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9, FILOSOFIA MORALEI 7HUPHQXO PRUDO DUH RULJLQH ODWLQ PRV-mores" (cu derivatul adjectival "moralis") referindu-se la obiceiuri, RELœQXLQ H PRUDYXUL ,QL LDO œL WHUPHQXO HWLF FX HWLPRORJLH JUHDF HWKRV-VXEVW WKLNRV - DGM GHVHPQD DFHOHDœL OXFUXUL 6SHFLDOL] ULOH XOWHULRDUH DOH VHQVXULORU SHUPLW FD DVW ]L V vQ HOHJHP SULQ HWLF WHRULD ILORVRILF œLVDX œWLLQ LILF DVXSUD PRUDOHL DGLF DQVDPEOXO FRQVWUXFWHORU FRQFHSWXDOH SULQ FDUH VH H[SOLF VWUXFWXUD WHPHLXO œL ULJRULOH H[SHULHQ HORU SUDFWLFR- VSLULWXDOH FH FRQVWLWXLH SODQXO PRUDOLW LL WU LWH UHDOH 5LJXURV YRUELQG PRUDOD HVWH RELHFWXO GH VWXGLX DO HWLFLL FKLDU GDF vQ vQWUHEXLQ DUHD FRWLGLDQ FHL GRL WHUPHQL SDU D DYHD DFHOHDœL VHPQLILFD LL ) U vQGRLDO vQFHUF ULOH GH WHRUHWL]DUH DVXSUD IHQRPHQXOXL PRUDO DSDU GLQ QHYRLD XQHL MXVWLILF UL FRQVLVWHQWH D XQXL DQXPH VWLO GH YLD œL SHQWUX D IXQGDPHQWD R SUDFWLF SRUQLQG GH OD H[SOLFD LD GDW RPXOXL œL URVWXOXL V X vQ OXPH 6H tinde, astfel, spre clarificarea problemelor nemijlocite într-o "Fie-PL LHUWDW GHVFRSHULUHD F vQWUHDJD ILORVRILH PRUDO GH SkQ DFXP D IRVW SOLFWLFRDV üL D I FXW SDUWH GLQWUH VRPQLIHUH - üL F SULQ nimic "virtutea" n-D IRVW PDL FRPSURPLV vQ RFKLL PHL GHFkW SULQ DFHDVW SOLFWLFRüHQLH D DYRFD LORU HL FHHD FH QX vQVHDPQ F QHVRFRWL XWLOLWDWHD JHQHUDO D DFHVWXL FDUDFWHU plictisitor". (Friedrich Nietzsche)

9, FILOSOFIA MORALEI - · PDF file9, FILOSOFIA MORALEI 7HUPHQXO PRUDO DUH RULJLQH ODWLQ PRV-mores" (cu derivatul adjectival "moralis") referindu-se la obiceiuri, RELœQXLQH PRUDYXUL

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Page 1: 9, FILOSOFIA MORALEI - · PDF file9, FILOSOFIA MORALEI 7HUPHQXO PRUDO DUH RULJLQH ODWLQ PRV-mores" (cu derivatul adjectival "moralis") referindu-se la obiceiuri, RELœQXLQH PRUDYXUL

9, FILOSOFIA MORALEI

7HUPHQXO� �PRUDO �� DUH� RULJLQH� ODWLQ �� �PRV-mores" (cu derivatul adjectival "moralis") referindu-se la obiceiuri, RELúQXLQ H�� PRUDYXUL�� ,QL LDO�� úL� WHUPHQXO� �HWLF ��� FX� HWLPRORJLH�JUHDF ���HWKRV�-VXEVW���� WKLNRV��-�DGM����GHVHPQD�DFHOHDúL�OXFUXUL��6SHFLDOL] ULOH� XOWHULRDUH� DOH� VHQVXULORU� SHUPLW� FD�� DVW ]L�� V �vQ HOHJHP� SULQ� HWLF � WHRULD� ILORVRILF � úL�VDX� úWLLQ LILF � DVXSUD�PRUDOHL�� DGLF � DQVDPEOXO� FRQVWUXFWHORU� FRQFHSWXDOH� SULQ� FDUH� VH�H[SOLF � VWUXFWXUD�� WHPHLXO� úL� ULJRULOH� H[SHULHQ HORU� SUDFWLFR-VSLULWXDOH� FH� FRQVWLWXLH� SODQXO� PRUDOLW LL� WU LWH�� UHDOH�� 5LJXURV�YRUELQG�� PRUDOD� HVWH� RELHFWXO� GH� VWXGLX� DO� HWLFLL�� FKLDU� GDF � vQ�vQWUHEXLQ DUHD� FRWLGLDQ � FHL� GRL� WHUPHQL� SDU� D� DYHD� DFHOHDúL�VHPQLILFD LL�� ) U � vQGRLDO �� vQFHUF ULOH� GH� WHRUHWL]DUH� DVXSUD�IHQRPHQXOXL�PRUDO� DSDU� GLQ� QHYRLD� XQHL� MXVWLILF UL� FRQVLVWHQWH� D�XQXL� DQXPH� VWLO� GH� YLD �� úL� SHQWUX� D� IXQGDPHQWD� R� SUDFWLF �SRUQLQG� GH� OD� H[SOLFD LD� GDW � RPXOXL� úL� URVWXOXL� V X� vQ� OXPH�� 6H�tinde, astfel, spre clarificarea problemelor nemijlocite într-o

"Fie -PL� LHUWDW � GHVFRSHULUHD� F � vQWUHDJD�ILORVRILH�PRUDO �GH�SkQ �DFXP�D�IRVW�SOLFWLFRDV �üL� D� I FXW� SDUWH� GLQWUH� VRPQLIHUH� -� üL� F � SULQ�nim ic "virt ut e a" n -D� IRVW� PDL� FRPSURPLV � vQ�RFKLL� PHL� GHFkW� SULQ� DFHDVW � SOLFWLFRüHQLH� D�DYRFD LORU� HL�� FHHD� FH� QX� vQVHDPQ � F � Dü�QHVRFRWL� XWLOLWDWHD� JHQHUDO � D� DFHVWXL� FDUDFWHU�plic t is it or".

(Frie dric h Nie t zs c he )

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

XQLWDWH� FRQFHSWXDO � vQ� YHGHUHD� SURLHFW ULL� XQXL� PRGHO� H[HPSODU�F UXLD�V �L�VH�DGDSWH]H�UHDOLWDWHD�XPDQ ��(WLFD�WHRUHWL]HD] �SHQWUX�D�UHYHQL�vQ�YLD D�QHPLMORFLW �FX�XQ�VSRU�GH�FXQRDúWHUH��FX�XQ�VSLULW�DO� QXDQ HORU� úL� HFKLOLEUXOXL� DSW� V � GLUHF LRQH]H� VXELHFWLYLWDWHD�XPDQ � vQ� HIRUWXO� GH� D� FRQIHUL� YLH LL� URWXQMLPH� úL� VHQV� SULQWU-o XQLILFDUH�YDORULF �D�VLWXD LLORU�GH�YLD � ���*HQHUDOLW L�LQWURGXFWLYH 0RUDOD� FXSULQGH� YDORUL�� QRUPH�� HWLFKHWH�� WLSXUL� LGHDOH� úL�modele exemplare SULQ� FDUH� VH� XUP UHúWH� UHJOHPHQWDUHD�UDSRUWXULORU� LQWHUXPDQH�� &RQFHS LLOH� úL� FRGXULOH� PRUDOH�SUHILJXUHD] �FULWHULL�úL�PRGHOH�YDORULFH��HWDORDQH�DOH�RPHQHVFXOXL�FH�VH�LPSXQ�FD�H[LJHQ H�vQ�ID D�DFWHORU� LPHGLDWH��9DORULOH�PRUDOH�H[SULP � DVSLUD LL� YDOLGDWH� VRFLDO�� DGLF � FHHD� FH� R� VRFLHWDWH�FRQVLGHU � GH]LUDELO�� VHPQLILFD LL�� vQ HOHVXUL�� VHQVXUL� SH� FDUH� OH�DWULEXLP�DQXPLWRU�SHUVRDQH��FRPSRUWDPHQWH�VDX�DF LXQL��$FWHOH�GH�YDORUL]DUH� SUHVXSXQ� WRWGHDXQD� UDSRUWDUHD� UHDOLW LL� vQFRQMXU WRDUH�OD� DQXPLWH� WUHEXLQ H�� QHYRL�� DVSLUD LL�� GRULQ H�XPDQH��9DORUL]DUHD�FRQVW � vQ� SUHFL]DUHD� XQRU� SUHIHULQ H�� FRPSRUWDPHQWH� GHPQH� GH�VWLP �� (D� SUHVXSXQH� vQWRWGHDXQD� SRODUL]DUHD� úL� LHUDUKL]DUHD�UHDOLW LORU� LPHGLDWH�D�F URU�H[LVWHQ �HVWH�SXU�úL�VLPSOX�OLSVLW �GH�atribute valorice intrinseci. Lucrurile nu sunt nici bune, nici rele, QLFL� IUXPRDVH��QLFL�XUkWH��QXPDL�SULQ� UDSRUWDUH� OD� VIHUD� WUHEXLQ HL�XPDQH� DSDU� GLIHUHQ H� GH� UDQJ� úL� UDSRUWXUL� GH� RSR]L LH� vQWUH�GLIHULWHOH� LSRVWD]H� DOH� UHDOLW LL�� VXQW� FRQVLGHUDWH� YDORUL� SR]LWLYH�acele acte, obLHFWH�� FRPSRUWDPHQWH� HWF�� FDUH�� SULQ� vQVXúLULOH� ORU�FRQFUHWH�� VDWLVIDF� WUHEXLQ HOH� XPDQH� úL� GH� DFHHD� VXQW� SUH XLWH��SUHIHUDWH�� F XWDWH� úL� GRULWH�� 9DORULOH�� FD� UH]XOWDWH� DOH� DFWHORU� GH�YDORUL]DUH��QX�DX�SUH]HQ �QHPLMORFLW ��FL�FRQVWLWXLH�R�VIHU �LGHDO ��SiPEROXULOH� FRPSRUWDPHQWDOH�� H[LJHQ HOH� úL� QRUPHOH� PRUDOH�H[SULP �FRQ LQXWXUL� YDORULFH�SURSXVH� VSUH� UHDOL]DUH��'HVHRUL� vQV �DFHVWHD�QX�VH�PXO XPHVF�V �UHFRPDQGH��FL�IRUPXOHD] �LPSHUDWLYH��

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

�WUHEXLH� V ��� �HVWH� QHFHVDU� FD� V ����� &RGXULOH� YDORULFR-normative sunt�DFHOH�FRQYHQ LL�SULQ�FDUH�R�FROHFWLYLWDWH� vúL� IRUPXOHD] �úL� vúL�FRQVWUXLHúWH� LGHDOXULOH�� I FkQG� SRVLELO � FRQYLH XLUHD� LQWHUXPDQ ��(OH� LQWURGXF�DXWRFRQVWUkQJHUL� WXWXURU� UHDF LLORU�SVLKRVRFLDOH��3ULQ�DFHDVWD� GLVFLSOLQHD] � úL� RULHQWHD] �� LQYHVWHVF� FX� VHQV� HQergiile LQVWLQFWXDOH�úL�SVLKLFH�� În mod nemijlocit, raporturile dintre oameni, la nivel de LQGLYLGXDOLW L� úL�VDX� JUXSXUL� DX� WHQGLQ D� GH� D� VH� PDQLIHVWD� FD�UDSRUWXUL� GH� IRU �� GH� GRPLQD LH�� )LHFDUH� LQV� VDX�JUXS� WLQGH� V -úL�afirme puterile, energiile (indiIHUHQW�GH�PRGXO�V X�FRQFUHW�GH�D�úL�OH� PDQLIHVWD�� SHQWUX� D� RE LQH� DYDQWDMH�� HILFLHQ �� VXFFHV�� 0LKDLO�5DOHD� FRQVWDW � F � RULFH� SXWHUH� VH� VXSXQH� �HIHFWXOXL� GH� SDQW ���DGLF �WLQGH�VSUH�R�DILUPDUH�FkW�PDL�HQHUJLF �úL�GRPLQDWRDUH��)RU D��SULQ� HD� vQV úL�� UHIX] � RULFH� UHVWULF LL�� GHYHQLQG� LPSHULDOLVW ��WLUDQLF �� 5DSRUWXULOH� GH� IRU � LQWHUYLQ� RUL� GH� FkWH� RUL�FRPSRUWDPHQWHOH�RPHQHúWL�VH�ODV �VW SkQLWH�GH�vQFOLQD LL��WHQGLQ H��LQVWLQFWH� GH� DXWRFRQVHUYDUH�� HJRLVP�� LQWHUHVH� P UXQWH�� 6H� SRW�deosebi mai multe tipuri de fRU � �FI�0LKDL�5DOHD��� IRU D� IL]LF � - F UHLD��GLQFROR�GH�HUHGLWDWHD�ELRVRPDWLF ��L�VH�SRDWH�DWDúD�WHKQLFD��IRU D�SVLKLF ��W ULD�GH�FDUDFWHU��YRLQ D��FDSDFLWDWHD�GH�DXWRFRQWURO���SXWHUHD� HFRQRPLF � �GDW � GH� SURSULHWDWHD� LQGLYLGXDO � FH� FRQIHU �insului în cauz � DYDQWDMHOH� H[LVWHQ LDOH� ID � GH� FHLODO L��� SXWHUHD�FXOWXUDO � �GDW �GH�DSWLWXGLQLOH� LQWHOHFWXDOH��GH�SUHJ WLUHD�JHQHUDO �úL� GH� VSHFLDOLWDWH�� GH� HUXGL LH�� H[SHULHQ � SURIHVLRQDO ��� SXWHUHD�SROLWLF � -� SURFXU � SULYLOHJLL� úL� SUHVWLJLX� SRVHVRULORU� HL� �LQGLYL]L, HOLWH� DOH� SXWHULL� SXEOLFH�� SDUWLGH��� PL]D� DFHVWHL� SXWHUL� FRQVW � vQ�VSHFLDO� vQ�RFXSDUHD� LQVWLWX LLORU� - acele puncte strategice din care SRW�IL�OXDWH�GHFL]LL�PHQLWH�V �GHFODQúH]H�SURFHVHOH�SVLKRVRFLDOH�SH�WHUPHQ� PHGLX� VDX� OXQJ�� WRW� vQ� DFHVW� GRPHQLX� LQWU � úL� HOLWHOH� GH�LQIOXHQ � FDUH� MXVWLILF �� IDF� FUHGLELOH�P VXULOH� OXDWH� GH� SRVHVRULL�DXWRULW LL� SXEOLFH�� GHFL� RSHUHD] � vQ� SODQ� SVLKRVRFLDO�� SXWHUHD�WDOHQWXOXL�úL�VDX�D�IUXPXVH LL�� ÌQ�WRDWH�LSRVWD]HOH�HL��IRU D�SRDWH�IL�FRQFHSXW �FD�XQ�FDSLWDO��vQ�VHQV�ODUJ�� care este investit nemijlocit vQ� DFWH� FRWLGLHQH�� vQ� UDSRUWXULOH� FX� FHLODO L�� SHQWUX� D� SURGXFH�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

avantaje posesorilor (avere, rang social, popularitate, succes). 2ULFH� PRUDO � UHVSLQJH� GLQ� SULQFLSLX� FXOWXO� IRU HL� úL� HJRLVPXO��calificându-le ca vicii, defecte SHUVRQDOH�� 0RUDOD� XUP UHúWH�VLVWHPDWLF�� vQWRWGHDXQD�� U VWXUQDUHD� UDSRUWXULORU� GH� IRU H� GLQWUH�RDPHQL�� FRUHF LD� H[SDQVLXQLL� IRU HL�� UHVHPQLILFDUHD� FRQGXLWHORU�SULQ�DSHO� OD� LGHDOXUL��QRUPH��PRGHOH��0RUDOD�FXOWLY �FRPSRQHQWD�XPDQ � D� YLH LL�� DU WkQG� FH� úL� FXP� WUHEXLH� I FXW� SHQWUX� FD� SULQ�DF LXQLOH� QRDVWUH� V � ILP� GHPQL� GH� FDOLWDWHD� GH� RP�� ÌQWHPHLHUHD�YDORULL�PRUDOH�HVWH�I FXW �GLIHULW�GH�OD�R�FRQFHS LH�PRUDO �OD�DOWD��FRGXULOH�PRUDOH�VH�GHRVHEHVF�vQWUH�HOH�SULQ�PRGXO�vQ�FDUH�vQ HOHJ�DXWHQWLFLWDWHD�XPDQ �úL�SURSXQ�DQXPLWH�FRQ LQXWXUL�FD�IXQGDPHQWH�DOH�RULF URU�JHVWXUL�XPDQH�� Urmând analizele lui Mihail Ralea, putem sugera o WLSRORJLH� JHQHUDO �� 0RUDOHOH� VLPSDWLHL� LGHQWLILF � VXUVD� YLH LL�PRUDOH� vQ� DWDúDPHQWXO� VSRQWDQ� DO� RPXOXL� ID � GH� VHPHQXO� V X��Accentul cade pe� ILUHVFXO� vQWkPSLQ ULL� RPXOXL� GH� F WUH� RP�� SH�DWUDF LD� UHFLSURF �� PLO �� FRPSDVLXQH�� LPSXOVXO� VSUH� D� IL� XWLO�celuilalt, întrajutorare, generozitate, iubirea omenescului din FHO ODOW�� 'HVFKLGHUHD� RPXOXL� F WUH� VHPHQL� VH� GDWRUHD] �� vQWU-o asemenea viziune asupra moralei, instinctului de conservare. Prin LQWHJUDUHD�VRFLDO �VH�RE LQH�R�VWDUH�GH�VHFXULWDWH� LQWHULRDU �DO WXUL�de avantajele civilizatorii. În categoria moralelor fundamentate pe VLPSDWLH� VH� vQVFULX� YL]LXQLOH� PRUDOH� DUKDLFH�� GLQ� VRFLHW LOH�WUDGL LRQDOe, în care raporturile dintre oameni sunt directe, OHJLWLPDWH�SULQ�WUDGL LH��LDU�LPSHUDWLYHOH�VXQW�LPSOLFLWH��PXOWH�DFWH�QX�VXQW�I FXWH�GLQ�WHDP ��MHQ ��UXúLQH���0RUDOHOH�FDUH�SUHVXSXQ�F �YLD D� GH� UHOD LH� VH� ED]HD] � SH� VSRQWDQHLWDWH� VXIOHWHDVF � úL� VSLULW�cRPXQLWDU� ULVF � V � WUDQVIRUPH� VHQWLPHQWHOH� PRUDOH� vQ� FULWHULL� GH�YDOLGDUH�PRUDO �� ÌQ� JHQHUDO�� VHQWLPHQWHOH�PRUDOH� �HPR LL�� DIHFWH��VW UL� GH� VSLULW�� vQVR HVF� DFWHOH� PRUDOH�� GDU� YDORDUHD� PRUDO � D�DFHVWRU� DFWH� QX� GHSLQGH�GH� SDUWLFLSDUHD� VXIOHWHDVF ��'H�DFHHD�� în PRUDOHOH�VLPSDWLHL�H[LVW �ULVFXO�XQRU�FRQIX]LL��FRPSDVLXQHD�SRDWH�IL� VLPXODW �� VLPSDWLD� SRDWH� IL� LQWHUHVDW �� LDU�� GH� RELFHL�� HVWH�SUHIHUHQ LDO �úL�FRQMXQFWXUDO ��'DWRULW �DFHVWRU�QHDMXQVXUL��PRUDOHOH�UHOLJLRDVH� WUDQVIRUP � LXELUHD� VHPHQXOXL� vQWU-un imperativ,

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

refuzându-L� VLPSOD� LSRVWD] � VHQWLPHQWDO �� LXEHúWL� úL� UHVSHF L� vQ�SULPXO� UkQG� FDOLWDWHD� GH� RP� �RPHQHVFXO�� GLQ� WLQH� vQVX L� úL� vQ�VHPHQXO� W X�� 'UDJRVWHD� ID � GH� XPDQLWDWH� HVWH� LPEROGXO� VXIOHWHVF�pentru a participa efectiv la ceea ce este sacru în fiecare om. 0RUDOHOH� KHGRQLVWH� FRQVLGHU � F � LPSXOVXO�� VXUVD�YDORULORU�PRUDOH� VH� DIO � vQ� F XWDUHD� SO FHULL�� D� VDWLVIDF LHL��$FHVWH� VLVWHPH�PRUDOH�DSUHFLD] �F �WRW�FHHD�FH� LQH�GH�QDWXUD�XPDQ �SRDWH�IL�VXUV �GH� IHULFLUH�� SO FHUH� úL� EXFXULH�� GH� DFHHD�� RPXO� QX� WUHEXLH� V -úL�LQKLEH�QLFL�R�SRUQLUH��5LVFXO�HVWH�GH�D�UHGXFH�VDWLVIDF LD�LQWHULRDU �OD� VLPSOH� SO FHUL� vQWkPSO WRDUH�� LQFRQVLVWHQWH�� ÌQ� DFHVW� VHQV��HSLFXUHLVPXO�UHFRPDQG �FXPS WDUHD��P VXUD��vQ HOHSFLXQHD��FKLDU�úL� YLFLLOH� SUDFWLFDWH� FX� P VXU � SXWkQG� IL� FRQVLGHUDWH� YLUWX L��([FHVXO� GH� YLUWXWH� �REVHVLD� SHUPDQHQW � GH� D� IL� YLUWXRV�� HVWH� XQ�mare viciu. Moralele eudemoniste, în prelungirea celor hedoniste, FRQVLGHU �F �VFRSXO�YLH LL�FRQVW �vQ�F XWDUHD�IHULFLULL��)HULFLUHD��FD�ideal,este acea starea în care majoritDWHD� WUHEXLQ HORU� QRDVWUH� VDX�P FDU�FHOH�PDL�LPSRUWDQWH�GLQWUH�HOH�VXQW�VDWLVI FXWH�OD�PD[LPXP��SH�R�GXUDW �FkW�PDL�vQGHOXQJDW ��QHGHWHUPLQDW ��ÌQ HOHDV �vQ�DFHúWL�WHUPHQL��IHULFLUHD�QX�SRDWH�IL�DWLQV ��vQWUXFkW�VH�IDFH�DEVWUDF LH��vQ�mod sistematic, de liPLWHOH� ILLQ HL�XPDQH�úL�GH� VXUVHOH� VXIHULQ HL��&D�VWDUH�UHDO ��IHULFLUHD�FRQVW �vQWU-R�VDWLVIDF LH�LQWHULRDU �PD[LP ��FDUH� HVWH� SRVLELO � QXPDL� GDF � VXVSHQG P� VLP XO� FULWLF�� IDFHP�DEVWUDF LH� GH� WRDWH� VXUVHOH� O XQWULFH� SHUWXUEDWRDUH� úL� GLQ� DIDU ��astfel încâW�DWHQ LD�QRDVWU �V �ILH�IL[DW �QXPDL�DVXSUD�DFHORU�VWLPXOL�FDUH� SURGXF� VDWLVIDF LH�� 7RWXúL�� IHULFLUHD� QX� SRDWH� IL� FRQVLGHUDW �VFRS� H[SUHV� DO� YLH LL� úL� DO� DFWHORU� QRDVWUH�� (D� HVWH� R� FRQVHFLQ �psihologico-VSLULWXDO � FH� VH� DWDúHD] �QHSURJUDPDW� DF LXQLORU� vQ� úL�SULQ�FDUH�XUP ULP�VFRSXUL�úL�YDORUL�GH�R�FX�WRWXO�DOW �QDWXU ��0DL�PXOW�� FD� WU LUH�� IHULFLUHD� LQFOXGH� WRWGHDXQD� VHQWLPHQWXO� XQHL�IUDJLOLW L�� QHOLQLúWL�� LQFHUWLWXGLQL�� $WXQFL� FkQG� DYHP� FHUWLWXGLQHD�XQRU� UH]XOWDWH� DúWHSWDWH� úL� D� XQRU� VDWLVIDF LL�� IHULFLrea se DXWRVXVSHQG ��'HFL��VLWXD LD�GH�IHULFLUH�H[LVW �QXPDL�DWkW�WLPS�FkW�HVWH� SUH]HQW � LQWXL LD�� LQWHQ LD� úL�VDX� FRQV LLQ D� SURYL]RUDWXOXL�� D�HYLGHQ HL� F � VXUVHOH� IHULFLULL� VXQW�PXOW�PDL� SX LQH� GHFkW� FHOH� DOH�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

