Organisational Behaviour

Leadership

Leadership and Management Managers require new skills to make the transition from the autocrat & supervisor role (1970s) and communicator & organiser role (1980+) to the coach, enabler and leader model for 2012 onwards.

Robbins & Judge P379: Working for a toxic boss.

Management and Leadership Traditional Distinctions

Managers’ Behaviours• Plan & Budget• Organise & Staff• Control

Leaders’ Behaviours• Vision & Direction• Align employees• Inspire & Motivate

Defining Leadership

The ability to influence others towards the achievement of goals (Robbins & Judge, 2011:376)

Worthwhile goals?Visionary?

Formal or Informal?

Discussion PointThink of a person you have worked with recently who you would

consider to be a good leader. What is it that makes this person stand out as a leader?

Leadership Theories Over TimeTrait Theories• Characteristics of leaders

Behavioural Theories• Ohio University Studies• University of Michigan Studies• The Managerial Grid

Contingency Theories• Fiedler• Hersey & Blanchard• Leader-member Exchange• Path-goal Theory• Leader-participation Model

Leadership Theories Over Time

Contemporary Issues•Trust & Leadership •Charismatic Leadership•Transformational Leadership•Emotional Intelligence & Leadership•Moral Leadership•Cross Cultural Leadership•Differences in Male and Female Leadership

Trait theory: “who leaders are”•Sought to find universal personality, social, physical or

intellectual traits that leaders had to a greater

degree than non-leaders. EG: strength, self-

confidence, decisiveness, IQ.

•Leaders are born not made.

•Early research concluded trait theory was erroneous

and over-simplified.

•No universal traits for leadership

•Little consideration to situational factors.

Trait Theories (cont.) Big 5 personality framework & some recent research provides

support for traits associated with leadership. EG •Ambition & energy (extraversion)

•Conscientiousness & openness to experience

•Desire to lead

•Honesty & integrity

•Self-confidence

•Intelligence, including emotional intelligence

•Job-relevant knowledge

•Self-monitors

*** Predict emergence and appearance rather effectiveness

Human Genome Map: Implications???

Trait Theory

Discussion Point•Suggest some personal traits of leaders you have

known or observed. Which traits do you

believe are most valuable. Why?

•Do introverts or extroverts make the best leaders?

•http://www.forbes.com/2009/11/30/introverts-good-leaders-leadership-managing-personality.html

Behavioural Theories

•What do leaders do?

•Specific behaviours differentiate leaders from non-

leaders

•If behaviours can be learned, leadership can be

learned & supply increased (select & train).

•Ohio State Studies

•University of Michigan Studies

Ohio Studies

•Late 1940s (Ralph Stogdill)

•Identify behaviours which fostered goal attainment

•1000+ dimensions reduced to 2 categories:

Initiating Structure

Consideration

Ohio State Studies: Initiating Structure and

ConsiderationInitiating StructureThe extent to which managers (leaders) are likely to define and

structure their roles and those of employees.

Focus on following rules, procedures, maintaining performance

standards, making the roles of employees exact, meeting deadlines,

etc.

These behaviours are more TASK oriented

Ohio State Studies (cont.)Consideration

The extent to which managers (leaders) are likely to

have job relationships based on mutual trust, respect

for subordinates’ ideas & regard for their feelings.

Friendly, approachable, equitable, close

These behaviours are more RELATIONSHIP oriented.

The two styles are not mutually exclusive, ie leaders

could be high on both task & relationship.

Ohio State Studies (cont.)

Research findings

High-High style = high performance & satisfaction more frequently.

However not always

HIS - increased grievances, absenteeism, turnover, lower satisfaction

for routine tasks.

HC - negatively related to performance ratings of leader by superior.

Concluded that generally HH = positive outcomes but situational

factors needed to be integrated.

Ohio State

Consideration

Initiating Structure

Behavioral Theories

University of Michigan Studies Production (Job) Oriented Emphasises technical or task aspects of the job.

Findings: associated with lower group productivity and lower job

satisfaction.

Employee Oriented

Emphasises interpersonal relations & human needs of subordinates.

Findings: associated with higher group productivity & higher

job satisfaction.

