ALEXANDER THE GREATThe burning of Persepolis; the pursuit and death of Darius; an assessment of Darius; the death of Philotas, Parmenio and Cleitus

THE BURNING OF PERSEPOLIS This incident is described in both Arrian and

Plutarch.

Arrian’s Version of Events: On arriving at Persepolis, Alexander decided to

burn the palace of the Persian kings, against the advice of Parmenio.

The elder general told Alexander it was hardly wise to destroy what was now his own property.

THE BURNING OF PERSEPOLIS It would hardly impress the natives either, if

Alexander burned the city because it would give them the impression that Alexander was only passing through the region as conqueror, rather than ruling securely as king.

Alexander told Parmenio that he wished to punish the Persians for past crimes against Greece, especially the burning of the Athenian temple centuries earlier.

THE BURNING OF PERSEPOLIS Arrian agrees that it was not a good idea to burn

the city. He says that burning the city and punishing the Persians of that time could hardly be justice for crimes committed by Persians who were dead long ago.

Arrian says later on, when Alexander returned to the city from his campaigns in India, he regretted burning the city in the first place.

THE BURNING OF PERSEPOLISPlutarch’s Version of Events: Plutarch has a different explanation for the

burning of the city. According to him a woman by the name of Thais was instrumental in the affair. She was an Athenian and at that time mistress to Ptolemy.

In the palace at a party was taking place, Thais gave a speech complimenting Alexander. She said that feasting in the great palace was a just reward. She added that it would be a greater pleasure to set fire to the great palace and reduce to ruins, just as the Persians had once done to the city of Athens.

THE BURNING OF PERSEPOLISPlutarch’s Version of Events The courtiers and soldiers all applauded

Thais as she said this. Alexander was convinced by this speech and he was given a torch.

All the Macedonians and party-goers followed their king bringing torches with them.

Plutarch says that a number of historians think that the burning of the palace was impulsive rather than a deliberate policy. When Alexander realised what he was doing he gave orders to put the fires out.

READINGRead and highlight both Arrian and Plutarch’s version of events:

Arrian p. 178 – 179

Plutarch p. 295 or point 38

REVISIONSummarise:

Siege of Gaza Battle of Guagamela

THE PURSUIT OF DARIUS Alexander sent home, across the

Aegean, his Thessalian cavalry. He settled on an agreed payment with them and an added a sum of 2,000 each as a gift.

Parmenio was ordered to transfer the captured Persian treasure from Ecbatana to Harpalus.

Alexander sped to Media. On the way he was told that Darius had retreated from Media five days earlier.

THE PURSUIT OF DARIUS Alexander pursued Darius with his

companion cavalry, scouts, mercenaries and some heavy Macedonian infantry.

Such was the pace of the chase that many fell out, unable to keep up, horses also dropped dead from exhaustion.

Alexander then heard that Darius had been put under arrest by Nabarzanes.

THE PURSUIT OF DARIUS Alexander chose the toughest of his

companions, scouts and infantry. He gave general Craterus orders to follow him at a slower pace.

He marched for two days and learned that Bessus, a local ruler, had Darius in his custody and was holding him in a covered wagon. Bessus was assuming power in his place and taking the royal salute from his cavalrymen.

Alexander’s pursuit now became even more unrelenting, when he heard this. He came across a village where Darius had been held the previous day.

THE DEATH OF DARIUS With the help of some local guides,

Alexander was shown a short cut to reach Darius and Bessus who were now a day ahead of them.

Alexander ordered the main bulk of his forces, which were with him, to following the route Bessus had taken. He, along with a select crew of lightly armed men, would take the shortcut shown to them and travel during the night.

Alexander came across the Persians the following morning, most fled, although some did attempt to fight him.

THE DEATH OF DARIUS Before Nabarzanes and Bessus escaped, they

fatally wounded Darius. When Alexander arrived Darius was dead.

Alexander took his body back to Persepolis and allowed him to be buried in the royal tombs, alongside the other Persian kings.