QHIHULFLULL�úL�DOH�VXIHULQ HL�� Aristotel concepea fericirea nu ca stare, ci ca una din DFWLYLW LOH� VXIOHWXOXL� FRQIRUP � FX� YLUWXWHD�� 3UDFWLFDUHD� YLUWX LORU�HVWH� FDOHD� SULQ� FDUH� RPXO� vúL� vPSOLQHúWH� DGHY UDWD� VD� QDWXU ��GHVFRSHU �� vúL� DVXP � úL� HODERUHD] � FDOLWDWHD� GH� RP� FDUH� HVWH� R�VDUFLQ � LQGLYLGXDO �� 6SLULWXO� LQWURGXFH� UHVWULF LL� SHQWUX� ]HVWUHD�WHPSHUDPHQWDO � úL� ELRORJLF ��9LFLXO� UH]XOW � GLQWU-un exces sau o OLSV ��GLQ�SUHD�PXOW�VDX�SUHD�SX LQ��9LUWXWHD�HVWH�R�FDOH�GH�PLMORF��DGLF �HVWH� MXVWD�P VXU �GLQWUH�H[FHV� úL� LQVXILFLHQ ��'H�H[HPSOX��GHY UDWD modestie ar consta în a- L�FXQRDúWH�vQ�PRG�OXFLG�YDORDUHD�úL�D� L-R�DILUPD�I U �RVWHQWD LH��2UJROLXO��FD�H[FHV�DO�LXELULL�GH�VLQH��FD�úL�XPLOLQ D�- opusul la fel de excesiv al orgoliului - sunt vicii. Curajul este calea de mijloc dintre simpla temeritate úL� IULF � VDX�ODúLWDWH�� FXUDMXO� SUHVXSXQH� R� MXVW � HYDOXDUH� D� FRQVHFLQ HORU� FH�UH]XOW � GLQ� ULVFXO� DVXPDW�� 'LQ� DFHVW� PRWLY�� FXUDMXO� QX� H[FOXGH�WHPHUHD�vQ�ID D�SHULFROXOXL��FL�R�LQFOXGH�� 0RUDOHOH�YLUWX LL�SOHDF �GH� OD�FRQVLGHUD LD�F �YLUWXWHD�HVWH�LGHQWLF �FX�vQ HOHSFLXQHD�SUDFWLF ��vQV �FRPSRUW �úL�QHDMXQVXUL��/D�DQWLFL��GH�SLOG ��YLUWXWHD�PRUDO �HVWH�XUP ULW �SULQWU-R�OXSW �WRWDO �D�UD LXQLL�vPSRWULYD�LQVWLQFWHORU�úL�D�XQRU�SUHGLVSR]L LL�SVLKRORJLFH�D�F URU�H[WLUSDUH�HUD�GRULW ��$VWIHO�YLUWX LOH�SRW�IL�VLPXODWH��HúXkQG�vQ�PHGLRFULWDWH�� &XPS QLUHD� H[FHVLY � SRDWH� SURGXFH� RPXO� IDOV�vQ HOHSW�� 0RUDOHOH� YLWDOLVWH� FRQVLGHU � F � DGHY UDWHOH� YDORUL� XPDQH�UH]XOW � ILUHVF�� VSRQWDQ�� GLQ� H[FHVXO� GH� YLWDOLWDWH�� 6H� XUP UHúWH�YDORULILFDUHD� WXWXURU� VXUVHORU� GH� HQHUJLH� XPDQ � În acest sens, 1LHW]VFKH�FRQVLGHUD�FXOWXO�YLUWX LL�GLQ�ILORVRILD�DQWLF �JUHDF �GUHSW�VXUV � GH� FDVWUDUH� D� RPXOXL�� GHYLWDOL]DUH� D� ILLQ HL� XPDQH� SULQ�GLVSUH XO� VXUVHORU� GH� SXWHUH� SULQ� FDUH� YLD D� SRDWH� IL� DILUPDW ��&XOWXUD�LQWHQ LRQHD] �V �GLVFLSOLQH]H�úL�V �GRPHVWLFHDVF �LQVWLQFWH�úL� SXWHUL� ELR-SVLKLFH�� 0RUDOD�� vQ� RSLQLD� OXL� 1LHW]VFKH� FRPSRUW �ULVFXO� GH� D� GHYLWDOL]D� LQWHULRUXO� XPDQ�� 1LHW]VFKH� FRQVLGHUD� F �VLVWHPHOH� PRUDOH� VXQW� EHQHILFH� GRDU� vQ� P VXUD� vQ� FDUH� LPSXQ�ILHF UXL� RP� R� GLVFLSOLQ � D� YRLQ HL�� 0RUDOD� HVte întotdeauna

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

FRQVWLWXLW � GLQ� FRQYHQ LL� FROHFWLYH� GRWDWH� FX� MXGHF L� MXVWLILFDWLYH�FDUH� PRWLYHD] �� vQWHPHLD] � DQXPLWH� VWLOXUL� GH� YLD �� GRULQ H��FDOLW L� úL� GHIHFWH� SVLKRORJLFH�� 'LQ� DFHVWH� PRWLYH�� PRUDOD� WLQGH�VSUH� XQLIRUPL]DUHD� ILLQ HL� XPDQH�� DGLF � VROLFLW � LQWHJUDUHD� vQ�úDEORDQH�� RELúQXLQ H�� GHSULQGHUL� PHQLWH� V � DGXF � RDPHQLL� OD�DFHODúL�QXPLWRU��5H]XOWDWXO�FRQVW � vQ�JHQHUDOL]DUHD�XQXL� WLS�XPDQ�PHGLRFUX�� 0RUDOHOH� VXQW� YLFLDWH� GLQ� SULQFLSLX�� vQWUXFkW� HOLPLQ �LQGLYLGXDOLWDWHD� VWULFW � D� RPXOXL�� vL� FHU� UHQXQ UL� úL� IDF� DEVWUDF LH�GH� LQHJDOLWDWHD� IXQFLDU � GLQWUH� LQGLYL]L�� 'H� DFHHD�� PDL� DOHV� vQ�VRFLHWDWHD� PRGHUQ �� V-D� LPSXV� PRUDOD� VFODYLORU�� DGLF �HJDOLWDULVPXO� XPDQ�� LQGLVWLQF LD�� PHGLRFULWDWHD� FD� HWDORQ� VRFLDO��JXVWXO�PHGLX�� JRDQD� GXS � FRQIRUW� úL� SO FHUH�� UHIX]XO� VXIHULQ HORU�ILUHúWL�� OLSVD� GH� SUREOHPH� VSLULWXDOH�� PLWXO� HJDOL] ULL� úDQVHORU� úL�GHFUHWDUHD� HJDOLW LL� WRWDOH� vQ� GUHSWXUL�� $FHDVW � PRUDO � FRQYLQH�gloatei, turmei. Ea are ca scop domesticirea instinctelor umane, YO JXLUHD�HQHUJLLORU�YLWDOH�� ÌQV �- considHU �1LHW]VFKH�-�DGHY UDWD�PRUDO �HVWH�FHD�GH�VW SkQ��vQWRWGHDXQD�LQGLYLGXDOL]DW ��DIOkQGX-se GLQFROR� GH� FRQYHQ LLOH� FROHFWLYH� FRQIRUWDELOH� GHVSUH� ELQH� úL� U X��$GHY UDWD� PRUDO � WLQGH� VSUH� DILUPDUHD� YLH LL�� OXkQG� FKLDU� IRUPD�YRLQ HL�GH�SXWHUH�- în sens larg. Elanul vital tinde spre afirmarea de VLQH�� VSUH� SURJUHV� LQWHULRU� úL� FUHDWLYLWDWH�� DYkQG� PL]H� vQDOWH� úL�capacitatea de a-úL�DVXPD�WRDWH� ULVFXULOH� UHDOH�úL�SRVLELOH��0RUDOD�GH� VW SkQ� YL]HD] � GHS úLUHD� PHGLRFULW LL� FXUHQWH� SULQ� LGHDOXO�supraomului. Supraomul este, la Nietzsche, un proiect umanist: HVWH� RPXO� DGHY UDW�� FDUH� vúL� DVXP � RPHQHVFXO� GUHSW� VDUFLQ �SHUVRQDO �� HVWH� RPXO� DIODW� GLQFROR� GH� PHGLRFULWDWHD�FRQWHPSRUDQLORU�� RPXO� FDUH� XUPHD] � RPXOXL� DFWXDO�� DGLF �XOWUDRPXO�� RPXO� QRELO�� FX� R� YRLQ � SXWHUQLF � úL� DVSU ��'H� DFHHD��VXSUDRPXO� vúL� UHIX] � VHQWLPHQWDOLVPHOH� X]XDOH� �SUHFXP� PLOD��DXWRMXVWLILFDUHD�� FDUH� VXQW� VHPQH� GH� VO ELFLXQH�� 'DF � PRUDOHOH�RELúQXLWH� H[SULP �� OD� QLYHOXO� YDORULORU� úL� QRUPHORU�� LQVWLQFWXO� GH�DXWRFRQVHUYDUH�� PRUDOD� VXSUDRPXOXL� UHIX] � SUHFDX LD�� LQGHFL]LD��DVSLUD LD�P UXQW ��MXVWLILFDULOH��DFFHSWkQG�vQ�VFKLPE�ULVFXO�WRWDO�DO�ULVLSHL�GH�HQHUJLH�úL�YLD �SULQ�FDUH�RPXO�VH�SURGXFH�SH�VLQH�vQVXúL��

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

ÌQ� YL]LXQHD� OXL�1LHW]VFKH�� RPXO� HVWH� R� ILLQ � QHvQFKHLDW ��LQGHFLV ��3XWHP�VSXQH�F �vQVXúLUHD�GH�Rm este un risc permanent, WUDJLFXO� úL� VXIHULQ HOH� QX� WUHEXLH� H[WLUSDWH�� GHRDUHFH� IRUPHD] � FX�DGHY UDW� LQWHULRUXO� XPDQ� úL� VXQW� REVWDFROH� FDUH� REOLJ � YRLQ D� úL�YLD D� OD� SUREH� FX� DGHY UDW� VHPQLILFDWLYH�� 'LQFROR� GH� LHUDUKLLOH�FRQYHQ LRQDOH�� MXVWLILFDWLYH�DOH�PRUDOHL�FXUHQWH�� VH�DIO �DGHY UDWD�H[SHULHQ � D� XPDQXOXL�� 1LHW]VFKH� FRQVLGHU � F � HVWH� YDORURV� GLQ�SXQFW�GH�YHGHUH�PRUDO�QX�FHHD�FH�LQGLF �R�HWLFKHW �VRFLDO ��FL�FHHD�FH� vPERJ HúWH� YLD D�� R� DILUP � FD� YDORDUH� SHUVRQDO �� 0DL� PXOW��PRWLYHOH�úL�VFRSXULOH�QRDVWUe nu ar exprima fidel actele pe care le întreprindem; ele sunt simple simptome verbale ale unor impulsuri non-FRQúWLHQWH�� ÌQ� úL� SULQ� DFHVWHD� HQHUJLLOH� LQWHULRDUH� WLQG� VSUH�DILUPDUHD� YLH LL�� 'H� IDSW�� VXSUDRPXO� DSDU LQH� XQHL� HOLWH�� HVWH� XQ�aristocrat al spiritului. 0RUDOHOH� YROXQWDULVWH� FRQVLGHU � F �WHPHOLD� DFWHORU�QRDVWUH� VH� DIO � vQ�HQHUJLL� LQFRQúWLHQWH�� VWUXFWXUDWH�vQ�MXUXO�YRLQ HL�GH�DILUPDUH��6FKRSHQKDXHU�DSUHFLD�F �YLD D�RPXOXL�DILUP �� GLQFROR� GH� VFRSXUL� úL� PRWLYD LL�� LPSXOVXULOH� XQHL� IRU H�obscure: voiQ D� GH� D� IL�� $FHDVWD� JHQHUHD] � HJRLVPXO�� FDUH� HVWH�VXUVD� WXWXURU�FRQIOLFWHORU�XPDQH��DFROR�XQGH�GRPLQ �HJRLVPXO� úL�LQVWLQFWXO� SHUVRQDO� GH� DXWRFRQVHUYDUH�� FRQYLH XLUHD� úL�VXSUDYLH XLUHD�VXQW�LPSRVLELOH��3ULQ�QDWXUD�OXL�ELRORJLF ��RPXO�HVWH�R�ILLQ �GLQFROR�GH�DSUHFLHULOH�PRUDOH��UHEHO �OD�DSUHFLHULOH�PRUDOH�GH�UXWLQ ��0D[LPD�RULF UHL�PRUDOH�FRQVW �vQ�D�QX�IDFH�U XO�FX�EXQ �úWLLQ �� úL� D- L� DMXWD� VHPHQXO� SH� FkW� v L� VW � vQ� SXWLQ �� 'H� DFHHD��VSXQH� 6FKRSHQKDXHU�� PRUDOD� WUHEXLH� V � FRUHFWH]H� HJRLVPXO�ELRSVLKLF�úL�V �DGXF �vQ�SULP�SODQ�LQVWLQFWHOH�DOWUXLVWH��FDUH� LQ�WRW�GH� LQVWLQFWXO� GH� DXWRFRQVHUYDUH���'HFL�� vQFHSXWXO� RULF UHL�PRUDOH�VH� DIO � vQ� PLO � úL� FRPS WLPLUH�� FD� R� GHYR LXQL� vQ� QXPHOH�VHPHQXOXL�� ÌQ� DFHVW� VHQV�� R� SULP � LQVWDQ � PRUDO � HVWH� GDW � GH�structurile� MXULGLFH�� SULQ� LQWHUGLF LL� úL� VDQF LXQL�� 'DWRULW � DF LXQLL�HJRLVPXOXL��WHDPD�HVWH�XQ�LQVWUXPHQW�GH�IRUPDUH�PRUDO ��&HL�PDL�PXO L�RDPHQL�VXQW�PRUDOL��vQ�VHQVXO�F �UHVSHFW �DQXPLWH�QRUPH�úL�YDORUL�� QX� SHQWUX� F � VLPW� R� DWUDF LH� VSHFLDO � SHQWUX� YDORULOH�moralHL��FL�ILH�SHQWUX�F �OH�HVWH� WHDP �GH�FRQVHFLQ H�úL�UHSUHVDOLL��

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

ILH� SHQWUX� F � XUP UHVF� SUHVWLJLXO�� FkúWLJDUHD� SUH XLULL�� UHVSHFWXOXL�GLQ� SDUWHD� FHORUODO L�� &D� DWDUH�� PXOWH� FRQGXLWH� DFFHSWDELOH� GLQ�SXQFW�GH�YHGHUH�PRUDO�DX�R�MXVWLILFDUH�HJRLVW ��WHDPD�GH�SHGHDSV �VDX� LQWHUHVXO� SURSULX��� $GHY UDWD� PRUDO � HVWH� FDOLWDWLY� DOWFHYD��DQXPH�SUDFWLFDUHD�GH]LQWHUHVDW �D�XQRU�YLUWX L�� 0RUDOHOH� DEVXUGXOXL� GHILQHVF� HSRFLOH� GH� FUL] �� GL]ROYDUHD�FRGXULORU� VRFLDOH�� VHQWLPHQWXO� LQFRPXQLFDELOLW LL� GLQWUH� RDPHQL��criza de iGHQWLWDWH�� GLVSHU ULOH� WUDJLFH�� VHQWLPHQWXO� úL� FRQúWLLQ D�absurdului. Aceste morale sunt individualiste. Societatea pare a fi FRQVWLWXLW �GLQ� LQGLYL]L� L]ROD L��GHFL�DWRPDU � �DWRPL]DW ���$EVHQ D�FRGXULORU� FROHFWLYH� QX� MXVWLILF � vQV � GH]RUJDQL]DUHD� úL� DEVHQ a UHVSRQVDELOLW LL��0RUDOLWDWHD� HVWH� UHVLP LW � PDL� DOHV� FD� REOLJD LH�LQWHULRDU �� GLQ�FDOLWDWHD�GH�RP�GHULY �DQXPLWH�FRQVWUkQJHUL� DVWIHO�încât nu se poate face orice, oricând sau oricum. 0RUDOHOH� LPSHUDWLYLVWH� SXQ� DFFHQW� SH� GDWRULH�� REOLJD LH��necesitateD� LQWHJU ULL� VRFLDOH�� $FHVW� WLS� GH� PRUDO � GHILQHúWH�VRFLHW LOH� DUKDLFH�� WUDGL LRQDOH�� FRQVWLWXLWH� GLQ� LQGLYL]L� DIOD L� vQ�VROLGDULWDWH� WRWDO �� FDUH� VH� DVHDP Q � úL� VXQW� LQWHUúDQMDELOL�� 1X�FRQWHD] � LQGLYLGXDOLWDWHD�� ILHFDUH� PHPEUX� DO� JUXSXOXL� HVWH�înzestrat FX� úL� SUDFWLF � vQWRFPDL� YDORULOH� FROHFWLYH�� HVWH� LQWHJUDW�VSRQWDQ� úL� SURIXQG� vQ� PRGHOH� úL� VLPEROXUL�� $EDWHULOH� VXQW�VDQF LRQDWH� GXU�� GHRDUHFH� SXQ� vQ� SHULFRO� FRH]LXQHD� FROHFWLY �� ÌQ�HSRFD�PRGHUQ ��XQ� DVHPHQHD� WLS�GH�PRUDO �DILUP �.DQW��(O�HVWH�preocupat nu V � SURSXQ � QRUPH� GH� FRQGXLW �� FL� V � H[SOLFH� FXP�HVWH�SRVLELO �YLD D�PRUDO ��FDUH�VXQW�FRQGL LLOH�DEVROXW�QHFHVDUH�DOH�RULF UHL�PRUDOH��ÌQ�DFHVW�VHQV��FRQVWDW �F �FHD�PDL�EXQ �PRUDO �DUH�FD�WHP �YRLQ D�EXQ ��DGLF �R�YRLQ �FDUH�vúL�G �VLHúL�OHJL�UHIX]kQG�orLFH� FRQ LQXW� RFD]LRQDO�� SHUVRQDO� VDX� H[WHULRU�� 3ULQFLSLLOH�ipotetice sunt cele practicate în mod curent de oameni atunci când H[LVW �SUHRFXSDUH�GRDU�SHQWUX�VDWLVIDFHUHD�XQRU�GRULQ H�úL�LQWHUHVH�SHUVRQDOH�� 0L]D� HVWH� RE LQHUHD� IHULFLULL�� vQV � YRLQ D� FX� DGHY rat PRUDO �vúL�IRUPXOHD] �SULQFLSLL�FDWHJRULFH��DGLF �DEVROXW�QHFHVDUH��úL� DF LRQHD] � vQ� DúD� IHO� vQFkW� RPXO� V � ILH� FRQVLGHUDW� úL� WUDWDW�vQWRWGHDXQD�FD�VFRS�úL�QLFLRGDW �FD�PLMORF��'HFL��PRUDOD�WUHEXLH�V �

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

SRUQHDVF �GH�OD�WUDWDUHD�RPHQHVFXOXL��D�FDOLW LL�GH om) ca valoare VXSUHP ��$FWXO�PRUDO� QX� HVWH� GRDU� FRQILUPDUH� D� GDWRULHL�� FL� HVWH�I FXW�GLQ�GDWRULH��DGLF �HVWH�XQ�LPEROG�LQWHULRU�vQ�úL�SULQ�FDUH�RPXO�HVWH�FRQVHFYHQW�VFRSXULORU�VXSUHPH��0RUDOD�XUP UHúWH�GH]YROWDUHD�RPHQHVFXOXL� GLQ� QRL� vQúLQH��.DQW�� SXQkQG accent pe imperativul FDWHJRULF�� FRQVLGHU � SDUWLFLSDUHD� VXELHFWLY � �SULQ� WU LUL��VHQWLPHQWH�� HPR LL�� FD� ILLQG� QHVHPQLILFDWLY � GLQ�SXQFW� GH� YHGHUH�moral, ca pe un simplu accesoriu. 3XWHP� VSXQH� F � SLYRWXO� RULF UHL� UHIOHF LL� WHRUHWLFH� DVXSUD�UHDOLW LORU� PRUDOH� vO� FRQVWLWXLH� IRQGXO� LQWHURJDWLY� úL� GHVWLQD LD�SUREOHPDWL]DWRDUH��'DF �SULPHD] �FRQVWUXLUHD�vQ�SUHOXQJLUHD�XQXL�ethos comunitar, deci prin idealizarea acestuia, sau printr-un DSULRULVP� VSHFXODWLY� D� XQHL� SDUDGLJPH� LPSHUDWLYLVWH�� JHORDV � GH�RELFHL� ID � GH� SRVLELOLL� FRQFXUHQ L�� REWX] � OD� GLDORJ� úL�FRPSOHPHQWDULWDWH�� WHRULD� VIkUúHúWH� SULQ� D� LPSXQH� GRDU� WLSDUH�FRPSRUWDPHQWDOH�� YDOLGkQG� FRQIRUPLVPXO� SODW� úL� PHGLRFULWDWHD��(VWH�� DLFL�� XQ� PRWLY� VHULRV� SHQWUX� FDUH� 1LHW]VFKH� UHIX] � GXKXO�PRUDOL]DWRU� DO� FRQFHS LLORU� PRUDOH� vQ� QXPHOH� XQHL� VFKLPE UL� GH�SDUDGLJP �� LDU� H[LVWHQ LDOLVPHOH� FRQWHPSRUDQH� V-DX�PXO XPLW� FX�DVXPDUHD� LPSOLFLW � D� WHPHORU� PRUDOH� vQ� FDGUHOH� RQWRORJLHL�XPDQXOXL�� I U � D� vQGU ]QL� VWUXFWXUDUHD� FRQVHFLQ HORU�comportamentale în formula unei etici propriu-zise. Abia atunci când accentul este pus pe deschiderea unor orizonturi interogative, SUREOHPDWL]DWRDUH�� ILORVRILD� PRUDOHL� vQFHSH� V -úL� LD� vQ� SRVHVLH�UHIOH[LY � vQWUHDJD� DULH� GH� FRPSHWHQ �� � HOXO� HWLFLL� -� QRWHD] �N.Hartmann, nu-l constituie punerea sub� LQWHUGLF LH�úL� vQFKLVWDUHD�omului într-R� VFKHP �� FL� ULGLFDUHD� OXL� OD� GHSOLQD� PDWXULWDWH� úL�FDSDFLWDWHD� GH� U VSXQGHUH�� ([SULPDUHD� PDMRUDWXOXL� LQWHOHFWXDO� DO�RPXOXL�HVWH�DGHY UDWD� LQIRUPDUH�SH�FDUH�HD�R�SURGXFH� vQ�RP�������(D�QX�UHSUH]LQW �IRUPDUHD�YLH LL�Rmului peste capul omului, ci mai GHJUDE �DWUDJHUHD�RPXOXL�VSUH�IRUPDUHD�OLEHU �D�SURSULHL�YLH L���>�@�3UHPLVD� XQXL� DVHPHQHD� GHPHUV� FRQVW � vQ� DFFHSWDUHD� QDWXULL�deschise, contradictorii -� UH]LVWHQWH� OD�RULFH�GHWHUPLQ UL� VXPDUH�D�ILLQ HL� XPDQH��0RUDOD� úL� HWLca sunt dispuse tocmai la punerea în

