and 11 days separating solar period of 18 years and 11 days separating solar eclipses. He was also the first to accurately measure eclipses. He was also the first to accurately measure the height of a pyramid….. the height of a pyramid…..

The "first scientific statement" was something The "first scientific statement" was something like, "water is best," or "water is the like, "water is best," or "water is the physis."physis." By By physis is meant the substance that is the basis for all physis is meant the substance that is the basis for all existence and that accounts for phenomena through existence and that accounts for phenomena through constant change - largely, through condensation and constant change - largely, through condensation and rarefication. As the Greeks viewed matters, rarefication. As the Greeks viewed matters, understanding and explanation of phenomena was understanding and explanation of phenomena was largely a problem of determining what material was largely a problem of determining what material was involved. A burning feeling is explained when one involved. A burning feeling is explained when one sees that a flame has touched the skin and one knows sees that a flame has touched the skin and one knows that "flame-material" produces such effects. that "flame-material" produces such effects.

Anaximander suggested a neutral physis – the Anaximander suggested a neutral physis – the infinite – and Anaximenes proposed air as the physis. infinite – and Anaximenes proposed air as the physis. But what the physis is hardly matters – we don’t know But what the physis is hardly matters – we don’t know today. But what today. But what does does matter?matter?

The Microcosm and the The Microcosm and the MacrocosmMacrocosm

Like the other Greeks of his time, Thales Like the other Greeks of his time, Thales was a naturalist. was a naturalist. Naturalism, in this context, Naturalism, in this context, treats all phenomena as occurrences in nature, all treats all phenomena as occurrences in nature, all explainable in the same terms.explainable in the same terms. We are part of We are part of nature and the universe as a whole, the nature and the universe as a whole, the macrocosm, may be viewed as an enlargement of macrocosm, may be viewed as an enlargement of the individual human (the microcosm), or vice the individual human (the microcosm), or vice versa. versa.

We are each a little part of nature and We are each a little part of nature and nature itself is an extension, so to speak, of us.nature itself is an extension, so to speak, of us.

Hylozoism or Hylopsychism or Hylozoism or Hylopsychism or VitalismVitalism

If we are a part of nature and nature is nothing but If we are a part of nature and nature is nothing but constant transformations in water, or whatever physis, then constant transformations in water, or whatever physis, then what is mind and what is consciousness? Are we reduced what is mind and what is consciousness? Are we reduced to mindless mechanisms? Where is mind? to mindless mechanisms? Where is mind?

The answer for the Milesians is that mind is The answer for the Milesians is that mind is distributed through the universe and it is not "unnatural.“distributed through the universe and it is not "unnatural.“

Greeks of this period saw nature as animate and Greeks of this period saw nature as animate and

psychology (and theology) as part of physics. Before the psychology (and theology) as part of physics. Before the fifth century B.C., the only thinkers who believed that mind fifth century B.C., the only thinkers who believed that mind and matter were separate were the Pythagoreans, who and matter were separate were the Pythagoreans, who were regarded (rightly) as mystics. were regarded (rightly) as mystics.

What is good about the Milesians’ monismWhat is good about the Milesians’ monism??

The virtue of this view is that humans are The virtue of this view is that humans are seen as part of the natural universe and thus seen as part of the natural universe and thus their passions and thoughts are subject to laws. their passions and thoughts are subject to laws. As the universe is lawful and may be predicted to As the universe is lawful and may be predicted to an extent, the human psyche is lawful and may an extent, the human psyche is lawful and may also be mastered.also be mastered.

For these ancients, habit, climate and diet For these ancients, habit, climate and diet were the key to the control of the psyche were the key to the control of the psyche (Brett/Peters, 1912/1965). The alternative is that (Brett/Peters, 1912/1965). The alternative is that of the Pythagoreans and the dualists who of the Pythagoreans and the dualists who followed. For them mind and body are different followed. For them mind and body are different in kind and the mind is, essentially, beyond in kind and the mind is, essentially, beyond understanding or control. Clearly, the material understanding or control. Clearly, the material monist view is the optimistic one, though, oddly monist view is the optimistic one, though, oddly enough, it is almost always interpreted as enough, it is almost always interpreted as pessimistic!pessimistic!

What would Milesian psychotherapy be like?What would Milesian psychotherapy be like?

Heraclitus was a nasty and contemptuous man who Heraclitus was a nasty and contemptuous man who wrote obscurely… purposely, so as not to be understood. wrote obscurely… purposely, so as not to be understood. He is best known for his doctrine that all is in constant He is best known for his doctrine that all is in constant change – we can’t step into the same river twice.change – we can’t step into the same river twice.

He was also a materialist and mind was only one He was also a materialist and mind was only one kind of matter - fire. The following excerpt comes from kind of matter - fire. The following excerpt comes from Sextus Empiricus:Sextus Empiricus:

The natural philosopher is of the opinion The natural philosopher is of the opinion that what surrounds us is rational and that what surrounds us is rational and endowed with consciousnessendowed with consciousness......we becomewe becomeintelligent when we get this divine reason intelligent when we get this divine reason by breathing it in, and in sleep we are by breathing it in, and in sleep we are forgetful… (Nahm, 1962, p. 97)forgetful… (Nahm, 1962, p. 97)

Though we "breathe it in," the rationality around us Though we "breathe it in," the rationality around us is really fire and when we sleep the rationality in us (our is really fire and when we sleep the rationality in us (our fire) dims. The "fire" in us communes with the fire that fire) dims. The "fire" in us communes with the fire that surrounds our bodies.surrounds our bodies.