READINGRead Plutarch and Arrian’s account of Darius’ death:

Plutarch p. 299 – 301 (Point 42 and 43) Arrian p. 179 - 184

ASSESSMENT OF DARIUS“In military matters Darius was the feeblest and most incompetent of men “(Arrian), it is very difficult to disagree with this assessment. Darius had a number of failings.

He made a number of military blunders. He moved his army to Issus, followed Memnon’s advice too late and abandoned his army twice on the battle field, leaving it rudderless and leaderless. It is clear Darius was an uninspiring leader.

ASSESSMENT OF DARIUS He was too eager to listen to flatterers and

sycophants: “moreover Darius was always ready to believe what he found most agreeable to believe” (Arrian).

Before the battle of Issus he followed bad advice. He chose to leave the part of Assyria which was ideal and spacious for his larger army. Some of his lackey generals pandered to his “conceit”.

He should have listened to Amnytas and stayed where he was, but “the worst council prevailed because it told him what at that moment he liked to hear”.

ASSESSMENT OF DARIUS Unlike Alexander, Darius stayed away

from the battle fray. He was positioned at the centre surrounded by a battalion of royal bodyguards – he watched as others did the fighting. By contrast his opponent Alexander led the offensive charge and his men followed.

Darius seems to have been ill-prepared for Alexander’s invasion. He was not there in person at Granicus; he quickly lost his provinces in Asia Minor and the vital port cities. He seems to have underestimated Alexander.

ASSESSMENT OF DARIUSHowever, in Darius’ defence there were a number of factors going against him.

Darius’ ascension to the throne “coincided” with a declaration of war by Macedonia. “He had no time to play tyrant”. Arrian seems to be suggesting that Darius had not really bedded in as king, had not enough time to establish his authority or command the loyalty he should have had. Had he being king for a number of years this weakness might not have been so obvious.

ASSESSMENT OF DARIUS The untimely death of General Memnon was

a big setback to the Persian king. Memnon was “bringing the war to Greece”, and had he lived longer, the course of the conflict would have developed very differently. Arrian and Plutarch both agree on this point.

ASSESSMENT OF DARIUS Alexander’s coastal policy and the failure

of the Persian navy to act decisively was also another blow to the Persian king. Darius’ navy was far superior but it was rendered ineffective by Alexander.

The loyalty and quality of Darius generals must be questioned. They failed to act as a coherent group both at Issus and Granicus. They gave Darius bad advice at Issus in particular. Alexander’s generals by contrast were competent and loyal.

ASSESSMENT OF DARIUS Alexander had a trained, well armed

cohesive fighting machine. Darius’ motley army of conscripts and amateurs were no match for his well disciplined phalanx or daring cavalry. The Persian army was easily thrown into panic. They suffered greater casualties during the battles, if Arrian’s figures are to be believed.

ASSESSMENT OF DARIUS Darius love and devotion to his family is

beyond doubt. He wrote letters to Alexander pleading with him to return his family.

His murder seems to have appalled Alexander. Alexander gave the Persian king a proper burial, he was placed in the royal tombs at Persepolis and his children were given the same upbringing if Darius had still been king.

Bessus was tortured and sentenced to death for treason.

READING

Read Arrian’s view on the character of Darius – p.185/186

BESSUS Bessus had himself proclaimed “King of

Asia”. He began wearing royal cloaks. Bessus enlisted the help of Satibarzanes.

Alexander now travelled on in to the mountainous region of the Caucasus.

Bessus, who tried to stop the advancing Alexander, laid the land to waste by destroying crops and resources that might be of use to the king.

Alexander had to cross the mighty river Oxus to lay hands on Bessus who was in a region called Sogdiana.

BESSUS When Alexander crossed the river and entered the

region, a man called Spitamenes, told Alexander that he would arrest Bessus and hand him over. He then appeared to backtrack on this, uncertain what to do.

In any event Ptolemy, Alexander’s general, found Bessus in a small fort. He encircled this and forced the inhabitants to hand him over.