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

RUGLQH�YDORULF �D�DFHVWHL� FRPSOH[LW L� LPSUHYL]LELOH��2PXO�HVWH�R�ILLQ � FRQúWLHQW � GH� SURYL]RUDWXO� FRQGL LHL� VDOH�� 'H� DFHHD�� HVWH�QHYRLW� V -úL� DVXPH� XQ� GH]HFKLOLEUX� VWUXFWXUDO�� ID � GH� VLQH� SULQ�GUDPDWL]DUHD� H[SHULHQ Hlor interioare; în raport cu lumea, DFFHSWkQG� PLVWHUXO� FD� SRYDU � LQWHOHFWXDO �� UHIX]kQGX-L� vQV �WHQGLQ HOH�GRPLQDWRDUH��vQ�WHQVLXQLOH�FX�LVWRULD�FDUH�vO�IDVFLQHD] �úL�IRORVHúWH��I U �D-O�SUH XL�FkW�PHULW ��SULQ�LPSOLFDUH�vQ�YLD D�SURSULH�úL� vQ� UHOD LL� FX� VHPHQLL� SkQGLQG� úDQVD� GH� D� RFROL� vQVHULHUHD��DQRQLPDWXO�� QLYHODUHD� FKLSXOXL� VSLULWXDO�� GDF � QX� ULVLSLUHD� I U �SULFLQL� úL� WHPHL��1DWXUD� XPDQ � HVWH�� GDU��PDL�PXOW� R� SRVLELOLWDWH�GHFkW� R� FHUWLWXGLQH�� PDL� PXOW� R� FKHVWLXQH� GH� RUJROLX� H[LVWHQ LDO�decât o împlinire; un imperativ difuz, chiar confuz, care, privit PDL� vQGHDSURDSH��DUH�GRDU� FRQILJXUD LH�SLYRWDO � úL� QX� FRQ LQXWXUL�limpezi. Invocându-VH� DFHHDúL� LPDJLQH� GHVSUH� FH� DU� WUHEXL� V � ILH�RPXO�� VH� SRW� MXVWLILFD� GHRSRWULY � FULPH� úL� DVSLUD LL� GH�îndumnezeire. Marginile omenescului sunt vagi. Omul este mereu vQ� FXUV� GH� LQVWLWXLUH� úL� FRQVWLWXLUH�� F FL� XPDQL]DUHD� QX� SRDWH� IL�UHGXV �OD�KRPLQL]DUH�� ÌQWUH� (PLQHVFX� úL� XQLL� FRQWHPSRUDQL�� GH� SLOG �� H[LVW � R�GLVWDQ � PXOW� PDL� PDUH� GHFkW� vQWUH� DFHúWLD� úL� DOWH� DQWURSRLGH�supeULRDUH�� &DOLWDWHD� GH� RP� HVWH� R� VDUFLQ � LQGLYLGXDO �� DGLF �LSRWH] � vQ� DFHODúL� WLPS� SURYL]RULH� úL� GHILQLWLY � SULQ� FDUH� LQVXO�LQYHQWHD] � úL� SXQH� OD� vQFHUFDUH� SH� FRQW� SURSULX� PDUJLQLOH�omenescului. Generalitatea speciei, mai bine zis genericitatea, nu este doaU� H[HPSOLILFDW ��FL� H[SHULPHQWDW � vQ�SRVLELOHOH�HL� DúH] UL��)LHFDUH� H� FDSWLYXO� SURSULLORU� GLK QLL�� FHQWUX� GH� LQGHWHPLQDUH� úL�LPSUHYL]LELO�� LUDGLHUH� VSLULWXDO � vQWUX� vQWUXFKLS ULOH� URVWXLULL��)LHFDUH� VH�SHUFHSH� FD� ILLQ �GHVSLFDW � LUHYHUVLELO� úL� LUH]ROYDELO în FHHD� FH� HVWH� �SDUH� VDX� FUHGH� D� IL�� úL� DP JLUHD� SOLQLW WLL� RPHQHúWL�GLQ� FHO� SO VPXLW� GH� úL� SULQ� H[SHULHQ H� LQWHULRDUH� FD� PHQLW� V �vQO WXUH�PDUHD�DEVHQ ��QHSHUPLV � OLSV �DFWLY ��$JRQLD�XPDQXOXL�HVWH�PDL� vQWkL� FRQIUXQWDUH� D� LQGLYLGXOXL� FX� VLQH� vQVXúL�� DEia apoi H[HUFL LX�FROHFWLY��I U �DFHVW�SULPDW�IXQF LRQDO��YLD D�GH�UHOD LH�VH�reduce la simplele reflexe pavloviene.

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

3HQWUX� KRW UQLFLUHD� DFHVWXL� VSD LX� GHILQLELO� SULQ�H[SHULPHQWDUHD� RPHQHVFXOXL� GLQ� RP�� PRUDOD� HVWH� WUHEXLQFLRDV ��GDU� QX� úL� VXILFLHQW �� HD� RIHU � DOJRULWPXO� RPHQHVFXOXL� VFKL kQG�QXFOHXO� DVSLUD LHL� OHJLWLPH�� GDU� QX-i poate stabili definitiv PDUJLQLOH��vQWUXFkW�DFHVWHD�VXQW�vQFHUFDWH�úL�GLQFRDFH�úL�GLQFROR�GH�imperative valorico-QRUPDWLYH� FRQYHQ LRQDOH� FH� UkYQHVF� OD�stabilirea unei ordini accidentale -�LVWRULFH��DGLF ��0DUJLQHD�GH�VXV�D� UkQGXLHOLL� XPDQH� HVWH� IRU DW � SULQ� GHYR LXQHD� ID � GH� VDFUX��RUL]RQWXUL� VLPEROLFH�� RELHFWLYH�� DXWRQRPH�� DEVROXWH�� SO VPXLUL�FXOWXUDOH�FH�LQL LD] �RPXO�vQ�WDLQHOH�VWUDWXOXL�RULJLQDU��LQFRUXSWLELO��VXILFHQW� VLHúL� DO� H[LVWHQ HL�� 2ULFH� FXOWXU � vúL� SURGXFH� RUGLQHD�VDFUXOXL�ODLF�úL�VDX�UHOLJLRV�SULQ�FHHD�FH�%ODJD�QXPHúWH��LOX]LRQ UL�ILQDOLVWH��� 6HSDUD LD� FDOLWDWLY � D� FHORU� GRX � OXPL� HVWH� IHUP ��EODVIHPLD� FDUH� HULMHD] � RPXO� vQ� P VXU � D� VDFUXOXL�� úL� VIUXQWDUHD�LQVROHQW �SULQ�FDUH�RPXO�vúL�DWULEXLH�FDOLW L�FX�UHJLP�VDFUDO�DWUDJ�SHGHSVH��ÌQWHPHLHUHD�PLWLF �úL�UHOLJLRDV �D�OLPLWHORU�VXSHULRDUH�DOH�RPHQHVFXOXL� FRQVILQ HúWH� FHUWLWXGLQL� YDORULFH� úL�� FD� VW UL� SVLKR-VSLULWXDOH� vQVR LWRDUH�� VSHUDQ D�� WHDPD�� LXELUHD�� VDWLVIDF LD��smHUHQLD�� DGPLUD LD�� FRSOHúLUHD�� SURVWHUQDUHD�� FXWUHPXUDUHD�ú�D�P�G�� (UR]LXQHD� VLPEROXULORU� úL�� PDL� DOHV�� D� IXQGDPHQW ULL�FRQGL LHL�XPDQH�SULQ�UHFXUV�OD�WUDQVFHGHQW�vQJ GXLH�R�H[SDQVLXQH�D�LQFHUWLWXGLQLL� D[LRORJLFH�� vQGRLDOD� I U � RUL]RQW�� GLVSHUDUHD��angoaseOH�� LQGLYLGXO� ILLQG� QXPDL� FHHD� FH� HO� vQVXúL� IDFH� GLQ� VLQH��vQWUXFkW� GLIHUHQ D� VSHFLILF � D� VSHFLHL� HVWH� QHIL[DW � GHILQLWLY� úL�SURWHLF � VXE� UDSRUW� VLPEROLF�� ÌQ� JHQHUDO�� SURGXFWLYLWDWHD�H[LVWHQ LDO � GLQVSUH�PDUJLQLOH� GH� VXV� DOH� RPXOXL� HVWH� vQ� OHJ WXU �GLUHFW cu profilul valorico-normativ al modelului cultural, care KRW U úWH�VWDWXWXO�RQWRORJLF�DO�WHULWRULLORU�PHWD-XPDQH�DIODWH��vQV ��vQ�DWLQJHUHD�QHPLMORFLW �FX�XPDQXO�vQWUXFkW�vO�VHGXFH��HQHUJL]HD] �úL�REOLJ �OD�GLVFLSOLQDUHD�PDQLIHVW ULORU� Marginile de jos ale omenescului -� DVXSUD� F URUD� VH�SURQXQ � SVLKDQDOL]D� úL� HWRORJLD� -� VXQW� vQFHUFDWH� vQ� VSD LXO� GH�WROHUDQ �DO�WHQGLQ HORU�QDWXUDOH�UH]LVWHQWH�OD�vQFDSVXODUH�FXOWXUDO ��'HVSLFDUHD� vQ� ELRORJLH� úL� VSLULWXDOLWDWH� HVWH� VXUVD� XQRU� ULVFXUL� GH�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

SULP �LQVWDQ ��'DF �QX�FRQúWLHQW��VLJXU�LQWXLWLY��LQVXO�HVWH�PHUHX�vQ�ID D�XQHL�DPELJXLW L��LQGHFL]LL��SkQ �XQGH�HVWH�RPXO�úL�GH�XQGH�vQFHSH� EHVWLD"� 6IHUD� LQVWLQFWXDO � VH� LQILOWUHD] � vQ� DUWLFXOD LD�YDORULORU� PRUDOH� SH� FDUH�� FKLDU� GDF � QX� OH� VWUXFWXUHD] �� OH�YLWDOL]HD] �� OH� WRQLILF �� 2� SUHD� PLF � HODERUDUH� D� ]HVWUHL� QDWXUDO-ELRORJLFH�DOLPHQWHD] �DJUHVLYLWDWHD��DWRPL]DUHD��GH]DJUHJDUHD�VDX��vQ� IXQF LH� GH� vQFOLQD LD� GRPLQDQW �� SURGXFH� VRFLHW L� DQHPLFH��GXLRDVH��YO JXLWH��DGRUPLWH�vQWU-un cod cultural elementar, dispuse la tâQJXLUH�� 6SLULWXDOL]DUHD� LQWHQV � VXSULP � VXUVH� SULPDUH� GH�HQHUJLH�� HúXkQG� vQ� FXOWXO� HWLFKHWHL� FRPSRUWDPHQWDOH�� 'H� DFHHD��ILLQ D� XPDQ � úL� VRFLHW LOH�PHULW � D� IL� vQ HOHVH� FD� XQ� FRPSURPLV�GLQDPLF�vQWUH�ORJLFD�LQLPLL�úL�ORJLFD�LQWHUHVXOXL��SH�GH�R�SDUWH��LDU��SH� GH� DOW � SDUWH�� FD� R� MXVW � HFKLOLEUDUH� vQWUH� UH]HUYRDUHOH� SVLKLFH�ce-úL� WUDJ� VHYD� GLQ� VROXO� GLVSR]L LLORU� LQVWLQFWXDOH� úL� LPSHUDWLYHOH�DXWHQWLFLW LL� IRUPXODWH� GH� VSLULW��PDL� DOHV� vQ� LSRVWD]D� VD�PRUDO ��ÌQWUH�FHOH�GRX �KRWDUH�GLIX]H�DOH�RPHQHVFXOXL�- cel de sus, marcat de paradigme filosofice, mitico-UHOLJLRDVH�ú�D��DOH�DXWHQWLFLW LL��LDU�FHO�GH�MRV�LQVLQXDW�vQ�XUJHQ D�FRQYHUVLXQLL�WHQVLXQLL�WHQGLQ HORU�QH-, pre-� úL�� HYHQWXDO�� DQWL-culturale -� HVWH� SRWHQ LDO� SUH]HQW� vQWUHJ�VSHFWUXO� VXIHULQ HL� GLQVSUH� OLPLWH�� SUHFDULW L�� GDU� PDL� DOHV� FD�vQVR LWRU�DO�LVSLWLULL��vQFHUF UL��WHQWD LL��DGHPHQLUL��VHGXF LL�SULQ�FDUH�RPXO� vúL� vQFHDUF � GHVWLQXO�� &DOLWDWHD� GH� RP� HVWH� PDL� WRWGHDXQD�ULVFDW � VXE� VHPQXO� LVSLWHL� VSUH� D� RE LQH� VDWLVIDF LL� YDORULFH� �OD�marginea superioar ��� EXFXULLOH� ILUHúWL� �vQ� VSD LXO� PHGLDQ�� VDX�vPSOLQLUHD� SO FHULORU� �vQVSUH� JUDQL D� FX� HUHGLWDWHD� ELR-SVLKLF ���2VkQGD�GH�D�vQGU ]QL�V �ILL�HVWH�ULVFXO�FRQVWLWXWLY�DO�ILLQ HL�XPDQH��1X� vQWkPSO WRU� FHO� PDL� H[SUHVLY� VLPERO� PHWDIL]LF� DO� F XW ULL� úL�ascensiuniL� RPXOXL� VSUH� XQ� ILUHVF� DO� FRQGL LHL� VDOH� HVWH� *ROJRWD��6XIHULQ D� HVWH� H[SHULHQ D� LQWHULRDU � FDUH� O PXUHúWH� PDUJLQLOH�RPHQHVFXOXL�� )LORVRILD� PRUDOHL� SRDWH� GRDU� V � vQFHUFH�� DGLF � V �SURSXQ � YHFWRUL� D[LRORJLFL� FDUH� SULQ� DWUDF LD� VSRQWDQ � D�VXELHFWLYLW LL�FRQFUHWH��SULQ�VWLPXODUHD�FUHDWLYLW LL�úL�D�UHVXUVHORU�GH�DXWRGHWHUPLQDUH�LQGLYLGXDO ��SULQ�LQVWLWXLUHD�XQXL�FRQWDFW�YLX�DO�RPXOXL� FX� DOWHUQDWLYHOH� QHPLMORFLWH� GH� vQQRELODUH� VXIOHWHDVF � úL�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

VSLULWXDOL]DUH� D� YLH LL� LQL LD] � SURFHVH� GH� VWUXFWXUDUH� D� UHJLVWUHORr omenescului. 5D LRQDOL]DUHD� PRUDO � UHVWUkQJH� úL� FRQWUROHD] �SOXULGLPHQVLRQDOLWDWHD� SURWHLF � D� QDWXULL� XPDQH�� SHVWH� UHDOLWDWHD�PRUDO �FDUH�QX�DEROHúWH��FL�GRDU�RFROHúWH�VDX�UH-VHPQLILF �VXUVHOH�GH� LQGHWHUPLQDUH�� HVWH� SURSXV � úL� LPSXV � R� UHDOLWDWH� LGHDO , YDORULF � vQ�FDUH�úL�SULQ�FDUH�VH�FRQGHQVHD] �ILQDOLWDWHD�GH�VSHFLH��ILLQG�SRVLELO �RULFkQG�vQWkOQLUHD�VDX�FRQYHUJHQ D�LQVXOXL�FX�LQVXO�úL�FX�VLQH��vQVXúL��6SD LLOH�GH�PDQLIHVWDUH�XPDQ �VXQW�DFRSHULWH�SULQ�GLVWLQF LD� GLQWUH� �PRUDO�� FDUH� VH� UHIHU � OD� WRW� Feea ce este susceptibil de calificare/valorizare dintr-un punct de vedere moral, DGLF �SRDWH�IL�DSUHFLDW�FD��EXQ��VDX��U X���úL��DPRUDO���DGLF �FHHD�FH�QX�FDGH�VXE�LQFLGHQ D�XQHL�DSUHFLHUL�PRUDOH��VH�VLWXHD] �GLQFROR�GH�VIHUD�PRUDOLW LL��vQ�DIDUD�DFHVWHLD��FD�FHYD�QHXWUX�úL� LQGLIHUHQW�la valorizare; într-un sens mai restrâns, prin "moral" se poate desemna doar ceea ce este dezirabil, conform unui ideal de FRQGXLW �� RSXQkQGX-i-VH�� GH� DFHDVW � GDW �� �LPRUDOXO�� FD� VIHU � D�FHHD� FH� VH� vQI LúHD] � FD� ILLQG� FRQWUDU� OHJLORU� úL� YDORULORU�PRUDOH�SR]LWLYH�� 'H� IDSW�� SULQ� FRQ LQXWXULOH� FX� FDUH� VXQW� LQYHVWLWH� FHOH�GRX �SRODUL] UL��PRUDO��- "amoral", "moral"-�LPRUDO���PRUDOD�úL��OD�XQ� DOW� QLYHO�� ILORVRILD� PRUDOHL� VFKL HD] � DUWLFXOD LLOH� YDORULFH� úL�ILQDOLWDWHD�VLPEROLF �D�riscului de a fi om. Dincolo de modelele de DXWHQWLFLWDWH�� GLQFROR� GH� XWRSLL�� VSHUDQ H� vQGHS UWDWH� úL� YL]LXQL�HVFDWRORJLFH�� U PkQH� WRWGHDXQD� úL� VH� DILUP � R� UHDOLWDWH� XPDQ �FRPSOH[ � D� F UHL� DPELJXLWDWH� QX� SRDWH� IL� VXSULPDW �� FL� GRDU�RFXOWDW � VDX�GLVSUH XLW ��6H�SRDWH� VSXQH�F ��FHHD�FH�HVWH�DSURDSH�XQLYRF�� vQ� ELQH� VDX� vQ� U X�� VH� GHWDúHD] � GLQ� FkQG� vQ� FkQG� GH�DPELYDOHQ D� XPDQ � FRPXQ �� úL� DWXQFL� GHSULQGHP� H[SHULHQ D�VILQ LORU�úL�D�PRQúWULORU�XPDQLW LL���>�@�GDU�D�JkQGL�úL�VDX�D�FUHGH�F �vL�SXWHP�DYHD�SH�XQLL�I U �SRVLELOLWDWHD�FHORUODO L�GH�D�IL�HVWH�R�LOX]LH�vQWUH LQXW �GH�FRPRGLWDWH��GRULQ ��XWRSLH��DUELWUDUXO�ORJLF�DO�LQLPLL��DXWRLOX]LRQDUH�VDX�PDQLSXODUH�FXOWXUDO �

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

2. Binele moral 9DORULOH� �úL� QRQ-YDORULOH�� PRUDOH� VH� UHIHU � OD� SHUVRDQH� úL�DFWH��SUHFXP�úL�OD�VHQWLPHQWH��LQWHQ LL��PRWLYD LL�úL�DWLWXGLQL�OHJDWH�de acestea. Prin cupluri conceptuale (generozitate - egoism; sinceritate -�I UQLFLH�LSRFUL]LH��PRGHVWLH�- îngâmfare; demnitate - XPLOLQ �VOXJ UQLFLH� HWF��� GHVHPQ P� FHHD� FH� HVWH� �VDX� SRDWH� IL��valoURV� úL�� OD� SROXO� RSXV�� QHJDWLY� GLQ� SXQFW� GH� YHGHUH� PRUDO��%LQHOH� RFXS � XQ� ORF� DSDUWH�� SULYLOHJLDW�� vQ� VLVWHPXO� DFHVWRU�categorii. Într-XQ� VHQV�PXOW�PDL� ODUJ�� ELQHOH� VH� UHIHU � OD�PXOWLSOH�DOWH� VIHUH�DOH�H[LVWHQ HL��XWLOLW L��DYDQWDMH��RELHFWHOH�VDWLVIDF LLlor, EXQ VWDUHD� PDWHULDO �� ELQHOH� VSLULWXDO�� SR]L LD� úL� SUHVWLJLXO� vQ�VRFLHWDWH�� VLWXD LLOH� FRQYHQDELOH�� VWDUHD� GH� V Q WDWH� ú�D�� 3RW� IL�FRQVLGHUDWH� EXQH� �VDX� FD� DSDU LQkQG� ELQHOXL�� DFHOH� IHQRPHQH��FRQGL LL��UDSRUWXUL��vQWkPSO UL�- naturale sau sociale, materiale sau spirituale -�� HYHQLPHQWH� LVWRULFH�� DF LXQL� ú�D�� FDUH� - în virtutea vQVXúLULORU� úL� D� HIHFWHORU� EHQHILFH� SH� FDUH� OH� SRW� DYHD� - satisfac DQXPLWH� QHYRL�� WUHEXLQ H�� DVSLUD LL� úL� H[LJHQ H� XPDQH�� 'HFL��FDWHJRULD�D[LRORJLF �JHQHUDO �D�ELQHOXL�LQGLF �WRW�FHHD�FH�PHULW �V �DLE �XQ�VWDWXW�SUHIHUHQ LDO�� Binele moral are criterii specifice de valorizare, care îl GHRVHEHVF� GH� WRDWH� FHOHODOWH� LSRVWD]H�� &kQG� DILUP P� vQ� YLD D�FRWLGLDQ �GHVSUH�R�FRQGXLW �F �HVWH��PRUDO ���LPSOLFLW�R�DSUHFLHP�FD� SR]LWLY �� FD� ILLQG� FRQIRUP � ELQHOXL�� 'LQ� DFHDVW � HFKLYDODUH�VSRQWDQ � D� PRUDOLW LL� SR]LWLYH� FX� ELQHOH� GHFXUJ� DOWH� DVSHFWH�LPSRUWDQWH�� ÌQ�SULPXO� UkQG�� IDSWXO�F �� SHQWUX� D� úWL� FH�HVWH�ELQHOH��WUHEXLH� V � vQ HOHJHP� WHPHLXULOH� YLH LL� PRUDOH� úL� URVWXULOH�imperativelor sale. În aO�GRLOHD�UkQG��HVWH�HYLGHQW �FDOLWDWHD�ELQHOXL�GH� FDWHJRULH� IXQGDPHQWDO �� OD� DOH� F UHL� FRQ LQXWXUL� SDUWLFLS �VHQVXULOH�SDUWLFXODUH�DOH�WXWXURU�FHORUODOWH�QR LXQL�PRUDOH��I U �vQV �FD� VHPQLILFD LD� ELQHOXL� V � ILH� RE LQXW � SULQ� VLPSO � vQVXPDUH��ÌQ HOHVXULOH�ELQHOXL�PRUDO�QX�SRW�IL�HSXL]DWH�SULQ�FRQFUHWL] ULOH�VDOH�vQ�RQRDUH��GHPQLWDWH��PRGHVWLH��JHQHUR]LWDWH�ú�D�P�G��)XQF LLOH�VDOH�YDORULFH� VXQW� LQWHJUDWRDUH�� GH� VLQWH] � úL� OHJLWLPDUH� JOREDO �� ÌQ�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

VIkUúLW�� FULWHULLOH� ELQHOXL� DX� R� HYROX LH� LVWRULF � úL� YDULD] � GH� la o VRFLHWDWH� OD� DOWD��9DORULOH�PRUDOH� GHVHPQHD] � WLSXUL� GH� UDSRUWDUH�VRFLDO � �QX� GRDU� LQGLYLGXDO �� SUHIHUHQ LDO �� UD LRQDO �� YROLWLY � úL�HPR LRQDO �ID �GH�YLD D�UHDO ��vQ�YHGHUHD�FRQVWLWXLULL�XQRU�LGHDOXUL�úL�FULWHULL�HYDOXDWLYH�DSWH�V �PHQ LQ �úL�V �RULHQWH]H�R�FRH]LXQH�úL�ordine indispensabile traiului în comun. De aceea, sunt elemente FRQVWLWXWLYH� DOH� FRQúWLLQ HL� FROHFWLYH�� LPSXQkQGX-VH� FD� SURLHF LL�RELHFWLYH�D�F URU�SUH]HQ �QX�SRDWH�IL�LJQRUDW ��FL�DWUDJH�VDX�FKLDU�FRQVWUkQJH��9DORULOH�SUHILJXUHD] �R�RUGLQH� LGHDO � -� VXV LQXW �SULQ�VHPQLILFD LL�� VLPEROXUL�� PRGHOH� -� FDUH� DUH� R� H[LVWHQ � GH� VLQH�VW W WRDUH�� DUDW � FXP� WUHEXLH� V � ILH� H[SHULHQ HOH�PRUDOH�FRQFUHWH��úL��SHQWUX�DFHDVWD��RIHU �PRGHOH�ODWHQWH�GH�DF LXQH��9DORULOH�PRUDOH�LQWHJUD] � YLD D� FRQWLGLDQ � úL� DF LXQLOH� FROHFWLYH� vQWU-un determinism instituit, întrucât faptele emiprice sunt coordonate de VHQVXUL��PRWLYD LL��FULWHULL�úL�LGHDOXUL�FH�DSDU LQ�DVSLUD LLORU�OHJLWLPH�DOH� VRFLHW LL� VDX� JUXSXOXL� VRFLDO�� 1XPDL� SULQ� DSHO� OD� DFHDVW �RUGLQH� � LGHDO �D�%LQHOXL�SRW� IL�DWULEXLWH� VDX� UHFXQRVFXWH�FDOLW LOH�YDORULFH�DOH�SHUVRDQHORU�úL�DFWHORU�� 3ULQ� IDSWH�� UHOD LL�� UHJOHPHQWDUH� PRUDO � VH� vPSOLQHVF�H[LJHQ HOH�XQHL�YLH L�WU LWH�vQ�PRG�XPDQ��$F LXQHD�GLUHF LRQDW �GH�YDORUL� úL� QRUPH� QHFHVLW � R� DQXPH� UHQXQ DUH� Oa sine din partea LQGLYLGXOXL�� GHS úLUHD� vQFOLQD LLORU� QDWXUDOH�� D� VHQVLELOLW LL�VSRQWDQH� úL� D� UDSRUWXULORU� GH� IRU � IL]LF �� �0RUDOD� -�PHQ LRQHD] �Mihai Ralea -� vQFHSH� DFROR� XQGH� VH� LQDXJXUHD] � OXSWD� LQWHUQ � vQ�FRQúWLLQ �� XQGH� QHOLQLúWHD� VWkUQLW � GH� GRX � VROX LL� SRVLELOH� VH�UH]ROY � SULQWU-R� UHQXQ DUH� OD� FRQIRUWXO� VXIOHWHVF�SUH]HQW� SHQWUX� R�FDOH� PDL� GLILFLO �� GDU� PDL� MXVW �� 5HIX]XO� DJUHPHQWXOXL� SUH]HQW��UHIXODUHD�SO FHULL�GH�PRPHQW��UH]LVWHQ D�OD�FRPRGLWDWHD�VXIOHWHDVF �în schimbul unei perspective ce pare�PDL�GUHDSW ��GDU�FDUH�SRDWH�IL�SUREOHPDWLF �vQ�UHXúLW ��LDW �QDWXUD�FRQIOLFWXOXL�GH�FRQúWLLQ �FH�VW �OD�ED]D�JHVWXOXL�HWLF���>�@�%LQHOH�PRUDO�H[SULP �R�UHDOLWDWH�GH�DOW�RUGLQ�GHFkW�FHD�D�YLH LL�ELRORJLFH�úL�D�SVLKRORJLHL�LQGLYLGXDOH��3ULQ��modele de condXLW �úL�FRQYLH XLUH�VH�LQL LD] �úL�vPSOLQHúWH�RUGLQHD�XPDQ � D� YLH LL��'DF � SULYLP�ELQHOH�PRUDO� GLQ� XQJKLXO� QHFHVLW LL�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

VDOH� VRFLDOH� úL� DO� VHPQLILFD LHL� XPDQLVWH�� QL� VH� SUH]LQW � FD� ILLQG�VFRSXO� VXSUHP� FH� WUHEXLH� XUP ULW� SHQWUX� HO� vQVXúL�� úL� QX� GRDU�pentru aYDQWDMHOH�� IRORDVHOH� SHUVRQDOH� SH� FDUH� QL� OH� SURFXU ��8UP P� ELQHOH� SHQWUX� F � GRULP� V � WU LP� XPDQ�� RPHQHúWH�� vQ� FHO�PDL�vQDOW�JUDG��DWkW�FkW�QH�VW �vQ�SXWLQ ��'DF �vQV �DERUG P�ELQHOH�GLQ� SHUVSHFWLYD� FRQVHFLQ HORU� úL� ILQDOLW LL� VRFLDOH� úL�VDX�individuale,� QL� VH� UHOHY � FD�PLMORF� LQGLVSHQVDELO� RULF URU� JHVWXUL��DFWH��VXFFHVH�ú�D��SH�FDUH�OH�GRULP�FD�V �ILH�úL�PRUDOLFHúWH�SR]LWLY�MXVWLILFDWH��'HFL��vQ�WRDWH�LSRVWD]HOH�VDOH��ELQHOH�SUH]LQW �FRQGL LLOH�úL� FULWHULLOH� XQHL� FRQYLH XLUL� GHPQH� SHQWUX� XPDQLWDWHD� GLQ� RP� úL�folositoare pentru oamenii reali. "Omul -� DUDW � ,PPDQXHO�.DQW� - HVWH� vQ� DGHY U� GHVWXO� GH� SURIDQ�� GDU� XPDQLWDWHD� GLQ� SHUVRDQD� OXL�WUHEXLH� V -L� ILH� VIkQW �� ÌQ� vQWUHDJD� FUHD LH�� WRW� FH� YUHP� úL� DVXSUD�F UXLD�DYHP�YUHR�SXWHUH�SRDWH�IL�IRORVLW�úL�QXPDL�FD�mijloc; numai RPXO�úL��vPSUHXQ �FX�HO��RULFH�FUHDWXU �UD LRQDO �HVWH�VFRS�vQ�VLQH���>�@�7UDWDUHD� ILLQ HL�XPDQH� WRWGHDXQD�FD� VFRS� vQ� VLQH�� úL�QLFLRGDW �ca mijloc, este obiectivul imperativului categoric de a urma GDWRULD�GLQ�UHVSHFW�SHQWUX�OHJHD�PRUDO ��3ULQ��ELQH��FRQúWLHQWL] P�R� YDORDUH�PRUDO � SR]LWLY �� GRULW �� F XWDW � úL� SUDFWLFDW �� VHQVXULOH�VDOH� DX� GLPHQVLXQL� LQGLFDWLYH�� SURLHFWLYH� úL� LPSHUDWLYH��solicitându-QH�DWkW� �SULQ�RULHQWDUHD�SH�FDUH�R�SURSXQH��FkW� úL�SULQ�REOLJD LH��vQGDWRULUHD�GH�D�QH�PDQLIHVWD întocmai. 3. Normele morale 1RUPDUHD� HVWH� R� FRPSRQHQW � LQGLVSHQVDELO � RULF UHL�DF LXQL�VRFLDOH��(D�FRQVW � vQ�SUHFL]DUHD�DFHORU�UHJXOL�FDUH�VDWLVIDF�QHYRLD� GH� RUJDQL]DUH�� VW SkQLUH�� UHJODUH� úL� GLULMDUH� D� RSHUD LLORU�prin care pot fi atinse anumite scRSXUL�� DWHQ LRQkQG�� vQ� DFHODúL�WLPS��DVXSUD�XQRU�IDFWRUL�úL�DF LXQL�FDUH�SRW�IL�VXUVH�GH�SHUWXUED LL��GHUHJO UL�� HúHFXUL� úL� VLWXD LL� QHGRULWH�� &DSDFLWDWHD� QRUPHORU� GH� D�UHJOHPHQWD� DF LXQLOH� LQGLYLGXDOH� úL� GH� JUXS� VH� vQWHPHLD] � SH�YDORUL�� LGHDOXUL� úL� FULWHULL� FROHFWLYH��1RUPHOH�PRUDOH� SURPRYHD] �

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

DQXPLWH�GHWHUPLQD LL� DOH�ELQHOXL� �FLQVWHD��JHQHUR]LWDWHD��PRGHVWLD�HWF���DWkW�VXE�DVSHFWXO�FRQ LQXWXOXL�YDORULF���FDOLW LOH��RPHQHúWL�FH�WUHEXLH� XUPDWH��� FkW� úL� DO� GDWRULHL�� LQWHQ LRQkQG� V � DUPRQL]H]H�universul a ceHD� FH� HVWH� GH]LUDELO� �VHPQLILFD LLOH� LGHDOH�� FX�VLWXD LLOH�FRQFUHWH��7RWRGDW ��DWUDJ�DWHQ LD�DVXSUD�WLSXULORU�GH�IDSWH�reprobabile, negative. Într-R�DFFHS LXQH�JHQHUDO ��QRUPHOH��PRUDOH�VWDELOHVF� OLPLWH� vQWUH� FDUH� VXQW� úL� SRW� IL� DFFHSWDWH� YDULD LXQL� DOH�coPSRUWDPHQWHORU� LQGLYLGXDOH�� DVWIHO� vQFkW� V � ILH� PHQ LQXWH�FRH]LXQHD�� VWDELOLWDWHD� úL� RPRJHQLWDWHD� VRFLHW LL� VDX� JUXSXOXL�VRFLDO��(OH�SURSXQ�VSUH� UHDOL]DUH� úL� LPSULP �DFWHORU�SHUVRQDOH�XQ�VFRS�PRUDO��FDUH�H[SULP �FULWHULL�FROHFWLYH�GH�HYDOXDUH�úL�DVSLUD LL YDOLGDWH� VRFLDO�� 'H� DFHHD�� QRUPHOH� PRUDOH� UHFRPDQG �� SUHVFULX��LQWHU]LF��SHUPLW��VDQF LRQHD] ��SUHYLQ��DQWLFLS �úL�DSUHFLD] �JHVWXUL��conduite, atitudini, fapte ale unui subiect real sau posibil. 1RUPD�PRUDO � HVWH� R� JHQHUDOL]DUH� D� H[SHULHQ HL� FROHFWLYH�FDUH� vúL� GRYHGHúWH� HILFLHQ D� vQ� DVLJXUDUHD� FRQYLH XLULL�� ILLQG�� GH�DFHHD�� WUDQVPLV �� GH� RELFHL�� VXE� IRUPD� XQHL� UHJXOL� SUDFWLFH��([SULP ULOH� VDOH� SRW� IL� LQVLVWHQW-recomandative ("fii generos"), SUHSRQGHUHQW� LPSHUDWLYH� ��WUHEXLH� V � ILL� FLQVWLW��� VDX� SURKLELWive ��QX� IL� HJRLVW��� �QX� WUHEXLH� V � ILL� QHFLQVWLW�� PLQFLQRV���� ÌQ�IRUPXO UL�SUHFLVH��DFHVWH�QRUPH�DUDW �VXELHFWXOXL�FH�WUHEXLH�V �IDF �úL�FH�QX�WUHEXLH�V �IDF �vQ�VLWXD LL�FRQFUHWH�GH�YLD ��FXP�WUHEXLH�V �ILH� úL� VH� H[FOXGH� V � ILH� SHQWUX� FD� PDQLIHVW ULOH� VDOH� V � LQWUH� vQ�FDWHJRULD� FHORU� �EXQH��� DGPLVH� úL� SUH XLWH� GH� VHPHQL�� 6SUH�GHRVHELUH� GH� QRUPHOH� MXULGLFH� FDUH� WUDQVPLW� REOLJD LL� FHW HQHVWL�HOHPHQWDUH�� UHJXOLOH� PRUDOH� RIHU � PRGHOH� GH� SHUIHFWLELOLWDWH�XPDQ ��'HúL�vQ�PRG�QHPLMORFLW�HOH�FHU�úL��vQ�DFHODúL�Wimp, atribuie DFWHORU� úL� DFWLYLW LORU� XQ� JUDG� GH� UD LRQDOL]DUH�� ULJRDUH��UHJXODULWDWH�� GLUHF LH� úL� VHQV�� DX� PLVLXQHD� GH� D� FRQWXUD� PRGHOH�XPDQH� FX� WU V WXUL� H[SOLFLWH� úL� GH� D� IRUPXOD� LPEROGXUL� VSUH�SUDFWLFDUHD�FDOLW LORU�SULQ�FDUH�ILLQ D�RPHQHDVF �vúL�SRDte înnobila SURSULD�VD�YLD �� Un ideal social este ansamblul coerent de laturi privitoare OD�PRGHOXO�HYROX LHL�LVWRULFH�- asumat spontan sau deliberat -�úL�OD�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

LGHDOXUL�GH�YLD ��(O�HVWH�R�DOWHUQDWLY �OD�YLD �VRFLDO �QHPLMORFLW ��'H� DFHHD�� SUHILJXUHD] � úL� XQ� PRGHO� GH� YLD � PRUDO � D� F UXL�DSOLFDUH�HVWH�REOLJD LH�LPHGLDW ��6FRSXULOH�DQWLFLSDWH�vQ�SODQ�VRFLDO�VROLFLW �DWLWXGLQL�úL�FRPSRUWDPHQWH�DGHFYDWH��VWLOXUL�GH�SDUWLFLSDUH�úL� UHVSRQVDELOLW L�� GHFL� R� DVHPHQHD� RULHQWDUH� YDORULF � D�raporturilor interumane vQFkW�V �ILH�DVLJXUDWH�FRQGL LLOH�VXELHFWLYH�LQGLVSHQVDELOH� UHDOL] ULL� SURLHFWHORU� FROHFWLYH��'H� DFHHD�� QRUPHOH�PRUDOH� DQWLFLS � XQ� WLS� XPDQ�� SUHVFULX� úL� SURSXQ� VIDWXUL� GH�FRQGXLW �� 'HúL�� GH� FHOH� PDL� PXOWH� RUL�� IXQF LLOH� QRUPDWLYH� VXQW�formulate apodictic (�WUHEXLH� V � ������ �HVWH� REOLJDWRULX� FD� V �������PRUDOD�QX�SRDWH�IL�UHGXV �OD�VLVWHPXO�GDWRULLORU�VRFLDOH��FL�WUHEXLH�V �LD�vQ�FRQVLGHUD LH�úL�RPXO�LQGLYLGXDO��FX�DVSLUD LLOH��F XW ULOH�úL�vQFOLQD LLOH� VDOH�� ÌQ� SURFHVXO� LQGLYLGXDOL] ULL�� PRUDOD� vúL�completeD] �FDUDFWHUXO�FRQYHQ LRQDO�GH�LQVWDQ �H[WHULRDU �FX�W ULD�VDX� IUDJLOLWDWHD� PRWLYD LLORU� SH� FDUH� OH� SULPHúWH� vQ� SVLKRORJLD�RDPHQLORU�FRQFUH L��'LQ�QRUPDUH�H[WHULRDU �� VRFLDOPHQWH�SURSXV �úL� LPSXV ��PRUDOD� WUHEXLH� V � VH� FRQVWLWXLH� FD� QRUPDUH� LQWHULRDU ��suUV �GH�DXWRFRQVWUkQJHUL��DVWIHO�vQFkW�FRQ LQXWXULOH�VDOH�V �GHYLQ �PRELOXUL� SHUVRQDOH� GH� DF LXQH�� $FFHQWXDUHD� DVSHFWHORU�LQWHUGLF LRQDOH� úL� LPSHUDWLYH� QX� HVWH� XQ� DUJXPHQW� SHQWUX�YDOLGLWDWHD� úL� H[HPSODULWDWHD� XQXL� FRG� PRUDO�� FL�� PDL� GHJUDE ��VHPQDOHD] � R� OLSV ��2�PRUDO � FDUH� LQKLE � SULQ� LQWHUGLF LL� úL� SULQ�LQYRFDUHD�XQRU�GDWRULL��vQGDWRULUL��QHFRQGL LRQDWH�GHPRQVWUHD] �F �YDORULOH� úL� LGHDOXULOH� VDOH� QX� VXQW� SUDFWLFDWH� VSRQWDQ�� SULQ�DWDúDPHQW� ILUHVF��0RUDOD� IXQGDW � SUHSRQGHUHQW� SH� LGHHD� GDWRULHL�UHXúHúWH�� vQ� FHO� PDL� IHULFLW� FD]�� GRDU� LQRFXODUHD� � VkUJXLQ HL�� D�FRUHFWLWXGLQLL� IRUPDOH� ID � GH� QRUPH�� VIkUúLQG� vQ� FRPSRUWDPHQWH�QHSUREOHPDWLFH�FH�GRYHGHVF�F �HVWH�LQWHULRUL]DW ��GLQ�WHDP ��GRDU�H[LJHQ D���WUHEXLH�V �IDF�DVWIHO��SHQWUX�F �DOWIHO�QX�VH�SRDWH��QX�H�permiV����vQ�WLPS�FH�IRQGXO�YDORULF�U PkQH�H[WHULRU�VXELHFWLYLW LL�individuale. 1X� WRDWH� YDORULOH� PRUDOH� VXQW� úL� SRW� IL� FRQFUHWL]DWH� vQ�VWUXFWXUL� QRUPDWLYH�� 'H� SLOG �� FRUHFWLWXGLQHD� HVWH� HGXFDELO � úL�SRDWH� IL� WUDQVPLV � SULQ� UHJXOL� GH� DF LXQH�� GDU� QX� DFHODúL� lucru se

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

vQWkPSO � FX� QREOH HD� PRUDO �� FDUH� -� GLQFROR� GH� SUHGLVSR]L LL�LQWHULRDUH�� WHPSHUDPHQWDOH� úL� GH� FDUDFWHU� -� DQWUHQHD] � RUL]RQWXUL�GH�WU LUH�PRUDO �úL�YLUWX L�FDUH�QX�SRW�IL�QRUPDWH��$úD�FXP�UHPDUF �N.Hartmann, "vitejia, dragostea, capacitatea de jertI �VXQW�JUHX�GH�LQFXOFDW� SULQ� HGXFD LH�� YUHGQLFLD�� FRQVWDQ D�� GUDJRVWHD� GH� RUGLQH��VW SkQLUHD�GH�VLQH�úL�FRQWUROXO�SURSULX�SRW�IL��I U � vQGRLDO ��DWLQVH�vQ� PDUH� P VXU � SH� FDOHD� vQGUXP ULL� SHGDJRJLFH�� - în anumite OLPLWH�� GHVLJXU�� úL� VLP XO� U VSXQGHULL�� ILGHOLW LL�� VLP XO� GUHSW LL�HWF��� >�@� 1RUPHOH� DX� R� IRUP � DEVWUDFW �� JHQHUDO �� LPSHUVRQDO ��QXPDL� SULQ� LQWHULRUL]DUHD� GLPHQVLXQLORU� YDORULFH� VH� RE LQH� R�DGHY UDW � UHJOHPHQWDUH� D� FRPSRUWDPHQWHORU� GLQO XQWUXO� WU LULORU�XPDQH� úL� QX� SULQWU-un conformism plat. PeUVRQDOLWDWHD� XPDQ � VH�FRQVWLWXLH�SULQ�DUPRQL]DUHD�GDWRULHL�VXELHFWLY�UHVLP LW ��DQWLFLSDWH�úL� F XWDWH� FX� GDWRULD� VRFLDO �� RELHFWLY �� LPSXV � GLQ� H[WHULRU��5HVSHFWXO� SHQWUX� QRUPH� QX� SRDWH� IL� UHGXV� OD� VLPSOD� PRUDO � D�corectitudinii, ci trebuie integrat într-o� PRUDO � D� FRQYLQJHULL��RULHQWDW �VSUH�VHPQLILFD LL�úL�WHPHLXUL�XPDQLVWH��úL��VLPXOWDQ��vQWU-R�PRUDO �D�UHVSRQVDELOLW LL�ID �GH�FRQVHFLQ HOH�DFWHORU�QRDVWUH�� ���&RQYLQJHUHD�PRUDO ÌQ�H[SHULHQ D�PRUDO � LQWHUYLQ�SUHVXSR]L LL�DIHFWLYH��IDFWRUL�prerefle[LYL�� FRQ LQXWXUL� JUHX� VRQGDELOH�� D[LRPH� VXIOHWHúWL�QHFRQúWLHQWL]DWH�� LPSXOVXUL� úL� SDVLXQL� SVLKR-sociale care devin DFWLYH� SULQ� MXGHF L� úL� SUHMXGHF L�� PHQWDOLW L�� FRQYHQ LL�DSUHFLDWLYH�úL�UHSHUH�LGHDOH��(VWH�VLPSWRPDWLF��vQ�DFHVW�VHQV��IDSWXO�F �GXUDWD�úL�HILFLHQ D�XQXL�FRG�-�FDUH�HVWH�R�SURLHF LH�DVXSUD�D�FHHD�FH� WUHEXLH� V � ILH� RPXO� -� VH� vQWHPHLD] � SH� VDFUDOL]DUHD� DQXPLWRU�UHSHUH�D[LRORJLFH��VHPQLILFD LL��PRWLYD LL��FULWHULL�� HOXUL�úL�QRUPH���DWDúDPHQWXO� VSRQWDQ� úL� DFRUGDUHD� XQXL� FUHGLW� QHFRQGL LRQDW�conferindu-OH�VWDWXWXO�GH�UHDOLW L-HWDORQ��UHDOLW L-imperativ pentru DILUPDUHD� XPDQLW LL� GLQ� RP�� 2U�� VDFUDOL]DUHD� YDORULORU� PRUDOH�LPSOLF �� VXE� UDSRUW� SVLKRORJLF�� FUHGLQ D� vQ� FHHD� FH� VH� SURSXQH� úL�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