Bessus was led to Alexander, stripped of his clothes and led forward by a dog chain. He was lashed severely, for treating Darius so treacherously.

He had his ears and nose mutilated and he was then taken to the Medes and the Persians for public execution.

READING

Read Arrian for a description of Bessus’ death – p. 212

THE PLOT BY PHILOTAS At this point Alexander heard rumours of a

plot on his life. Such rumours had come to his ears before, whilst he was in Egypt, but he had refused to believe them.

When Philotas was brought before Alexander the charges were laid before him, “in no uncertain terms”.

The people who had reported Philotas also came forward and offered irrefutable proof of his crimes.

THE PLOT BY PHILOTAS Philotas had known of a plot upon

Alexander’s life but had not reported it to him.

The plot was even more worrying because he had easy access to the king, visiting his tent twice a day.

Philotas admitted that he knew of rumours to plot against Alexander but did not report this to him.

Philotas and his co conspirators were shot with arrows.

Parmenio, his father, was also put to death. Alexander believed that Parmenio must have known of his son’s conspiracy.

THE PLOT BY PHILOTAS

Arrian seems to have approved of this. Parmenio was a very powerful, a man of “immense influence”, even if he had not known about the plot, it would be too dangerous to let the old general live and given the massive influence and reputation he had over the Macedonian army “his living on after his son’s execution was always a danger”.

Philotas According to Plutarch According to Plutarch, Alexander’s problems

with Philotas predated the plot on his life. Philotas’ arrogance and attachment to wealth

aroused the suspicions of those around him. One of his mistresses was a slave girl called

Antigone. He used to boast to her about the greatness of his father Parmenio and himself: all the Macedonian victories were the result of their work. He boasted that Alexander was only a boy, whose rule was a result of their efforts.

Philotas According to Plutarch When word got back to Alexander about this

boasting, Antigone was ordered to continue her visits and to report back on what the foolish Philotas was bragging about.

Philotas continued to rant against Alexander not knowing that all was being reported back to the king.

Alexander did not act yet, because he feared the power of Parmenio.

READINGRead Plutarch’s account of the plot by Philotas – p.304 – 307 (Point 48/49)

Read Arrian’s account – p. 191-192

Assignment

Write a paragraph explaining why Alexander was angry with Philotas. Make reference to your

sources.

Parmenio – An Assessment Parmenio was a senior general who served

under Philip. He commanded the left cavalry wing.

Parmenio was in charge of getting the Macedonian army across the Hellespont. He successfully completed this.

At the Battle of Granicus, Parmenio advised Alexander to hold off on an attack on the Persians. He felt that the Persians might withdraw from their position when they saw the numerically superior Greek infantry. Alexander rejected this.

Parmenio At the siege of Miletus Alexander rejected

Parmenio’s advice to risk a naval confrontation with the Persians.

Parmenio also advised Alexander to carry out a surprise night attack on Darius’ forces at the battle of Gaugamela. Likewise Alexander rejected this and was indignant at the thought of “stealing” a victory in such a manner.

At the battle of Gaugamela he struggled on the left flank. Alexander was forced to come over to help him. Plutarch indicates that Alexander was angry with him, because he was forced to give up his chase of Darius.

Parmenio Parmenio advised Alexander to accept

Darius’ peace terms after the battle of Issus. The old general considered these very generous. Once again Alexander refused to accept his judgement.

When Parmenio was assassinated for the plot of his son, Philotas, there is no indication or proof that he was involved. Alexander seems to have feared Parmenio’s influence and reputation.

Parmenio Arrian is very unfair to Parmenio and

gives him no credit whatsoever. Parmenio followed orders, accepted

Alexander's judgement and generally showed loyalty. Arrian seems to overlook the many positive traits he clearly had and demonstrated, in order to justify Alexander’s treatment of him.

ALEXANDER’S ORIENTALISM Arrian notes that at this time Alexander

adopted many habits of eastern extravagance.

As well as adoptingthe Persian monarch’s custom of treating his subjects as “inferiors”, he wore Median dress instead of Macedonian attire and he wore the pointed bonnet of the Persians.