SUXGHQ D� HJRLVW � VDX� WHDPD� GH� VXIHULQ H�� 'H� DFHHD�� SHQWUX� D�YDORUL]D�IHULFLUHD��H�QHYRLH�GH�R�VFKLPEDUH�GH�RSWLF ��V �ILH�Y ]XW �FD�VDWLVIDF LH�YDORULF �� ÌQWUXFkW� QX� SXWHP� IDFH� GLQ� VLPSOH� VW UL� SVLKRORJLFH�(sentimente, doULQ H�� FDSULFLL�� vQFOLQD LL�� WHPHUL�� LQVWLQFWH� ú�D���HWDORDQH� GH� FRQGXLW � PRUDO �� IHULFLUHD� DXWHQWLF � SUHVXSXQH�disciplinarea moral-YDORULF � D�YLH LL� úL�� vQ� FRQVHFLQ �� GHSLQGH�GH�DFWXDOL]DUHD� SURLHFWHORU� SULQ� LQL LDWLY � úL� WUXG �� ,GHDOXO� GH� YLD �IXQF LRQHD] � VXE� IRUPD� XQXL� UD LRQDPHQW� LSRWHWLF� ��GDF ������"atunci..."). Fericirile iluzorii omit datele reale ale problemei, LGHDOL]HD] �úL�LSRVWD]HD] �GRULQ H�OLSVLWH�GH�P VXU ��RIHULQG��DVWIHO��YRLQ HL� HOXUL�ILFWLYH��&D�WU LUH��IHULFLUHD�SUHVXSXQH��SXQHUHD�vntre SDUDQWH]H��� L]RODUHD� SUHWH[WXOXL� UHDO� FDUH� SURYRDF � PXO XPLUHD��lipsa de interes pentru aspectele stânjenitoare, anularea spiritului FULWLF�SHQWUX�FD� DIHFWHOH� V � VH� LQWHQVLILFH�SULQ� IL[DUHD�H[FOXVLY � D�LQWHUHVXOXL� SH� FRQ LQXWXULOH� FRQYHQDELOH�� $úDGDU� starea SVLKRORJLF �GH�IHULFLUH�QX�H�SURGXV �VSRQWDQ�GH�F WUH�PRWLYXO��VDX�PRPHQWXO��FH�QH�VDWLVIDFH��FL� LQH�GH�DSWLWXGLQHD�SHUVRQDO �GH�D�IL�IHULFLW��GH�FDSDFLWDWHD�GH�D�LJQRUD�ERJ LD�UHDOLW LL��WHPSRUDOLWDWHD�úL� YDULHWDWHD� SURSULLORU� WUHEXLQ H�� ÌQWUXFkW� VH� VLPWH� F � DFHVWH�VXVSHQG UL�VXQW�SURYL]RULL��VWDUHD�GH�IHULFLUH�FXSULQGH�IDVFLQD LL�úL�WHQWD LL� XúRU� WHP WRDUH�� 3UHVLXQHD� UHDOLW LL� DUDW � F � PXOW� PDL�LPSRUWDQW �GHFkW�F XWDUHD�IHULFLULL��GHFkW�SURYRFDUHD��FX�RULFH�SUH ��D� DFHVWHL� VW UL� SVLKRORJLFH� U PkQH� SUHRFXSDUHD� GH� D� vQO WXUD�VXUVHOH�QHIHULFLULL�SURSULL�úL�VSHFWDFROXO�QHIHULFLULL�VHPHQLORU�- ceea FH�SUHVXSXQH�IRU �PRUDO �úL�FRQúWLLQ D�IDSWXOXL�F �QX�WRW�FHHD�FH�ne-DU� SXWHD� EXFXUD� PHULW � V � ILH� RELHFW� DO� SDVLXQLL�� �2� IHULFLUH�FRQWLQX �-�SUHFL]HD] Friedrich Schiller -�GHYLQH�R�SLHGLF �SHQWUX�YLUWXWH�� 1XPHVF� IHULFLW� SH� FHO� FDUH�� SHQWUX� D� JXVWD� SO FHULOH� úL�EXFXULLOH�� QX� H� FRQVWUkQV� V � IDF � QHGUHSW L�� LDU� SHQWUX� D� DF LRQD�MXVW�QX�H�FRQVWUkQV�V �vQGXUH�QLFL�VXIHULQ �úL�QLFL�OLSVXUL���>��@ ÌQFOLQD LD� H[FHVLY � VSUH� IHULFLUH� RFROHúWH� FX� VXSOH H�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

LPEROGXULOH� GDWRULHL� PRUDOH�� VDX� OH� PLPHD] � FRQYLQJ WRU��GHRDUHFH� HVWH� PDL� SXWHUQLF� LPSXOVXO� GH� D� YDORULILFD� VLWXD LLOH�LVSLWLWRDUH�� GH� D� FHGD� FkQG� VH� LYHúWH� SULOHMXO� VDWLVIDFHULL� XQRU�GRULQ H��SO FHUL��FDSULFLL��WHQWD LL�úL�VFRSXUL�PDL�PXOW�VDX�PDL�SX LQ�vQGRLHOQLFH�� ,XELUHD� H[DJHUDW � GH� VLQH� SRDWH� vPEU FD�� vQV �� úL�IRUPH�PXOW�PDL�SHUYHUVH�vQ�PRELOL]DUHD�YRLQ HL��OLSVD�GH�VFUXSXOH��SURGXFHUHD�U XOXL�FX�EXQ �úWLLQ ��'H�DFHHD��PRUDOD�QX-úL�SURSXQH�V � GHD� VIDWXUL� DVXSUD� PRGXOXL� vQ� FDUH� SXWHP� V � QH� SURFXU P�IHULFLUHD�� FL� IRUPXOHD] � DFHOH� H[LJHQ H� SH� FDUH� OH� GRYHGHúWH�IHULFLUHD� GHPQ �� DXWHQWLF �� DU WkQG� �FXP� GHYHQLP� YUHGQLFL� GH�IHULFLUH���,�.DQW���$úD�FXP�SUHFL]HD] �$�&DPXV���GDF �QX�F XW P�GHFkW� IHULFLUHD�� VIkUúLP� vQ� IDFLOLWDWH�� 'DF � QX� FXOWLY P� GHFkW�QHIHULFLUHD�� VIkUúLP� SULQ� D� QH� FRPSODFH� vQ� HD�� ÌQ� DPkQGRX �FD]XULOH��R�GHYDORUL]DUH��� >��@�3HQWUX�D�HYLWD�DVHPHQHD�SRODUL] UL�H[FOXVLYH� GHGXVH�� vQ� XOWLP � LQVWDQ �� GLQ� SUHGLVSR]L LL� úL�VHQWLPHQWH��WUHEXLH�DFFHSWDW �LGHHD�F �IHULFLUHD�QX�SRDWH�IL� HO�FDUH�DQJDMHD] �YRLQ D��QX�SRDWH�DYHD�FDOLWDWHD�GH�VFRS�VXSUHP�DO�DFWHORU�YLH LL�� GHFL� QX� HVWH� R� YDORDUH� LQWHQ LRQDW � H[SUHV�� FL� �PXO XPLUHD�GXUDELO � D� YRLQ HL� SULQ� vQGHSOLQLUHD� GRULQ HORU� úL� UHDOL]DUHD�scopurilor" [18] valide moral. ���6HQVXO�YLH LL &kQG�SULYLP�YLD D�GLQ�SXQFWXO�GH�YHGHUH�DO�VHQVXOXL��YL] P�IDSWXO� F � HD� QX� HVWH�� SHQWUX� RP�� VLPSO � VXFHVLXQH� GH� SURLHFWH��GRULQ H�� DF LXQL�� UH]XOWDWH�� F XW UL� úL� HúHFXUL�� FL� DUH� R� DQXPLW �FXUVLYLWDWH��RULHQWDUH�úL�XQLWDWH�YDORULF ���&LQH�FDXW �VHQVXO�YLH LL�- DUDW �7DGHXV]�.RWDUELQVNL� -� HVWH�SUHRFXSDW�FD� DF LXQLOH� OXL� V � QX�ILH� OLSVLWH� GH� VFRS�� ED�� PDL� SUHFLV�� FD� DFWLYLWDWHD� OXL� V � QX� VH�HSXL]H]H� vQ� DF LXQL� I U � LPSRUWDQ �� FL� V � VH� SRDW � OHJLWLPD� SULQ�DGHFYDUHD� OD� XQ� HO� GHPQ de a i se sacrifica eforturile cele mai LQWHQVH���>��@�(ULFK�)URPP�DSUHFLD] �F ��GHYRWDPHQWXO�PDQLIHVWDW�GH�RP�ID �GH�R�FDX] ��GH�R�LGHH�VDX�GH�R�SXWHUH�WUDQVFHQGHQW �HVWH�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

H[SUHVLD� XQHL� QHYRL� GH� FRPSOHWLWXGLQH� vQ� SURFHVXO� YLH LL���concretizându-se în "caGUH� GH� RULHQWDUH� úL� GH� GHYR LXQH��� >��@�6HQVXO�H[LVWHQ HL�SHUVRQDOH�H[SULP �GRULQ D�GH�D�FRQIHUL�YLH LL� vQ�DQVDPEOX�XQ� vQ HOHV�� XQ� URVW�� R� UD LRQDOLWDWH�� ILLQG� DWLWXGLQHD�SULQ�FDUH� RPXO� WUDWHD] � YLD D� FD� YDORDUH� ��QX� WU LHVF� RULFkW�� GH� DFHHD��YLD D�� FD� SURFHV� ELRORJLF�� HVWH� SHQWUX�PLQH� R� YDORDUH��� úL� DILUP �SULQ�HD�YDORUL���QX�WU LHVF�RULFkW��GH�DFHHD�QX�SRW�WU L�RULFXP����vQ�IXQF LH� GH� FDUH� MXVWLILF � úL� DSUHFLD] � WRDWH� DFWHOH� LQWUHSULQVH��$úDGDU��VHQVXO�YLH LL�VH�UHIHU �OD�FDSDFLWDWHD�LQGLYLGXOXL�GH�D-úL�WU L�YLD D�vQ�FKLS�XPDQ��GH�D-L�GD�VHPQLILFD LL�SH� �FDUH�HD�- ca proces biologic - nu le are. 2S LXQHD� SHQWUX� R� DQXPLW � JULO � YDORULF �� ID � GH� FDUH�LQGLYLGXDOLWDWHD�XPDQ � VLPWH�XQ� DWDúDPHQW�DIHFWLY�� FDS W �FRQWXU�SULQ� LGHDOXO� GH� YLD �� 1XPDL� DVWIHO� YDORUile sunt propuse spre UHDOL]DUH��VXQW�JkQGLWH�vQ�WHUPHQLL�DF LXQLL��QHILLQG�VLPSOH�UHSHUH�úL�FULWHULL�DSUHFLDWLYH��FL�LPSHUDWLYH��QRUPH�SHQWUX�WRW�FHHD�FH�IDFH�úL�VSHU �SHUVRDQD�UHVSHFWLY ��HOHPHQWHOH�XQHL�PDQLHUH�XQLFH�GH�D�IL��,GHDOXO� SULQ� FDUH� GRULP� V � FRQIHULP� VHQV� SURSULHL� YLH L� HVWH�� GH�IDSW��VFRSXO�JOREDO�DO�LQL LDWLYHORU�úL�HIRUWXULORU�FRWLGLHQH��'H�HO�QH�DSURSLHP� DVLPSWRWLF�� 'LULMDUHD� UHODWLY� VLVWHPDWLF � D� FRQGXLWHL��DFWHORU� úL� DF LXQLORU�� RUJDQL]DUHD� �FOLSHL�� GXS � MDORDQH� FDUH� WUHF�dincolo de ea dHWHUPLQ �FD�YLD D�SHUVRQDO �V �QX�ILH�GRDU�WRWDOL]DUH�VXPDWLY �D�H[SHULHQ HL��FL�WRWDOLWDWH�RPRJHQ ��WUDLHFWRULH�PRGHODW �vQ� WLPS�GLQ�SHUVSHFWLYD�XQXL� HO� VXSUHP��'H�DFHHD�� YLD D�FX� VHQV�HVWH� YLD D� WU LW � -� FD� WRWDOLWDWH�� QX� vQ� PRG� QHFHVDU� úL� vQ� WRDWH�DP Quntele sale -�FD�YDORDUH��&X�DOWH�FXYLQWH��SURLHF LD�vQ�YLLWRU�- GXS �XQ� VLVWHP�GH�YDORUL� úL� R� DQXPLW �YL]LXQH� D� OXPLL� -� WUDVHD] �GLUHF LLOH�DF LXQLORU��VFRSXULORU��DWLWXGLQLORU�FRWLGLHQH��DUPRQL]HD] �H[SHULHQ HOH�GH�YLD �úL�OH�G �R�UD LXQH�GH�D�IL��LDU�RPXO��SH�P VXU �FH� VH� DSURSLH� WHQGHQ LDO� GH� PRGHO�� DUH� VDWLVIDF LD� vPSOLQLULL�SHUVRQDOH�� �9LD D� - în opinia lui Erich Fromm - nu are alt sens decât acela pe care i-O� FRQIHU � ILHFDUH�� GH]YROWkQGX-úL�SRVLELOLW LOH�� WU LQG� vQWU-un mod productiv", [21] creator, nu YHJHWDWLY��/D�IHO�GH�HYLGHQW�HVWH��vQV ��úL�IDSWXO�F �VHQVXO�QX�HVWH�R�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

vQVXúLUH� D� RPXOXL� FD� ILLQ � QDWXUDO �� FL� R� FDOLWDWH� VRFLDO �� 6HQVXO�H[LVWHQ HL�XPDQH�HVWH�LQVWLWXLW�GH�RP�SULQ�DF LXQHD�vQVXúLULORU�VDOH�psiho-VRFLDOH�� DUH� R� JHQH] � OD� QLYHO� LVWRULF� úL� LQGLYLGXDO�� VH�PDQLIHVW � WRWGHDXQD� vQWU-un context socio-HFRQRPLF� úL� FXOWXUDO�concret. 6LVWHPXO�YDORULORU�FROHFWLYH�FRQGL LRQHD] �IRUPH�VSHFLILFH�GH� LQGLYLGXDOLWDWH�� ÌQ� FRQGL LL� LVWRULFH� GHWHUPLQDWH�� VHQVXO� DUH�FDUDFWHULVWLFLOH� RELHFWLYLW LL�� VLVWHmul de valori, norme, obiceiuri RULHQWHD] � DF LXQLOH� úL� GH]YROWDUHD� OD� QLYHO� VRFLDO� JOREDO�� LDU�LQGLYLGXO� HVWH� IRUPDW� úL� VH� IRUPHD] � HO� vQVXúL� SH� VLQH� vQ� DFHVWH�FDGUH� YDORULFH�� 6FRSXO� YLH LL� QX� HVWH� vQV � SUHVWDELOLW�� VW � OD�vQGHPkQD�ILHF UXLD�FD�V �DLE �úL�V �PDQLIHVWH�SUHIHULQ �SHQWUX�XQ�PRGHO� VDX� DOWXO� GH� YLD �� 6XE� DFHVW� DVSHFW�� UHYHODWRDUH� VXQW�SURFHVHOH� GH� LQWHULRUL]DUH� D� YDORULORU�� GH� PRWLYDUH� SHUVRQDO � D�VHQVXOXL�YLH LL�úL�GH�H[HUFLWDUH�D�FDSDFLW LL�SURSULL�GH�UH]LVWHQ �vQ�ID D�LVWRULHL��8QLL�RDPHQL�VH�LQWHJUHD] �vQ�YLD �VRFLDO �I U �D�JkQGL�SURIXQG� DVXSUD� VHPQLILFD LHL� SH� FDUH� R� GDX� YLH LL� ORU� YDORULOH� SH�FDUH� OH� DFFHSW �� (VWH�� vQV �� GHS úLW� VWDGLXO� XQRU� VLPSOH� UHDF LL�SVLKRORJLFH� VSRQWDQH� ID � GH� PHGLX� DWXQFL� FkQG� XUPHD] � R�LQWHULRUL]DUH� FULWLF � D� YDORULORU� FH� VWDX� OD� WHPHOLD� FXOWXULL� úL�FLYLOL]D LHL� vQ� UHVSHFWLYD� VRFLHWDWH�� WU LQGX-OH� FD� SH� R� SUREOHP �SHUVRQDO ��FkQG�VH�DGHU �OD�UHVSHFWLYXO�VLVWHP�GH�YDORUL��VDX�FD�SH�R�FRQWUDGLF LH��DWXQFL�FkQG�YDORULOH�VH�RSXQ�DOWRU�YDORUL���5H]XOW ��astfel, cristalizarea unei atitudini personale (de acceptare sau UHVSLQJHUH� D� YDORULORU� SH� FDUH� FROHFWLYLWDWHD� OH� SURSXQH� úL�VDX�LPSXQH�PHPEULORU�V L��úL�QHFHVLWDWHD�LQWHULRDU �GH�D�DYHD�XQ�LGHDO�SULQ�FDUH�VH�OHJLWLPHD] �URVWXO�VRFLDO-XPDQ�DO�SURSULHL�YLH L�� DesiJXU�� SHQWUX� D� SHUFHSH� YLD D� FD� DYkQG� XQ� VHQV�� SDUH�VXILFLHQW� FD� FLQHYD� V � DLE � VW UL� GH� PXO XPLUH� úL� IHULFLUH��sentimentul împlinirii în ceea ce face. Dar sensul autentic este un fenomen etico-VRFLDO��FX�R�GXEO �PRWLYDUH��SVLKRORJLF �úL�VRFLDO ��Prin urmarH��VXQW�GHPQH�GH�SUH XLW�úL�LPSHULRV�GH�DVXPDW� HOXULOH�FDUH�DILUP �RPXO�FD�YDORDUH��VXQW�IRORVLWRDUH�YLH LL�vQ�FRPXQ��VXQW�S WUXQVH� GH� JULMD� úL� UHVSHFWXO� ID � GH� XPDQLWDWH�� 6HQVXO� YLH LL�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

GHSLQGH��I U �vQGRLDO ��GH�PRGXO�vQ�FDUH�RSW P�SHQWUX�XQ�PRGHO�GH�viD ��GH�vPSUHMXU ULOH� LVWRULFH��GDU�úL�GH�FDSDFLWDWHD�GH�UHDF LH�vQ�ID D� SURFHVHORU� LVWRULFR-VRFLDOH�� ÌQ HOHJHP�SULQ� DFHDVW � F � DVXSUD�IHOXOXL�vQ�FDUH�ILHFDUH�RP�WU LHúWH�YLD D�vúL�SXQH�DPSUHQWD�FOLPDWXO�PDWHULDO�úL�VSLULWXDO��PHGLLOH�XPDQH��DSWLWXGLQLOH�Sroprii dovedite, DVSLUD LLOH� FH� SRW� IL� ILQDOL]DWH�� DWLWXGLQHD� DGRSWDW � vQ� ID D� YLH LL��P VXUD�vQ�FDUH�LGHDOXULOH�VXQW�FODUH�úL�SRW�IL�XUPDWH�FX�PLMORDFH�OD�vQGHPkQ � ú�D�P�G�� 3XWHUHD� GH� UHDF LH� SHUVRQDO � vQ� ID D� PHUVXOXL�LVWRULF� VH� FRQFUHWL]HD] �� vQ� SULPXO� rând, în alegerea idealului de YLD �� GLQFROR� GH� MRFXO� QHIDVW� DO� FRQMXQFWXULORU�� úL�� vQ� DO� GRLOHD�UkQG�� SULQ� DSURSLHUHD� YLH LL� HIHFWLYH� GH� DFHVW� LGHDO�� &kQG� H[LVW �FRQVHQV� vQWUH� YL]LXQHD� LQGLYLGXDO � DVXSUD� YLH LL� úL� YDORULOH� XQHL�FXOWXUL��VH�SRDWH�VSXQH�F ��vQ�SULQFLSLX��L]EXWLUHD�vQ�YLD �GHSLQG�vQ�PDUH� P VXU � GH� PRELOL]DUHD� FDSDFLW LORU�� HQHUJLHL�� VHULR]LW LL��'DU��vQWUH�PRGXO�SURSULX�XQXL�LQGLYLG�GH�D�YHGHD�YLD D�úL�LGHDOXULOH�JUXSXOXL� VDX� VRFLHW LL� VH� SRDWH� SURGXFH� XQ� FRQIOLFW� D[LRORJLF��Acesta const � vQ� OLSVD� GH� DFRUG� DVXSUD� DOHJHULL� úL� H[SHULHQ HL�VHQVXOXL� YLH LL�� 6XQW� SRVLELOH� FkWHYD� WLSXUL� GH� VLWXD LL�� ���8QHRUL��XQLL� RDPHQL� RSWHD] � SHQWUX� IDOVH� YDORUL�� SUDFWLFkQG� DWLWXGLQL�individualiste, egoiste, îndoielnice sub raport moral, pe care le opun celor promovate de societate. Asemenea proiecte VXELHFWLYLVWH� LQWU � vQ� FRQWUDGLF LH� FX� LPSHUDWLYHOH� FRQYLH XLULL��ILLQG� OLSVLWH� GH� LGHDO�PRUDO� úL� UHVSRQVDELOLWDWH�� ���&kQG�RS LXQLOH�contravin sistemului valoric-social, dar nu au justificare strict SHUVRQDO �� FL� DS U �DQXPLWH� LQWHUHVH�JHQHUDOH�� HOH�DX� vQVHPQ WDWH�LVWRULF �� ÌQV �� HILFDFLWDWHD� DFHVWRU� OX UL� GH� SR]L LH� GHS úHúWH�SXWHULOH� XQXL� RP�� ILLQG� QHFHVDU � UHSOLFD� XQRU� IRU H� FROHFWLYH�� ���Conflictul axiologic este difuz, când sunt respinse anumite valori sociDOH��LDU�DFHDVW �UHDF LH��GHúL�VH�vQWHPHLD] �SH�UHDOLW L�HYLGHQWH��QX� UHXúHúWH� V � RSXQ � DOWH� VHPQLILFD LL� YLDELOH�� GHFL� QX� RIHU �DOWHUQDWLYH� UHDOLVWH�� FL� GRDU� JHVWXUL� GH� QHPXO XPLUH�� DWLWXGLQL�QLKLOLVWH��VW UL�GH�DSDWLH�VDX�GH]RULHQWDUH�� 2S LXQLOH� úL� GHciziile valorice se recunosc în stiluri de YLD �� DYkQG� URVWXUL� LPSHUDWLYH� úL� UHJODWRULL� vQ� UDSRUW� FX� DF LXQL��

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

DWLWXGLQL�� GHOLEHU UL� úL� FRPSRUWDPHQWH� ]LOQLFH�� 'H� DFHHD��UHSUH]HQWDUHD� DQWLFLSDW � D� FHHD� FH� YUHP� V � ILP� �VHQVXO� GRULW� úL�DVXPDW�DO�YLH LL��DUH�IRU �SUDFWLF ��$VXPDUHD�PRGHOXOXL�SUHVXSXQH�SRVWXODUHD� SUHIHULQ HORU� SHQWUX� DQXPLWH� VFRSXUL� SUHFLVH�� FDUH�� GH�fapt, sunt rezultatul alegerii printr-XQ� DSHO� FRQWLQXX� OD� FULWHULL� úL�HVWLP UL�� $O WXUL� GH� FRQYLQJHUHD� F � YLD D� �GDF � VH� vQFDGUHD] � vQ�DúWHSW ULOH�QRDVWUH��DUH�XQ�VHQV��VH�HYLGHQ LD] ��vQ�SUDFWLFD�YLH LL��DUWD� GH� D� XUP UL� DFWXDOL]DUHD� HOXOXL� VXSUHP� vQ� FRQWDFW� FX�UHDOLW LOH�QHPLMORFLWH��QDWXUDOH��VRFLR-FXOWXUDOH��VW UL�ELR-psihice), FRPSOH[H� úL� GLQDPLFH�� 6HQVXO� UHDO� DO� YLH LL� HVWH� UDSRUWXO� GLQWUH�cHHD�FH�IDFHP��UH]XOWDWHOH�FHUWH�DOH�DFWLYLW LL�QRVWUH�úL��SH�GH�DOW �parte, ceea ce ne-DP�SURSXV�V �ILP�úL�V �UHDOL] P��'DF �YLD D��vQWU-R�HWDS �D�VD��GDWRULW �DF LXQLORU�UHXúLWH��VH�vQFDGUHD] �GLQ�SXQFW�GH�YHGHUH� YDORULF� vQ� SURLHF LD� LGHDO �� SXWHP� VSXQH� F � HD� UHDOL]HD] �VHQVXO�úL�HVWH�WU LW �FX�VDWLVIDF LH��)HULFLUHD�HVWH�WRFPDL�DFHVW�HIHFW�PXO XPLWRU�SH�FDUH�vO�DUH�vQ�VXELHFWLYLWDWH�FRQFRUGDQ D�PRPHQWDQ �a succesului actelor noastre cotidiene cu valorile propuse spre realizare. Sigur, ea are o inevitabil � GR] � GH� UHODWLYLWDWH�SVLKRORJLF ��vQWUXFkW��DO WXUL�GH�DUJXPHQWHOH�HYLGHQWH�RIHULWH�GH�úL�SULQ�DF LXQL�SHUVHYHUHQWH��LQWU �vQ�HFXD LH�vQFOLQD LL�úL�SUHGLVSR]L LL�DSUHFLDWLYH� VWULFW� SHUVRQDOH� �HYDOXDUHD� UH]XOWDWHORU�� H[LJHQ D� ID �GH� VLQH��QLYHOXO�DVSLUD LLORU��GRULQ HOH� LPHGLDWH�� VWDUHD�ELR-SVLKLF �ú�D���� ,PSOLFLW�VDX�H[SOLFLW��D�XUP UL�XQ�VHQV�DO�YLH LL�HFKLYDOHD] �FX� DúH]DUHD� OD� WHPHOLD� H[LVWHQ HL� QRDVWUH� D� XQHL� FRQFHS LL� GHVSUH�OXPH� úL� RP�� D- L� vPSOLQL� GHPQ� FDOLWDWHD� GH� ILLQ � RPHQHDVF ��Angajarea moUDO � QH� GHVFKLGH� VSUH� FHLODO L�� IRUPHD] � QHYRLD� GH�DSURDSHOH� FX� FDUH� FRQYLH XLP�� WUH]HúWH� úL� IRUWLILF � VROLGDULWDWHD��FRQúWLLQ D�YDORULL�LQHVWLPDELOH�D�XPDQLW LL�GLQ�RP��$FHOH�LGHDOXUL�FDUH� QX� VXQW� SXVH� vQ� VOXMED� FHORUODO L� GHYLQ� V UDFH� úL� HJRLVWH��DimensLXQHD� PRUDO � D� VHQVXOXL� YLH LL� -� vQ� DIDUD� F UHLD� QLFL� QX�H[LVW ��GH�IDSW��DXWHQWLFLWDWH�-�WUHEXLH�V �ILH�SUH]HQW �úL�vQGHSOLQLW �H[HPSODU� vQ� ILHFDUH�DF LXQH� FRWLGLDQ ��DWkW� SULQ� VFRSXULOH� LPHGLDW�DOHVH��FkW�úL�SULQ�PLMORDFHOH�IRORVLWH�SHQWUX�DFWXDOL]DUHD�ORU��'DF �

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

cele mai multe laturi ale idealului sunt cucerite procesual, din DSURDSH� vQ� DSURDSH�� SULQ� DFWH� VXFFHVLYH� úL� SULQ� FXPXODUHD�UH]XOWDWHORU�SR]LWLYH��SUDFWLFD�PRUDO �HVWH�FHD�FDUH�SRDWH�DUPRQL]D�-�QHPLMORFLW��GH�ILHFDUH�GDW �-�PRPHQWHOH�YLH LL��vQFHSknd de la cele mai semnificative la simplele evenimente curente. Tensiunile VXIOHWHúWL� -� SURYHQLWH� GLQ� RSR]L LD� FOLS -viitor, prezent-ideal, VSHUDQ H� YDORULFH� -� UHDOL]DUHD�vQI SWXLUHD� YDORULORU�� SUHFXP� úL� GLQ�UHFXQRDúWHUHD�SUHFDULW LORU�FH�vQVR HVF�ILLQ D�RPHQHDVF �SULQ�OXPH�-�QX�VXQW�DQXODWH��QLFL�VROX LRQDWH��FL�FDS W �R�VWUXFWXUDUH�YDORULF �vQ� FDUH� SULPHD] � FRHUHQ D� PRUDO � D� YLH LL� úL� WkOFXO� XPDQLVW� DO�gesturilor exemplare. De aceea, eforturile de individualizare FDS W � VHQV� QXPDL� vQ� UDSRUW� FX� VHPQLILFD LL�� UHSHUH�� FULWHULL� úL�PRWLYD LL�YDORULFH��LDU�- dintre acestea - cele morale feresc omul de LOX]LL� úL� GH� VXILFLHQ � VXIOHWHDVF �� vQGHPQkQGX-l spre construirea VHQVXULORU�� WUHF WRDUH�� GHVLJXU�� GDU� GHPQH�� vQWUXFkW� VWLPXOHD] �autorealizarea, împlinirea de sLQH�úL�FRQWLQXD�DXWRGHS úLUH��6HQVXO�YLH LL�FRQVW �vQ�DFHO�VHW�GH�LSRWH]H�YDORULFH�SULQ�FDUH�RPXO�SURGXFH�XQ� URVW� WUHFHULL� VDOH�SULQ� OXPH�FX�YLD �FX� WRW�� UH-semnificându-úL�OLPLWHOH�FRQVWLWXWLYH�DOH�RPHQHVFXOXL�úL�SURSULD�VD�ILQLWXGLQH��,QVXO�- aflat mereu sub semnul provizoriului -� vúL�LQYHQWHD] �SURSULD�VD�umanitate, experimentându-úL� YLD D� vQWUH� VkUJXLQ D� GH� D� IL� úL�QHV EXLQ D�GH�D�IL� ���3ULQFLSLL�HWLFH�vQ�HUD�úWLLQ HL 7HPDWL] ULOH� DQWHULRDUH� IDF� SDUWH� GLQ� VIHUD� SUHRFXS ULORU�perene ale filosofiei� PRUDOH�� 6ROX LLOH� SUH]HQWH� vQ� GLVFXUVXULOH�actuale asupra moralei sunt problematice; excesele spiritului DQDOLWLF�úL� WHRUHWL]DWRU�VH�vQGHS UWHD] �GH�QHYRLOH�UHDOLW LORU�VRFLR-FXOWXUDO�GH�D�IL�OHJLWLPDWH�YDORULF��ILLQG�VHQVLELO�DWURILDW �FDSDFLWDWHD�eticiL� GH� D� RIHUL� VROX LL� D[LRORJLFH� OD� vQWUHE ULOH� RPXOXL�FRQWHPSRUDQ��) U �vQGRLDO ��HWLFD�WUHEXLH�vQ HOHDV �FD��PHWDPRUDO �úL� GRFWULQ � vQWHPHLHWRDUH� FDUH� IRUPXOHD] � SULQFLSLL�� >��@� -� DGLF �

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

DFHOH� SURSR]L LL� GH� ED] � FDUH� IDF� SRVLELO � úL� OHJLWLPHD] � RUGLQHD�valRULF � D� DF LXQLORU� LQGLYLGXDOH� úL� FROHFWLYH�� SUHILJXUkQG� VIHUD�SRVLELO � D�FRPSRUWDPHQWHORU� úL� DFWHORU�YDOLGH�GLQ�SXQFW�GH�YHGHUH�PRUDO��ÌQV ��DFHDVW �ILQDOLWDWH�HVWH�GHVHRUL�SXV �vQ�XPEU �GH�UHIOHF LL�VWHULOH� SULYLQG� FRQGL LLOH� GH� IXQGDUH� D� HWLFLL� vQV úL�� sau de analize prin care sunt de-FRQVWUXLWH� UHJXOL�GH�FRQGXLW �SHQWUX�D� OL� VH�SXQH�VXE� VHPQXO� vQWUHE ULL� WHPHLXULOH�� 3H� GH� DOW � SDUWH�� VH� DILUP � XQ�pluralism al eticii aplicate - de la afaceri la mass-PHGLD� ú�D�P�G�� - FDUH� VIkUúHVF�� GH� IDSW�� vQ� VLPSOH� GHRQtologii, lipsite tocmai de UHIOH[LYLWDWHD� vQWHPHLHWRDUH�� $FHVW� VIkUúLW� GH� VHFRO� HVWH� VHULRV�PDUFDW� GH� DQJRDVH� H[LVWHQ LDOH� VWUXFWXUDWH� GH� IUDJLOLWDWHD� úL�VDX�DEVHQ D� VHQVXULORU�� HURGDUHD� RUL]RQWXULORU� VLPEROLFH� WUDGL LRQDOH� úL�XQLYHUVDOL]DUHD� PHQWDOLW LL� pragmatice, discreditarea idealurilor VXSUDVHQVLELOH�FX�WHPHL�PHWDIL]LF�úL�vQGRLDOD�D[LRORJLF �FH�vQVR HúWH�FRQVHFLQ HOH� LUHYHUVLELOH� SHQWUX� XPDQLWDWH� DOH� WHKQRORJLLORU��SU EXúLUHD�PDULORU� LGHRORJLL�� XWRSLL� úL� GLVFXUVXUL� JOREDOL]DQWH� VXQW�indicii ale unui "vid etic" -� vQVR LW� GH� FUL]D� IXQGDPHQWHORU� úL� GH�expansiunea unui individualism deprimant. Narcisismul, OLEHUWLQDMXO�� KHGRQLVPXO� GHILQHVF� R� FUL] � GH� LGHQWLWDWH� úL� MDORQHD] �F XWDUHD� GH� VLQH� D� LQVXOXL�� ,PSHUDWLYHOH� PRUDOH� VXSRUW � R�PHWDPRUIR] �SULQ� FDUH� WLQG� V � vQORFXLDVF � VLPSOXO� FRQIRUPLVP�FX�DVXP ULOH�LQWHULRUL]DWH�� ,QGLYLGXD LD� - prin chiar natura sa -� LPSOLF �GH]HFKLOLEUH�úL�VHFYHQ H� GH� FUL] � vQWUH� H[LJHQ HOH� VRFLDOL] ULL� úL�� SH� GH� DOW � SDUWH��UHIX]XO�PDVLILF ULL��'H�DFHHD��WUHFHUHD�OD�R�VRFLHWDWHD�Sost-PRUDOLVW �(de fapt, post-PRUDOL]DWRDUH�� DQJDMHD] � R� UH-elaborare a chiar PRWLYD LHL�úL�FULWHULLORU�PRUDOLW LL���'XS �HSRFD�JORULILF ULL�HPIDWLFH�D�REOLJD LHL�PRUDOH� ULJRULVWH� -�REVHUY �*LOOHV�/LSRYHWVN\� -, a venit HSRFD� vQ� FDUH� DFHDVW � REOLJD LH� VH� HXIHPL]HD] � úL-úL� SLHUGH� RULFH�FUHGLELOLWDWH� ��� �(WLFD� QHGXUHURDV � D� QRLORU� WLSXUL� GHPRFUDWLFH��VXJHUHD] �QRL� WLSXUL�GH�DQJDMDUH�D� LQVXOXL� vQ�VSD LXO�VRFLR-cultural. �$úD�FXP�VRFLHW LOH�PRGHUQH�DX�GLVWUXV�HPEOHPHOH�RVWHQWDWLYH�DOH�puterii politice, la fel aX� DQLKLODW� úL� SRUXQFLOH� U VXQ WRDUH� DOH�PRUDOHL��&XOWXUD�GDWRULHL�ED]DW �SH�VDFULILFLX�D�PXULW�úL�DP�LQWUDW�vQ�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

SHULRDGD�SRVWPRUDOLVW �D�GHPRFUD LLORU���(WLFD�QX�PDL�LPSOLF ��GHFL��GDWRULD� vQ� VHQVXO� WUDGL LRQDO� -� OD� OLPLW �� .DQWLDQ� - al termenului: "dorim rHJXOL� MXVWH� úL� HFKLOLEUDWH�� QX� UHJXOL� FDUH� QH� LPSXQ� V �UHQXQ P�OD�QRL�vQúLQH��YUHP�UHJOHPHQW UL�úL�QX�SUHGLFL���vQ HOHS L��úL�QX�PRUDOLúWL�SXULWDQL��LQYRF P�UHVSRQVDELOLWDWHD�úL�QX�REOLJD LD�GH�D� QH� vQFKLQD� WRDW � YLD D� DSURDSHOXL� VDX� QD LXQLL��� (UR]LXQHD�moralelor datoriei - cu temeiuri laice sau religioase -� GHVHPQHD] ��HSRFD� vQ� FDUH� GDWRULD� HVWH� HGXOFRUDW � úL� DQHPLDW �� vQ� FDUH� LGHHD�VDFULILFXOXL� HXOXL� úL-a pierdut din punct de vedere social OHJLWLPLWDWHD��vQ�FDUH�PRUDOD�QX�PDL�SUHWLQGH�V �WH�GHGLFL�XQXL�scop VXSHULRU� LH�� vQ� FDUH� GUHSWXULOH� VXELHFWLYH� GRPLQ � SUHVFULS LLOH�LPSHUDWLYH�� vQ� FDUH� OHF LLOH� GH� PRUDO � VXQW� vQVR LWH� GH� VSRWXUL�SXEOLFLWDUH�FH�H[DOW �YLD D�PDL�FRQIRUWDELO ��GH�VRDUHOH�YDFDQ HL�úL�GH�GLYHUWLVPHQWXO�PHGLDWLF��� >��@�$FHDVW � U VWXUQDUH�a valorilor pare, vQ� PDUH� SDUWH�� V � SURSXQ � FXOWLYDUHD� HJRFHQWULF � úL� SUDJPDWLF � D�IHULFLULL�� 9RP� XUP UL� DFHDVW � WHQGLQ � D� HSRFLL� FRQWHPSRUDQH� DúD�FXP�HVWH�DERUGDW �úL�VROX LRQDW �vQ�ELRHWLF ��vQ�VLQWH]D�WHRUHWLF �D�OXL�5REHUW� 0LVUDKL� úL� vQ� HWLFLOH� UHVSRQVDELOLW LL� �UH-actualizate în PRGHOXO� LQWHUFRPSUHKHQVLXQLL� FRPXQLFD LRQDOH�GH� WLS�.-2�$SHO� úL�J.Habermas, sau, mult mai explicit, în discursul lui Hans Jonas). ÌQ� RSLQLD� FXUHQW � - dar nu numai -� PRUDOD� HVWH� UHFHSWDW �negativ: ca discurs moralizator sau FD�DSURSLHUH��GH�RP�úL�YLD ��FX�L]�WUDGL LRQDO�� vQFKLV �� RVLILFDW � vQ� UHJXOL�� HYHQWXDO� FX� vQWHPHLHUH�UHOLJLRDV �� (WLFD� VXJHUHD] � R� GHWDúDUH� �VDX� QXPDL� GLVWDQ DUH��UHIOH[LY ��'HRQWRORJLD�WULPLWH�OD�UHJXOL�SUDFWLFH�úL�REOLJD LL�FRQFUHWH�FH�GLVFLSOLQHD] �VHYer, cvasi-MXULGLF�� UHOD LLOH� úL�PXQFD� vQ�FRUSRUD LD�SURIHVLRQDO �� 7HUPHQXO� �ELR-medical" -� DWDúDW� FHOXL� GH� �HWLF �� - DGPLWH�GRX �OLQLL�GH�VHQV��vQ�IXQF LH�GH�DFFHQWXO�SXV�SH��ELR��VDX�SH�"medical". Bio-HWLFD�VH�FRQVWLWXLH�FD�PRGDOLWDWH�RULJLQDO �GH�FHUFHWDre úL� vQVXúLUH� GLQWU-un punct de vedere moral -� GHRSRWULY �LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU�� SURVSHFWLY�� JOREDO� úL� VLVWHPDWLF� -� D� UHDOLW LL� ELR-medicale. "Bioetica -� PHQ LRQHD] � *X\� 'XUDQG� - este studiul LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU�DO�DQVDPEOXOXL�FRQGL LLORU�FDUH�QHFHVLW �R�JHVWLRQare UHVSRQVDELO �D�YLH LL�XPDQH��VDX�D�SHUVRDQHL�RPHQHúWL�� vQ�DPELDQ D�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

SURJUHVHORU� UDSLGH� úL� FRPSOH[H� DOH� FXQRDúWHULL� úL� DOH� WHKQRORJLLORU�ELRPHGLFDOH��� >��@� ÌQ� P VXUD� vQ� FDUH� PL]D� XOWLP � DUH� LPSOLFD LL�politice -�vQWUXFkW�VRFLHWDWHD�VH�FRQIUXQW �FX�SURSULXO�V X�YLLWRU�-, sunt LQHYLWDELOH� GLYHUJHQ HOH� GH� RSLQLL�� FRQIUXQWDUHD� VROX LLORU� úL� FKLDU�OLPLWDUHD� OLEHUW LORU�� vQ� FRQVHFLQ �� ELRHWLFD� VH� SUH]LQW � FD� ILLQG��F XWDUHD�VROX LLORU�OD�FRQIOLFWHOH�GH�YDORDUH�vQ�XQLYHUVXO�LQWHUYHQ LHL�bio-medicale", ceea ce LPSOLF � UHFXUVXO� OD� VWDELOLUHD� XQHL� LHUDUKLL� D�YDORULORU�� OHJLWLPDW � SULQWU-R� YL]LXQH� JOREDO � GHVSUH� OXPH� úL� R�FRQFHS LH�DQWURSRORJLF � IXQGDPHQWDO ��0DULOH�GLUHF LL�GH�GH]YROWDUH�PL]HD] � ILH� SH� FLUFXPVFULHUHD� XQRU� FDGUH� GH� UHIOHF LH� úL� FHUFHWDUH�interdisciSOLQDU �DVXSUD�FRQVHFLQ HORU�XPDQH�DOH�SURJUHVXOXL�WHKQLFR-PHGLFDO��ILH�SH�FRQVWLWXLUHD�XQHL�PHWRGH�GH�DQDOL] �D�VLWXD LLORU�FDUH�LPSOLF � GLOHPH� PRUDOH� úL�� GHFL�� DQJDMHD] � GHFL]LL� UHDOH�� ILH� SH�GHVFKLGHUHD�XQRU�QRL�RUL]RQWXUL�GH�UHIOHF LH�úL�FHUFHWDUH�QRUPDWLY �vQ�VSD LXO� HWLFLL� SURSULX-]LVH�� YL]kQG� �V � RULHQWH]H� DF LXQHD�� V �DPHQDMH]H� H[HUFL LXO� OLEHUW LORU� FHW HQLORU�� V � LQIOXHQ H]H� RS LXQLOH�VRFLHW LL��� >��@� 2� VLPSO � HQXPHUDUH� WHPDWLF � GH]Y OXLH� JUDYLWDWHD�SUREOHPHORU�GH�FDUH�HWLFD�QX�QXPDL�F �QX�PDL�SRDWH�IDFH�DEVWUDF LH��GDU� WUHEXLH� V � úL� OH� DVXPH�� HXWKDQDVLD�� vQF S kQDUHD� WHUDSHXWLF ��UHDQLPDUHD�� VLQFHULWDWHD� ID � GH� EROQDY�� GUHSWXO� OD� PRDUWH�� DYRUWXO��GLDJQRVWLFXO� SUHQDWDO�� DVLVWHQ D� JHQHWLF �� HXWKDQDVLD� I WXOXL��VWHULOL]DUHD� KDQGLFDSD LORU�� HXJHQLVPXO�� H[SHULPHQWDUHD� SH� ILLQ H�XPDQH�� SH� HPEULRQ�� LQVHPLQDUHD� DUWLILFLDO �� IHFXQGDUHD� DUWLILFDO ��EDQFD� GH� VSHUP �� SUXQFXO� - (în) -� HSUXEHW �� PDQLSXODUHD� JHQHWLF ��VLQXFLGHUHD�� DVLVWHQ D� OD� VLQXFLGHUH�� JUHID� GH� LQLP �� ULQLFKL� HWF���transsexualitatea; alocDUHD� GH� UHVXUVH� OLPLWDWH�� SROLWLFD� GH� V Q WDWH��FRQWUDFHS LD�� FUHúWHUHD� GHPRJUDILF � úL� FRQWUROXO� V X�� FHUFHWDUHD� úL�GH]YROWDUHD� DUPDPHQWHORU� ELRORJLFH� úL� FKLPLFH�� U ]ERLXO�� WRUWXUD��WHDPD� GH� PRDUWH�� SROXDUHD�� >��@� 3HQWUX� D� VW SkQL� YDORULF� UHIOHF LD�asupra faptelor, bio-HWLFD� SRUQHúWH� GH� OD� GRX � SULQFLSLL� GH� ED] ���UHVSHFWXO� YLH LL� úL� UHVSHFWXO� DXWRGHWHUPLQ ULL� SHUVRDQHL��� >��@�$FHVWHD� VXQW� GHRSRWULY � LPSHUDWLYH� PRUDOH� JOREDOH� úL� SULQFLSLL� GH�GUHSW��vQWHPHLHUHD�ORU�HVWH��úL�SRDWH�IL��UHOLJLRDV ��ILORVRILF ��SROLWLF ��PLWLF � ú�D�P�G�� - într-XQ� FXYkQW�� YDORULF ��*X\�'XUDQG� GLVWLQJH� WUHL�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