Arrian disapproves of such customs but is not too critical of Alexander, who having won so much thus far, failed to achieve “victory over himself”.

ALEXANDER’S ORIENTALISM Around this time it was a custom to offer

sacrifices in honour of Dionysus. Alexander chose instead to honour Castor and Polydeuces, the Dioscuri.

Heavy drinking accompanied the festival. Arrian also declares, this was another barbaric excess, Alexander had picked up.

Flatterers at court humoured Alexander by saying that the king was superior to the Dioscuri and was comparable to Heracles himself.

ALEXANDER’S ORIENTALISM Cleitus had taken a dislike both to these

flatterers, whom Alexander had surrounded himself with, and his oriental habits.

Cleitus said it was an insult to these divine beings for Alexander to compare himself to them. Cleitus also reminded Alexander that all of his successes were not just achieved by himself alone but he was helped by his Macedonian countrymen.

Alexander was deeply hurt by Cleitus’ remark. While Arrian disapproved of Alexander’s excess, he does says that Cleitus should have kept his mouth shut because he was out of control with alcohol.

THE DEATH OF CLEITUS (Arrian) Some one then said that what Philip had

done was quite ordinary and unremarkable, more flattery for Alexander.

Cleitus had had enough of this false adulation; he reminded Alexander that he saved his life at Granicus.

Alexander got up to confront Cleitus but was held back. Alexander called for the guards but they did not come. Cleitus asked: was he to be dragged out in chains like Darius and Bessus? Alexander grabbed a spear and “struck Cleitus dead”.

THE DEATH OF CLEITUS (Arrian) When Alexander realised what he had done

he attempted to kill himself with a pike but he was restrained from doing this.

He then withdrew to his tent, taking no food or drink and repeatedly calling himself a murderer.

Some say all this was brought about because Alexander failed to worship Dionysus.

Priests were sent for to console Alexander. A seer by the name of Anaxarchus told Alexander that what ever Zeus does is just, similarly the acts of great kings must be considered just first by himself and then by others.

THE DEATH OF CLEITUS (Plutarch) The killing of Cleitus “appears to have been

more shocking than that of Philotas”. –Plutarch calls this act a “misfortunate rather than a deliberate act”. Cleitus had taken “advantage” of Alexander’s anger and intoxication to destroy him.

At the feast all were drunk. A poet was making fun of Macedonian soldiers who were defeated by the barbarians in a recent battle. Cleitus said it was not right to humiliate Macedonians in this way: the dead men “were better men than those who were laughing at them”.

Alexander informed him that Cleitus was trying to disguise “cowardice for bravery”.

THE DEATH OF CLEITUS (Plutarch) Cleitus mockingly said that he saved, “the son of god”

(Alexander) from getting a sword in the back at Granicus. He further rebuked Alexander for turning his back on his own father Philip, by claiming to be the son of the god, Ammon. It was Macedonian blood and wounds that made Alexander “so great”.

Alexander was furious, shouting “you scum”, but Cleitus continued, “It is the dead who are the happy, because they never lived to see Macedonians being beaten by Median rods, or begging the Persians for an audience with our own king”.

Cleitus refused to retract these comments, even when Alexander sprung to his feet and was held back. Cleitus affirmed that he was a free man and was entitled to speak his mind openly.

THE DEATH OF CLEITUS (Plutarch) Cleitus was bundled out of the room, but

then came back in again through another door. He quoted a line from a famous Greek tragedy and directing this at Alexander; “Alas what evil customs reign in Greece”.

Alexander grabbed a spear form a nearby guard and hurled it through Cleitus who was on the far side of a curtain, near the doorway. He died groaning and moaning.

Alexander then tried to kill himself when he saw what he had done.

ReadingRead Arrian and Plutarch’s accounts of Cleitus’ Death:

Arrian: p.213 – 217 (Alexander’s Orientalism to Alexander’s Remorse)

Plutarch: p.307 – 310 (Point 50 – 52)