niveluri de organizare a discursului etic: [28] Valori - care sunt de RUGLQXO� %LQHOXL� úL� LQGLF � DWULEXWHOH� )LLQ HL� �([LVWHQ HL��� 3ULQFLSLL� - FDUH� GDX� PDULOH� RULHQW UL� �JOREDOH�� GH� YLD � úL� DF LXQH��� IL[HD] �atitudinile; Reguli -� FDUH� GHWHUPLQ � DF LXQHD�� LQWHJUHD] � GHFL]LD��%LRHWLFD�vúL�LQYHVWHúWH�FRQ LQXWXULOH�DQWURSRORJLFH�vQ�DFHDVW �VFKHP �DVWIHO��9DORUL�� YLD D��FDUDFWHUXO� VDFUX�DO�YLH LL�� DXWRQRPLD�SHUVRDQHL��Principii: respecWXO� YLH LL�� LQWHUGLF LD� GH� D� XFLGH�� DXWRGHWHUPLQDUHD��5HJXOL�� H[LJHQ D� GH� D� DOHJH� PLMORDFHOH� SRWULYLWH�� LQIRUPDUHD�EROQDYXOXL�� 6WUDWXO� UHIOH[LY� VWDELOHúWH� RS LXQLOH� IXQGDPHQWDOH� OD�vQWUHE UL�JUDYH��FH�HVWH�RPXO"��FkQG�vQFHSH�YLD D�RPHQHDVF �úL�FkQG�se sfârúHúWH��FH�HVWH�SHUVRDQD�úL�FDUH�HVWH��vQ�FH�FRQVW ��VHQVXO��URVWXO��V X"�5H]ROY ULOH�PRUDOH�SURSXVH�vQ�VIHUD�IDSWHORU�QHPLMORFLWH�GHSLQG�vQ� PRG� KRW UkWRU� GH� OLPSH]LUHD� RS LXQLORU� YDORULFH� GH� ED] ��VHPQLILFD LLOH�� FDUH� SUHILJXUHD] � WLSXUL� GH� DQJDMDUH� úL� DF iunea (principii). ) U �vQGRLDO ��LPSXOVXO�ELRHWLFLL�HVWH�GDW�GH�R�VWDUH�GH�IDSW��FRUSXO� XPDQ� HVWH� GHRSRWULY � RELHFWXO� úL� YLFWLPD� VFLHQWLVPXOXL�PHGLFDO��YLD D�XPDQ �HVWH�PHGLFDOL]DW �� WHKQRORJLLOH�ELRPHGLFDOH�LQIOXHQ HD] � FXUVXO� QDWXUDO� DO� YLH LL��PRGLILcând imaginile despre YLD �� E UEDW�� IHPHLH�� FXSOX�� VXIHULQ �� PRDUWH�� ú�D��� VFKLPEkQG�DVWIHO� úL� VHPQLILFD LLOH� YDORULFH�� ÌQ� RSLQLD� OXL� -HDQ� )UDQoRLV�0DOKHUEH��>��@�GHFL]LD�PRUDO �DQJDMHD] �WUHL�FRPSRQHQWH�GH�ED] ��valorile, respectiv ierarhiile simbolice úL� DWLWXGLQLOH�� VLWXD LLOH�SUREOHPDWLFH�FRQFUHWH�FDUH� VROLFLW � VROX LL�� FRQúWLLQ D�PRUDO � - ca LQVWDQ � SVLKR-VSLULWXDO � FH� LQWHQ LRQHD] � UHDOL]DUHD� YDORULORU� vQ�VLWXD LD� GDW �� DGLF � DUPRQL]DUHD� XQRU� VW UL� GH� IDSW� FX� VWDUHD� GH�drept. Neglijarea unui elemenW� vQ� GHFL]LD� PRUDO � FRQGXFH� OD�SHUYHUWLUL�� SHUYHUVLXQL� DOH� HWLFLL�� 'H� SLOG �� PRUDOD� GH� VLWXD LL�UHFRPDQG � OXDUHD� GHFL]LHL� vQ� IXQF LH� GH� GRULQ HOH� VXELHFWLYH�SURLHFWDWH�DVXSUD�VLWXD LHL��H[LJHQ HOH�OLEHUW LL�VXQW�KLSHUWURILDWH�vQ�GHWULPHQWXO�H[LJHQ HORU�GH�VROLGDULWDWH�úL�MXVWL LH��FDUH�VXQW�LQVWDQ H�YDORULFH���3H�GH�DOW �SDUWH��UHIXJLXO�vQ�WUDGL LH��DXWRULWDULVP�VDX��vQ�OXPHD� GH� D]L�� vQO WXUDUHD� LQFHUWLWXGLQLORU� SULQ� LQYRFDUHD� úWLLQ HL�DQHPLD] �SODQXO�PRUDOLW LL�WU LWH�ú�D�P�G��

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

Trecând dincolo de sfera bioeticii, Robert Misrahi re-JkQGHúWH�SUREOHPDWLFD�PRUDOHL�vQ�IXQF LH�GH�DQJRDVD�JHQHUDOL]DW �GLQ� OXPHD� FRQWHPSRUDQ �� QHOLQLúWHD� YLWDO � FX� SULYLUH� OD� YLLWRU� úL�LQFHUWLWXGLQHD� >D@JUDY>DW@ � >úL@� vQ� WHUPHQLL� DF LXQLL�� ÌQWU-o FLYLOL]D LH�DJLWDW �úL�FRQIX] ��VXbiectul actului moral nu mai poate IL� FRQFHSXW� FD� SXU � FRQúWLLQ � LQWHOHFWXDO � úL� FD� UHIOH[LYLWDWH� D�RPXOXL�FRQFUHW� vQ� vPSUHMXU ULOH�GDWH��0LVUDKL� >��@�SRUQHúWH�GH� OD�SUHPLVD�F �ILLQ D�XPDQ �HVWH�XQ�VXELHFW��LDU�DFHVW�VXELHFW�VH�DILUP �GHRSRWULY �FD�XQ�FRUp-VXELHFW�úL�FRQúWLLQ ��FRUSXO�VXELHFWXOXL�HVWH�vQ� DFHODúL� WLPS� VLVWHP� ELR-FKLPLF� � � RUJDQLVP�� úL� DFWLYLWDWHD�XQLWDU � �FRUS-VXELHFW��� RUJDQLVPXO� IDFH� SRVLELO� úL� �SURGXFH��corpul-VXELHFW�FDUH��OD�UkQGXO�V X��IDFH�SRVLELO �FRQúWLLQ D-subiect; deci, corpul sH�H[SULP �vQ��SULQ��úL�VH�ODV �H[SULPDW�GH�FRQúWLLQ ��DFHDVW � FRQúWLLQ -VXELHFW� vúL� GH]YROW � DFWLYLWDWHD� VHPQLILFDQW � vQ�universul socio-cultural, pe baza corpului-subiect -�FH�YRUEHúWH�úL�DF LRQHD] � -, integrându-se într-R� RUGLQH� VLPEROLF � D� YDORULORU� úi VHQVXOXL���)LLQ D�XPDQ �UHDO �HVWH�XQ�VXELHFW�LQWHJUDO�úL�XQLILFDW���[31] corp într-R�SULP �LQVWDQ ��GDU�úL�FRQúWLLQ �LQL LDWRDUH�GH�DFWH�SULQ�FDUH�SURGXFH�VHPQLILFD LL�úL�YDORUL��'DF �PHWRGD�FDX]DO �HVWH�DGHFYDW � FXQRDúWHULL� FRUSXOXL-organism, unitatea subiectului FRPSOHW� VH� GH]Y OXLH� SULQ�PHWRGD� FRPSUHKHQVLY � úL� GHVFULSWLY ��0DL� PXOW�� �FXQRDúWHUHD� VLVWHPDWLF � D� RPXOXL� WUHEXLH� ������ V �vQFHDS �FX�VXELHFWXO��>��@�FDUH�QL�VH�SUH]LQW �VLPXOWDQ�FD�ILLQG�R�H[LVWHQ � úL� R� UHIOHF LH�� R� SXWHUH� GHRSRWULY � DIHFWLY � úL� UHIOH[LY ��VDX�FRJQLWLY ��SHQWUX�FDUH�DILUPDUHD�GH]LUDELOLW LL�HVWH�vQ�DFHODúL�WLPS� R� DILUPDUH� D� VHQVXOXL�� 3HQWUX� DFHVW� VXELHFW� FRQFUHW�� GRULQ D�HVWH�G W WRDUH�GH� VHQV� úL�SUHVXSXQH�FRQúWLLQ D�GH� VLQH��ELRORJLFXO�HVWH� vQFDSVXODW� SUHRFXS ULORU� GH� XPDQL]DUH� D� SURSULHL� YLH L��'LQDPLVPXO� FUHDWRU� DO� GRULQ HL� GHS úHúWH� HQHUJLLOH� LQVWLQFWXDOH�SULQ� LQYHQWDUHD� XQRU� VFRSXUL� úL� YDORUL�� VHPQLILFD LL� úL� OLPEDMH��VLWXD LL�� úL� OLQLL� GH� IRU �� YHUWHEUkQG� YLD D� FX� R� LQWHQ LRQDOLWDWH�YDORULF �� ÌQ� DFHODúL� WLPS�� VXELHFWXO� WUHEXLH� V -úL� DVXPH�FRQWLQJHQ D�� �3H� SODQXO� DF LXQLL� XPDQH�� DFHDVW � FRQWLQJHQ � VH�QXPHúWH� OLEHUWDWH�� >��@�� IDSW� FDUH� LPSOLF � SUREOHPD� SUDFWLF � D�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

DOHJHULL�� 3ULQFLSLL� RULHQWDWLYH� SRW� IL� GHVSULQVH� GLQ� PRUDO ��GHRQWRORJLFH�úL�HWLF �� Morala are rostul de D�GHWHUPLQD�YDORULOH�vQ�IXQF LH�GH�FDUH�VXQW� DOHVH� úL� vPSOLQLWH� GLIHULWH� DF LXQL� SRVLELOH��PRELOL]kQG� YLD D�LQWHULRDU � vQ� VHQVXO� UHVSRQVDELOLW LL�� 'H� DLFL� UH]XOW � úL�DPELJXLWDWHD� VD�� SURLHFWHD] � LGHDOXUL� H[HPSODUH�� HúXkQG� vQWU-un idealism inutilizabil carH� DOLPHQWHD] � LQGHFL]LD� DF LXQLL� SULQ��PLWXUL��PDL�PXOW� VDX�PDL� SX LQ� DUELWUDUH�� �,GHDOLVPXO�PRUDO� GH�VWLO� SODWRQLFLDQ� VDX� FUHúWLQ� LPSOLF � ������ XQ� GXEOX� GXDOLVP� UDGLFDO�FDUH� RSXQH� QX� QXPDL� OXPHD� HWHUQ � úL� SHUIHFW � D� ,GHLORU� úL� D� OXL�Dumnezeu lumii imperfeFWH�� FRUXSWH� úL�PXULWRDUH� D�PDWHULHL� úL� D�YLH LL�� FL� PDL� RSXQH� VXIOHWXO� SXU� úL� QHPXULWRU� FRUSXOXL� LPSXU� úL�pieritor". [34] În general, dogmatismul metafizic în chestiuni de PRUDO �QX�HVWH�QXPDL�R�MXVWLILFDUH�DP JLWRDUH�D�XQRU�SURJUDPH�GH�DF LXQL� GHGXVH� vQ� PRG� DUELWUDU�� FL� HVWH�� SULQ� FRQVHFLQ H�� R�vQWHPHLHUH� D� DUELWUDUXOXL� vQVXúL� vQ� SRVWXUD� GH� DXWRULWDULVP�PRUDO�VDX�SROLWLF��7UHEXLH�REVHUYDW��F ��GH�SLOG ��QX�vQWkPSO WRU�GRFWULQD�NDQWLDQ � DERUGHD] � SUREOHPD� FDOLW LL� PRUDOH� D� XQHL� DF LXQL� vQ�termeni formali,� YL]kQG� GRDU� SODQXO� LQWHQ LLORU� - respectul pentru OHJHD� PRUDO �� LPSXOVXO� GH� D� DF LRQD� GLQ� GDWRULH�� úL� QX� GRDU�conform datoriei -�� FHHD� FH� LPSOLF � H[FOXGHUHD� RULF URU� PRWLYH�FRQFUHWH�� vQFOLQD LL� VDX� LQWHUHVH�� 'HVLJXU�� SULQ� XQLYHUVDOLWDWHD�imperativului catHJRULF�.DQW� VXUSULQGH��PRGHOXO� LGHDO�DO�RULF UHL�PRUDOH�úL�GHILQL LD�HVHQ LDO �D�FHHD�FH�RULFH�PRUDO ��FX�PDL�PXOW �VDX� PDL� SX LQD� SHUIHF LH� úL� ULJRDUH�� VH� VWU GXLHúWH� FHO� SX LQ� V �UHDOL]H]H� vQ� SDUWH��� >��@� vQV �� SULQ� DFHDVWD�� QX� HVWH� VXSULPDW �imposibilitDWHD� vQ� IDSW� úL� LUHDOLVPXO�� 'H� DFHHD�� PRUDOD� NDQWLDQ �HVWH� FDOLILFDW � GH� -�/DFDQ�� GUHSW� XQ� VDGLVP�� vQ� JHQHUDO��PRUDOHOH�GDWRULHL� VXQW� LPSRVLELO� GH� XUPDW� WRFPDL� SHQWUX� F � VXQW�FRQWUDGLFWRULL�úL�GLVSUH XLHVF�FRQFUHWH HD�VXELHFWXOXL�� Deontologiile, pe de alW � SDUWH�� vQFHDUF � V � vQORFXLDVF �PRUDOLVPXO� DEVWUDFW�� DPELJXX� úL� FRQWUDGLFWRULX� SULQ� LQGLFDUHD� D�FHHD� FH� WUHEXLH� HIHFWLY� I FXW�� HOH� FRGLILF � SDOHWD� FRQGXLWHORU�admisibile într-R� VIHU � GH� DFWLYLWDWH� XPDQ � �DIDFHUL�� PHGLFLQ ��

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

SXEOLFLWDWH�� FRQWUDFWH� ú�D�P�G���� FLUFXPVFULLQG� VIHUD� OHJLWLP � D�UHVSRQVDELOLW LORU�DWDúDWH�XQHL�SURIHVLXQL��vQV �WRFPDL�GH�DFHHD�QX�SRW� RIHUL� SULQFLSLL� GH� DF LXQH� VDX� GH� MXVWLILFDUH� D� XQRU� DOHJHUL�HIHFWLYH� DWXQFL� FkQG� VLWXD LLOH� GHVFKLG� SRVLELOLW L� PXOWLSOH� úL�contradictorii. Deontologiile -� QRWHD] � 5REHUW� 0LVUDKL� - sunt WDXWRORJLFH�� FRGLILF � LPSOLFD LLOH� úL� H[LJHQ HOH� XQHL� SURIHVLL�DQXPH��vQV �DFHVWH�LPSOLFD LL�úL�H[LJHQ H�GHFXUJ�QX�GLQWU-R�UHOD LH�ORJLF � vQWUH� SURIHVLD� GHMD� FRQVWLWXLW � úL� DF LXQLOH� SH� FDUH� OH�presupune, ci dintr-o cRQFHS LH� � �SUH�� GHWHUPLQDW � DVXSUD�UHVSHFWLYH� SURIHVLXQL�� 2U� QX� H[LVW � R� HVHQ � SUHVWDELOLW � úL�XQLYHUVDO� YDODELO � D� XQHL� SURIHVLXQL�� VWLOXO� GH� SUDFWLFDUH� úL�FRQVHFLQ HOH�GHFXUJ�GLQ�DQXPLWH�SULQFLSLL�FDUH�DVLJXU �VWUXFWXUDUHD�socio-FXOWXUDO � D� XQHL� PHVHULL�� LDU� DFHVWH� SULQFLSLL� GHS úHVF�SXWHULOH� GHRQWRORJLHL�� GHFL�� H[LJHQ HOH� FRGLILFDWH� GHRQWRORJLF�trebuie ele însele întemeiate prin apel la registre reflexive mai FXSULQ] WRDUH�� �9RP� QXPL� HWLF � FHUFHWDUHD� XQXL� VLVWHP� GH�SULQFLSLL�PHQLWH�V �RULHQWH]H�DF LXQHD�F WUH�DFFHVXO�OD�SOHQLWXGLQHD�VHQVXOXL���UHIOHF LD�DVXSUD�WHPHLXULORU�DF LXQLL�-�FD�VHQV��FRQ LQXW�úL�responsabilitate -� HVWH� DQWHULRDU � RULF UXL� VLVWHP� GH� YDORUL� úL�RULF UHL�SURIHVLXQL���DFHDVW �DQWHULRULWDWH�HVWH�JDUDQ LD�FDUDFWHUXOXL�V X�FRQFUHW��>��@��HVWH�YRUED�GH�PLúFDUHD�FRQFUHW �D�XQXL�VXELHFW�FDUH� DF LRQHD] � F WUH� RE LQHUHD� XQXL� PD[LPXP� GH� VDWLIDF LH��VSRQWDQHLWDWHD� GRULQ HL� GHYLQH�� SULQ� UHIOH[LYLWDWH� HWLF ��IXQGDPHQWXO�YDOLG�DO�DF LXQLORU�FRQFUHWH�� &D� VXUV � D� DF LXQLL� úL� UH HD� GH� VHPQLILFD LL�� GRULQ D� HVWH�FRQWLQJHQW � vQ� IRUPD� VD� FRQFUHW �� HWLFD� vQFHDUF � V � VXUSULQG �LPSOLFD LLOH��GDF �� vQ�QHPLMORFLUHD�HL��GRULQ D�SRDWH�V �FRQGXF � OD�IHO� GH� ELQH� OD� EXFXULH� FD� úL� OD� VXIHULQ �� OD� QHIHULFLUH� FD� úL� OD�IHULFLUH�� URVWXO� HWLFLL� HVWH� GH� D� SURSXQH� XQ� HO� úL� GH� D� GHILQL�PLMORDFHOH�� RSXQkQG� DF LXQLL� VSRQWDQH� R� UHIOH[LYLWDWH� FDUH�PRGLILF � UDGLFDO� GHVI úXUDUHD� úL� WHPHLXULOH�� 6XUVD� DFHVWHL�UHIOH[LYLW L� VH� DIO � vQ� H[SHULHQ HOH� GH� FUL] � úL� HúHF�� FkQG�SUHIHULQ HOH�FDSULFLRDVH�WUHEXLH�vQORFXLWH�FX�FHHD�FH�HVWH�Sreferabil -� DVWIHO� VSXV�� FX� DFHOH� FRQ LQXWXUL� FH� VXQW� DGDSWDWH� LQWHQ LHL�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

fundamentale a sensului. "Preferabilul nu este nicidecum um ideal DEVWUDFW�� (O� HVWH� HIHFWLY� FRQVWLWXLW� VXE� UDSRUW� FDOLWDWLY� GH� F WUH�PRGXULOH� GH� D� WU L�� úL� SULQ� FRQ LQXWXULOH� GH� SO FHre care sunt în PRG�FODU�JkQGLELOH�úL�SUDFWLFDELOH���>��@� 6DUFLQD�HWLFLL�DU� IL�DFHHD�GH�D� VWDELOL��FRQGL LLOH�H[LVWHQ HL�IHULFLWH�� >��@�� 5�0LVUDKL� FRQVLGHU � �SR]LWLYLWDWHD�� GUHSW� R� SULP �FRQGL LH� FH� VH� UHIHU � OD� FRQVLVWHQ D�� SHUPDQHQ D�� VHPQLILFD LD�refOHFWDW � úL� DXWRQRP � D� DFWLYLW LORU�� HVWH� YRUED� GH� DFHD�dimensiune a actelor, tonului, atitudinilor sau conduitelor care ] PLVOHVF�EXFXULD��VDWLVIDF LD��vQWUXFkW�DILUP �UHDOLWDWHD�HIHFWLY �úL�YDOLGLWDWHD�XQHL�H[LVWHQ H�vPS FDW �FX�VLQH��PLúFDUHD�SURJUHVLY �úL�FUHDWRDUH�� VW SkQLW � UHIOH[LY�� F WUH� FRQ LQXWXUL� FH� SURGXF�SOHQLWXGLQHD�YLH LL��8Q�DOW�FULWHULX�- reciprocitatea - este derivat din DFHDVW � SR]LWLYLWDWH�� vQ� P VXUD� vQ� FDUH� HVWH� HYLGHQW� F � QRQ-UHSURFLWDWHD� SRDWH� IL� VXUV � GH� VXIHULQ � úL� GH� �DXWR�GLVWUXJere, se impune - nu atât din considerente morale, cât din nevoi vitale - UHIX]XO�HJRFHQWULVPXOXL�úL�DILUPDUHD�RQHVW �D�EXFXULHL�vQ�UHOD LH�FX�DOWXO���5HFLSURFLWDWHD�GHVHPQHD] �GHFL�HFKLYDOHQ D�SR]LWLY �D�GRX �PLúF UL�DOH�FRQúWLLQ HL�FDUH�XQHúWH�GRL�VXELHF L���>��@�ILH�F �H�YRUED�GH� DPLFL LH� VDX� FRRSHUDUH�� UHFLSURFLWDWHD� vPSOLQHúWH� R� DILUPDUH�H[LVWHQ LDO � FRQFUHW �� LPSOLF � VSHFLILFLWDWHD� SHUVRQDO �� 'H� DLFL�UH]XOW �VLQJXODULWDWHD�- ca al treilea criteriu -�ILLQ HORU�úL�VLWXD LLORU��3ULQ� PHGLWD LD� DVXSUD� FHORU trei caracteristici prin care poate fi HYDOXDW �DF LXQHD� -�SR]LWLYLWDWHD�� UHFLSURFLWDWHD�úL�VLQJXODULWDWHD� -, HWLFD� VH� DILUP � FD� �ILORVRILH� H[LVWHQ LDO � D� EXFXULHL��� RIHULQG��PDWULFHD� RULF UXL� YLLWRU� úL� RULJLQHD� RULF UHL� vQGUXP UL� �� >��@� vQ�caz de ambiguiWDWH�D�VLWXD LLORU�úL�VDX�DF LXQLORU��$FHDVW �PHGLHUH�UHIOH[LY �VH�PXOHD] �WRWGHDXQD�SH�VFRSXUL�úL�vPSUHMXU UL�FRQFUHWH��DYkQG�� WRWRGDW �� R� VHPQLILFD LH� JHQHUDO �� �1X�SURIHVLXQLOH� SRW� V �SURGXF �PRUDOH�� vQWUXFkW� VLPSOHOH� GHRQWRORJLL� VXQW�� DúD� FXP� V-a Y ]XW�� WDXWRORJLFH�� FL� GLQFROR� GH� SURIHVLXQL� VH� GHVI úRDU � R� HWLF �ED]DW � SH� VWUXFWXULOH� XQLYHUVDOH� DOH� GRULQ HL� úL� UHIOHF LHL�� $VWIHO��HWLFD� ILHF UHL� PHVHULL� QX� HVWH� DOWFHYD� vQ� UHDOLWDWH� GHFkW� IRUPD� vQ�PRG�QHFHVDU�VLJXODU �úL�FRQFUHW �SH�FDUH�R�LD�HWLFD�H[LVWHQ LDO �vQ�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

JHQHUDO�� DGLF � PLúFDUHD� UHIOHFWDW � F WUH� EXFXULH� SH� ED]D� XQHL�DFWLYLW L�FUHDWRDUH�VLQJXODUH���>��@ În opinia lui Misrahi, bioetica nu poate fi decât una din DSOLFD LLOH�SRVLELOH�DOH�DFHVWHL�HWLFL�JHQHUDOH��0DL�PXOW��SUHWHQ LD�- P UWXULVLW �VDX�nu -�GH�úWLLQ LILFLWDWH�D�ELR-HWLFLL�HVWH�UHVSLQV ���HVWH�FODU�F � úWLLQ D�QX�SRDWH� V �SUHVFULH�QLFL� V �SURSXQ �QRUPH�SHQWUX�DF LXQH� vQWUXFkW�HVWH� vQ� OHJ WXU �FX� ��IDSWHOH�� úL�QX�FX��YDORULOH���$FHDVWD� QX� vQVHDPQ � F � ILORVRIXO� OHJLIHUHD] � vQ� WLPS� FH�FHUFHW WRUXO� úWLLQ LILF� FRQVWDW �� $FHDVWD� VHPQLILF � IDSWXO� F �ILORVRIXO�� PHGLFXO� úL� ELRORJXO� OHJLIHUHD] � vPSUHXQ �� DGLF �UHIOHFWHD] � DVXSUD� DF LXQLL� úL� DVXSUD� RULHQW ULL� VDOH�� úL� F �� DVWIHO��UHIOHF LD� SH� FDUH� R� SXQ� vQ� SUDFWLF � HVWH� HWLF � úL� ILORVRILF �� QX�úWLLQ LILF ��� >��@� 0DL� SUHFLV�� �GDF � ILORVRIXO� VH� SUHRFXS � GH�H[LVWHQ �FD�DWDUH� �������ELRORJXO�úL�PHGLFXO�VH�RFXS �GH�FRQGL LLOH�RUJDQLFH� DOH� DFHVWHL� H[LVWHQ H�� DGLF � GH� FRQGL LLOH� RUJDQLFH� DOH�HPHUJHQ HL� FRUSXOXL-VXELHFW�� HO� vQVXúL� FRQGL LH� D� FRQúWLLQ HL-subieFW�� ÌQV �� GDF � �YLD D�� HVWH� vQ� DFHODúL� WLPS� IHULFLW � VDX�QHQRURFLW �� úL� DFWLYLWDWH� HQHUJHWLF � úL� RUJDQLF � FH� R� IDF� SRVLELO ��SUHRFXSDUHD�úWLLQ LILF �SHQWUX�YLD �WUHEXLH�V �vPEUDFH�XQ�VHQV�úL�R�YDORDUH� VSHFLILFH�� YLD D� vQ� VHQV� VWULFW� HVWH� FRQGL LD� H[LVWHQ ei în VHQVXO� V X� GHSOLQ��� >��@� ÌQ� FRQVHFLQ �� XPDQLVPXO� ELR-eticii WUHEXLH�V �ILH�VWUXFWXUDW�GH�UHFXQRDúWHUHD�RPXOXL�FD�VXELHFW�FX�XQ�OHJLWLP�VHQWLPHQW�GH�VLQH��úL�GH�XQ�DQXPH�HXGHPRQLVP�- întrucât, DSUHFLD] �0LVUDKL��VXIHULQ D�HVWH�SULQ�GHILQL LH�XQ�U X�Dbsolut. 8Q� DVHPHQHD� SURLHFW� HWLF� H[SULP �� GH� IDSW�� VHQVLELOLWDWHD�GH�PDV � D� HSRFLL� DFWXDOH�� UHVSLQJkQG� LQWHUSUHW ULOH� GRORULVWH� FDUH�QL�VH�SDU�F ��WRWXúL��DX�DFFHV�OD�DOWH�UHJLVWUH�- mai adânci, am spune -�DOH�XPDQXOXL��$FHDVW �ILORVRILH�D�FRQúWLLQ HL��Duto-)creatoare care V � ILH� VLPXOWDQ� H[LVWHQ LDO � úL� HXGHPRQLVW � SDUH� V � OHJLWLPH]H��WRWXúL�� XQ� LQGLYLGXDOLVP� vQJXVW�� FDSWLYDW� GH� FRQIRUW� VXIOHWHVF� úL�JRDQD� GXS � DJUHDELO�� OLSVLW� GH� UHFHSWLYLWDWH� vQ� ID D� OLPLW ULORU�FRQVWLWXWLYH� DOH� RPXOXL�� úL� IRELF� OD� VXUVHOH� GH� WUDJLF�� &UHGHP� F �RUL]RQWXULOH�UHIOH[LYH�DOH�GLVSHU ULL��DQJRDVHL��LQFHUWLWXGLQLL��PRU LL�ú�D�P�G�� SRW� vQWHPHLD� XQ� UHDOLVP� H[LVWHQ LDO�PXOW�PDL� SURIXQG� úL�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

VHPQLILFDWLY�GHFkW�FODXVWUDUHD�XQLODWHUDO �vQWU-R�HWLF �D�VDWLVIDF LHL�H[LVWHQ LDOH��'LVFRQIRUWXO�VXIOHWHVF�úL�UHIOH[LY�SRDWH�IL�FUHDWRU�vQWU-R�PXOW�PDL�PDUH�P VXU �GHFkW�vQFKLGHUHD�vQWU-o fericire provizorie úL�PLRDS � OD�HYLGHQ HOH�RPHQHVFXOXL� vQ�FRWLGLDQ��(WLFD� OXL�5REHUW�0LVUDKL� MXVWLILF � RELúQXLQ HOH� úL� DVSLUD LLOH� FXUHQWH� GH� DFFHV�democratic lD�PXO XPLUL� GH� VLQH� SULQ� FDUH� YLD D� SDUH� D� F S WD� R�plenitudine a sensului. Karl-2WWR� $SHO� FRQVWDW � XQ� SDUDGR[� DO� HSRFLL�contemporane: pe de o parte, "nevoia unei etici universale" (de IDSW�� R�PDFURHWLF �� YDODELO �� vQ� VSD LXO� OLPLWDW� DO� SODQHWHL�� SHQWUX�vQWUHDJD� XPDQLWDWH�� úL�� SH� GH� DOW � SDUWH�� GLILFXOW LOH� - chiar GLVSHUDUHD� úL� LPSRVLELOLWDWHD� -� GH� D� vQWHPHLD� R� DVHPHQHD� HWLF � vQ�WHUPHQLL� XQHL� YDOLGLW L� LQWHUVXELHFWLYH� GH� WLS� úWLLQ LILF�� vQWUXFkW�SUHGRPLQ � �LGHHD� VFLHQWLVW � D� XQHL� �RELHFWLYLW L�� IHULWH, în plan QRUPDWLY��GH�RULFH�QRUP �VDX�GH�RULFH�YDORDUH���>��@�([SDQVLXQHD�SODQHWDU � D� FLYLOL]D LHL� úWLLQ LILFH� úL� WHKQLFH� H[LOHD] � SXWHULOH�moralei într-R�PLFURVIHU ��IDPLOLD��FXSOXO��YHFLQ WDWHD�� vQ�FDUH�QX�PDL� SRW� IL� FRQWURODWH� FRQVHFLQ HOH� IDVWH� úL� QHIDVWH� FDUH� YL]HD] �vQVXúL� GHVWLQXO� VSHFLHL� XPDQH�� 'HFL�� SUREOHPDWLFD� HWLF � HVWH�FRPXQ � RDPHQLORU� OD� VFDU � SODQHWDU �� LDU� LQHILFLHQ D�FRQVHUYDWLVPXOXL� PRUDO� WUHEXLH� vQORFXLW � FX� R� HWLF � D�UHVSRQVDELOLW LL��vQ�DFHODúL�WLPS��HVWH�HYLGHQW�F �úWLLQ D�DFWXDO �QX poate -� QXPDL� SULQ� HD� vQV úL� -� V � OHJLWLPH]H� QRL� YDORUL� PRUDOH��HILFLHQW � SHQWUX� UD LRQDOL]DUHD� LQVWUXPHQWDO � � � SUDJPDWLF �� úL�VWUDWHJLF � D� DF LXQLORU�� úWLLQ D� QX� SRDWH� JkQGL� vQ� WHUPHQL� YDORULFL�VFRSXULOH�XOWLPH�DOH� DFHVWRU� DF LXQL��'H�DFHHD�� WUHEXLH� DVXPDW �R�HWLF �D� ORJLFLL� vQVHúL�� FDUH�FRQVW � vQ�FRPXQLWDWHD�GH�DUJXPHQWDUH��SUHVXSXQkQG� UHFXQRDúWHUHD� WXWXURU� PHPEULORU� vQ� FDOLWDWH� GH�SDUWHQHUL�FX�HJDOLWDWH�GH�GUHSWXUL���(WLFD�DUJXPHQW ULL�SURSXV �GH�F WUH� ORJLF �QX�HVWH�QXPDL�R�FRQGL LH�GH�SRVLELOLWDWH�D� MXVWLILF ULL�ORJLFH� úL� úWLLQ LILFH� �HPSLULFH�� D� RSLQLLORU�� FL� HVWH� vQ� P VXU � V �VWDELOHDVF � IDSWXO� F � DFHDVWD� GLQ� XUP � FRQVWLWXLH� R� HILFLHQ �UHFLSURF �SHQWUX�WR L�PHPEULL�FRPXQLW LL�GH�DUJXPHQWDUH��úL�DVWIHO�R�GDWRULH�PRUDO ���

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

�(WLFD�� SUHVXSXV � GH� F WUH� ORJLF � GUHSW� FRQGL LH� GH�SRVLELOLWDWH�� LPSOLF � DWXQFL� REOLJD LD� GH� D� UHFXUJH� OD� ORJLF � úL� OD�úWLLQ ��� >��@� 0HULW �� DLFL�� D� IL� REVHUYDW � WH]D� FRPSOHPHQWDULW LL�HSLVWHPRORJLFH�� úWLLQ HOH� HPSLULFR-DQDOLWLFH� �GHVFULSWLYH� úL�explicative) presupun intercomprHKHQVLXQHD� KHUPHQHQWLF � vQ�FRPXQLWDWHD� FRPXQLFD LRQDO � D� RDPHQLORU� GH� úWLLQ �� LDU�intercomprehensiunea� KHUPHQHXWLF � LPSOLF �� OD� UkQGXO� V X��XWLOL]DUHD� WXWXURU� LQIRUPD LLORU� GLVSRQLELOH� UHIHULWRDUH� OD� IDSWH� - FHHD�FH�SUHVXSXQH�DSHOXO� OD� úWLLQ HOH�HPSLULFR-DQDOLWLFH�� ÌQV �� �vQ�P VXUD�vQ�FDUH�LQWHUFRPSUHKHQVLXQHD�KHUPHQHXWLF �HVWH�vQ�SOXV�R�LQWHUFRPSUHKHQVLXQH� DVXSUD� WUHEXLQ HORU� úL� VFRSXULORU�� HD�SUHVXSXQH�R�HWLF ��WRWXO�ILLQG�vQ�DFHODúL�WLPS�SUHWLQV��FX�LQIRUPD LD�YHQLW � GH� OD� úWLLQ D� HPSLULFR-DQDOLWLF �� GH� F WUH� HWLFD� SUHVXSXV ���>��@�ÌQ�DFHVW�FRQWH[W��GLVWLQF LD�NDQWLDQ �GLQWUH�LSRWHWLF�úL�FDWHJRULF�QX�PDL�SRDWH�IL�XWLOL]DW �FD�SURLHFW�GH�vQWHPHLHUH�D�HWLFLL��vQWUXFkW�ipoteticul de care este vorba nu este motivat de un interes SDWRORJLF��0DL�PXOW��GDF �VH�DFFHSW �WH]D�SRWULYLW�F UHLD�HWLFD�HVWH�SUHVXSXV �GH� ORJLF ��SRVLELOLWDWHD� vQV úL�GH� vQWHPHLHUH� UD LRQDO �D�HWLFLL� SDUH� D� IL� FRPSURPLV �� 'HFL�� ILH� F � H� YRUED� GH� IXQGDUHD�logicii sau de fundarea eticii, se ajunge la un regres la infinit. 'LILFXOW LOH�VXQW�RFROLWH�GH�F WUH�.�-O.Apel printr-o precizare de principiu: "în apriori-XO�DUJXPHQW ULL�UH]LG �Q ]XLQ D�GH�D�MXVWLILFD�QX�QXPDL� WRDWH��DVHU LXQLOH�� úWLLQ HL�� FL��GLQFROR�GH�DFHVWHD��RULFH�Q ]XLQ H� XPDQH� �LQFOXVLY� SUHWHQ LLOH� LPSOLFLWH� DOH� RDPHQLORU� ID �de� DO L� RDPHQL� FDUH� VXQW� FXSULQVH� vQ� DF LXQL� úL� LQVWLWX LL���� >��@�6HQVXO� DUJXPHQW ULL� PRUDOH� VH� H[SULP � SULQ� SULQFLSLXO� SRWULYLW�F UXLD� �WRDWH� WUHEXLQ HOH� XPDQH� FDUH� VH� ODV � DUPRQL]DWH� SH� FDOHD�DUJXPHQW ULL� FX� FHOH� DOH� WXWXURU� FHORUODO L� RDPHQL� WUHEXLH� V � IDF �RELHFWXO�� vQ� FDOLWDWH� GH� SUHWHQ LL� �Q ]XLQ H� - n.n.) virtuale, SUHRFXS ULL� FRPXQLW LL� FRPXQLFD LRQDOH��� 6H� FRQILJXUHD] � DVWIHO�SULQFLSLXO� XQHL� HWLFL� FRPXQLFD LRQDOH� FDUH� UHSUH]LQW �� vQ� DFHODúL�WLPS���WHPHLXO�XQHL�HWLFL�D�IRUP ULL�GHPRFUDWLFH�D�YRLQ HL�GH�ED] �D�DFRUGXOXL���>��@�$FHDVW �P VXU � IXQGDPHQWDO �QX-úL� WUDJH�IRU D�QXPDL�GLQ�UHFXQRDúWHUHD�IDFWXDO �D�FHORU�FDUH�DX�DGRSWDW�XQ�DFRUG�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

- "modelul contractului" -, ci se impune ca imperativ tuturor celor FDUH� úL-DX� DFKL]L LRQDW�� SULQ� VRFLDOL]DUH�� R� FRPSHWHQ �FRPXQLFD LRQDO � -� vQ� VHQVXO� F � LDX� vQ� HFXD LH� DúWHSW ULOH� - SUHWHQ LLOH� YLUWXDOH� -� DOH� FHORUODO L�� DGRSWkQG� R� VROLGDUL]DUH� D�YRLQ HL�� �'HFL]LLOH� VXELHFWLYH� DOH� FRQúWLLQ HL� PRUDOH� LQGLYLGXDOH��FDUH� UHYHQGLF � WUDGL LD� FUHúWLQ � VHFXODUL]DW � vQ� OLEHUDOLVP� úL�H[LVWHQ LDOLVP� VXQW� DFXP�PHGLDWH� D� SULRUL� FX� H[LJHQ D� YDOLGLW LL�intersubiective -� SULQ� IDSWXO� F � ILHFDUH� LQGLYLG� UHFXQRDúWH� FX�XúXULQ � DUJXPHQWDUHD� SXEOLF � GUHSW� H[SOLFD LH� D� RULF UXL� FULWHULX�SRVLELO� GH� YDOLGLWDWH�� úL�� GHRSRWULY �� GH� FRQVWLWXLUH� UD LRQDO � D�YRLQ HL���>��@� �6ROLSVLVPXO�PHWRGLF�� HVWH�� DVWIHO�� GHS úLW� úL� vQ�GRPHQLXO�HWLFLL�� ÌQV � GLQFROR� GH� VLPSOD� IRUPXODUH� D� SULQFLSLXOXL�� VH� DIO �VDUFLQD�PXOW�PDL�GLILFLO �D�LPSXQHULL�úL�vQGHSOLQLULL�VDOH��SH�WHUPHQ�lung, ceea ce, în opinia lui K.-2��$SHO�� LPSOLF �PDL� vQWkL���V � VH�GH]YROWH� PHWRGD� GH]EDWHULL� PRUDOH� ��GHOLEHUDUHD�� SUDFWLF � vQ�JHQHUDO���úL��DSRL���V �VH�LQVWLWX LRQDOL]H]H�vQ�PRG�HILFLHQW�DFHDVW �PHWRG �vQ�FRQGL LL�SROLWLFR-juridice limitate". [50] Paradigma eticii FRPXQLFD LRQDOH� FXSULQGH� SUHVXSR]L LL� LGHDOL]DWH�� .�-O.Apel vQVXúL� UHFXQRDúWH� F � QX� VXQW� OXDWH� vQ� FRQVLGHUD LH� GLILFXOW LOH�LQWHOHFWXDOH� DOH� LQVWLWX LRQDOL] ULL� GLVFX LHL� �GH]EDWHUL�� GHOLEHU UL��PRUDOH�úL��PDL�DOHV��VH�RFROHúWH�IDSWXO�F �DFHDVW �LQVWLWX LRQDOL]DUH�WUHEXLH�V �ILH�LPSXV �vQ�VLWXD LL�VRFLR-culturale concrete care sunt structurate de inevitabile conflicte de interese. Comunitatea de FRPXQLFDUH� HVWH� WRWGHDXQD� FRQFUHW �� LPSXQkQG� OLPLW UL� vQ�H[HUFL LXO�SULQFLSLXOXL�úL�R�UHVSRQVDELOLWDWH�PRUDO �VSHFLILF �FH�QX�coincLGH� FX� H[LJHQ HOH� LGHDOH�� 3ULQ� DQDORJLH� FX� D� SULRUL-ul ILORVRILHL�WUDQVFHGHQWDOH�WUDGL LRQDOH�- mai ales, de tip kantian -, se concepe -�vQ�ORFXO�XQLW LL�FRQúWLLQ HL�-�FRPXQLWDWHD�LQWHUVXELHFWLY �GH� LQWHUSUHWDUH� PHGLDW � GH� VHPQH�� SUHVXSR]L LLOH� GH� WHPHOLH SUHVXSXQ�� D�� R� SULRULWDWH� D� OLPEDMXOXL� RELúQXLW� FDUH� DSDU LQH�hermeneuticii normative; b) a priori-XO� FRPXQLF ULL� DO� F UXL�SULQFLSLX�FRQVW �vQ��YRLQ D�GH�DUJXPHQWDUH��FH�DSDU LQH�vQWHPHLHULL�UD LRQDOH�D�HWLFLL��F��QRUPD�PRUDO � IXQGDPHQWDO �FDUH� UHFRPDQG �

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

�V � VH� DVSLUH� OD� XQ� DFRUG��� ÌQ� DFHODúL� WLPS�� DWULEXLQGX-se un rol KRW UkWRU�GLPHQVLXQLL�SUDJPDWLFH��VH�DFFHSW �R�GLDOHFWLF �SULQ�FDUH�VH� LQVHUHD] � �FRPXQLWDWHD� LGHDO � vQ� FRPXQLWDWHD� UHDO ��� FD��SRVLELOLWDWHD�UHDO ��D�VRFLHW LL�UHDOH���>��@ 'DF � JkQGLUHD� VROLWDU � HVWH� GHILFLWDU � VXE� DVSHFW�FRPXQLFD LRQDO�� vQ� IDSW� HD� GHSLQ]kQG� GH� PHGLXO�GLVFX LHL�GH]EDWHULL�UHDOH��WUHEXLH�V �VH�SUHVXSXQ �DSDUWHQHQ D�VD�OD�R�FRPXQLWDWH�FRPXQLFD LRQDO � UHDO ��GHWHUPLQDW �VRFLDO� úL� LVWRULF��úL�� vQ� DFHODúL� WLPS�� WUHEXLH� V � VH� SUHVXSXQ � FRPSHWHQ D� vQ� VHQVXO�XQHL� FRPXQLW L� FRPXQLFD LRQDOH� LGHDOH�� $FHDVW � FRQWUDGLF LH�VXUSULQGH�� GH� IDSW�� GLDOHFWLFD� UHDOXOXL� úL� D� GH]LUDELOXOXL��FRQIUXQWDUHD� FRPXQLF ULL� HIHFWLYH� FX� H[LJHQ HOH� FRPSHWHQ HL�FRPXQLFD LRQDOH�� LDU� VROX LD� QX� HVWH� SRVLELO decât prin devenire LVWRULF �� vPSOLQLUHD� LVWRULF � D� FRPXQLW LL� FRPXQLFD LRQDOH� LGHDOH�vQ� úL� SULQ� FRPXQLWDWHD� FRPXQLFD LRQDO � UHDO �� �7UHEXLH� FKLDU� vQ�PRG� QHFHVDU� V � VH� SRVWXOH]H� GLQ� SXQFW� GH� YHGHUH� PRUDO� DFHDVW �VROX LH� LVWRULF � D� FRQWUDGLF LHL��� 'LQ� DFHVW� �WUHEXLH�� GHFXUJ� GRX �SULQFLSLL� UHJXODWLYH� IXQGDPHQWDOH� SHQWUX� VWUDWHJLD� PRUDO � SH�WHUPHQ� OXQJ� D� RULF UHL� DF LXQL� XPDQH�� �vQ� SULPXO� UkQG�� V � VH�JDUDQWH]H�vQ�WRDWH�IDSWHOH�úL�JHVWXULOH�VXSUDYLH XLUHD�VSHFLHL�XPDQH�vQ�FDOLWDWH�GH�FRPXQLWDWH�UHDO �GH�FRPXQLFDUH��úL��vQ�DO�GRLOHD�UkQG��V � VH� UHDOL]H]H� FRPXQLWDWHD� LGHDO � vQ� FRPXQLWDWHD� UHDO � GH�FRPXQLFDUH���>��@�*DUDQWDUHD�SHUSHWX ULL�VSHFLHL�HVWH�XQ�LPSHUDWLY�HWLF� PHQLW� V � FRQWUROH]H� PDFUR-efectele tehnologiei actuale. �6RFLHWDWHD� RPHQHDVF � vQ� vQWUHJLPH� SRDWH� úL� WUHEXLH� V � ILH�DQDOL]DW �� GLQ�SXQFWXO�GH�YHGHUH� DO� VWUDWHJLHL� GH� VXSUDYLH XLUH�� FD�un sistem de auto-afirmare", implicând, deci, "o strategie de HPDQFLSDUH� SH� WHUPHQ� OXQJ��� >��@� 6HQVXO� PHWRGRORJLF� úL� HWLFR-normativ al acestui principiu regulator sustrage întemeierea MXGHF LORU�GH�YDORDUH�GLQ�VIHUD�FDSULFLLORU�VXELHFWLYLW LL��VXJHUkQG�posibilitatea unei autotranscenderi morale. În deschiderea DFHORUDúL� SULQFLSLL�� -�+DEHUPDV� GHRVHEHúWH�� SH� GH� R� SDUWH��DFWLYLW LOH� LQVWUXPHQWDOH� - îndreptate asupra lumii exterioare -� úL�strategice -� GLVSXVH� F WUH� PDQLSXODUHD� FHORUODO L� VSUH� D� OH� RE LQH�

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FILOSOFIA MORALEI

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