The two styles were thought to be distinct., ie leaders could not be high on

both dimensions.

Behavioural Theories:

Discussion Point•Explain the similarities and differences between the findings of the

Ohio and Michigan studies on leadership.

•Would you prefer working for a leader who has a task or relationship

focus? Why?

•Do you think a leader can be both task-oriented and people- oriented?

•Do you think your leadership style will change over time? Why?

The Managerial Grid987654321

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

High

HighLow

Low

1.9

1.1

9.9

5.5

9.1

9,1: Country club managementProduction is incidental to lack of conflict and good fellowship

1,1: Impoverished managementEffective production is unobtainable because people are lazy, apathetic, and indifferent and also sound and mature relationships are impossible because human nature inevitably leads to conflict.

5,5: Dampened pendulum (middle of the road)Push for production but not all out giving space and being fair but firm.

9,9: Team managementProduction is from integration of task and human requirements.

1,9: Task managementPeople are a commodity, just like machines. A manager's responsibility is to plan, direct and control the work of subordinates.

Conc

ern

for P

eopl

e

Concern for Production

Fiedler’s Contingency Model Leader Behaviours•Task-oriented: Low LPC

• Relationship-oriented: High LPC

Contingency Variables•Leader/member relations (group atmosphere)

•Task structure (routine/non-routine)

•Leader position power (reward, legitimate, etc)

Leader Effectiveness Criteria•Performance. Match leader’s style with situation most favourable

for the leader’s success. Style is fixed. ……. Implication?

Contingency Variables Affecting Leader Behaviour

Contingencies•Group’s characteristics•Leader’s characteristics•Employees’ characteristics•Organisational structure characteristics

Leader’sBehaviours

Employee’s Behaviour

Influ

ence

s

Influ

ence

s

Feedback

Findings of the Fiedler Model

• Category• Leader-Member Relations• Task Structure• Position Power

I

Good

HighStrong

II

Good

HighWeak

III

Good

LowStrong

IV

Good

LowWeak

V

Poor

HighStrong

VI

Poor

HighWeak

VII

Poor

LowStrong

VIII

Poor

LowWeak

Good

Poor

Perf

orm

ance

Relationship-Oriented

Task-Oriented

Favourable Moderate Unfavourable

Explaining Fiedler–Task orientated leaders effective for HFS - Everyone gets along, the task is clear & leader has power so take

charge and provide direction

–And HUFS - Structure and task direction are needed, since relations are poor

HT makes no difference to leader’s popularity.

–Relationship orientated leaders effective for MF. - Good relationship skills help to improve relations, clarify task

structure & establish position power.

–So, leaders should - 1) know their style, 2) diagnose the situation.

- Poor match of leader style & situation is problematic

Limitations of Fiedler’s Model •LPC scale is a questionable measure of leader behaviour.•LPC score is assumed to be constant over time.•Task structure and group atmosphere are not really contingency variables•Research evidence weak.•Confusing?

•Do you think leadership style if fixed or flexible? Why?

Discussion Point

Hersey & Blanchard’s Theory•Focuses on the followers•Contingency = Followers’ maturity

•Two dimensions of maturity: job & psychologicalJob: ability to do a job (knowledge, skills, etc)Psychological: willingness to do a job

•Two leadership dimensions: task and relationship which can be high or low•As follower maturity increases, leaders should move from task to relationship behaviours

•Two leadership and maturity dimensions are combined resulting in 4 leadership styles

Hersey & Blanchard (Situational Leadership)

Behavior of Leaders

Readiness of Followers

Hersey & Blanchard (Situational Leadership)

Unable and UnwillingUnable and WillingAble and Unwilling

Able and Willing

Clear, Specific DirectionsHigh Task OrientationSupport & ParticipationLet Followers Perform

Task Behaviour

Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational

Leadership Model

R4Able-willing

R3Able-unwilling

R2Unable-willing

R1Unable-unwilling

Rela

tions

hip

DELEGATING

Low T Low R

PARTICIPATINGLow THigh R

SELLINGHigh THigh R

TELLINGHigh TLow R

Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)

A contingency theory that focuses on followers’ readiness;

the more “ready” the followers (the more willing and able) the

less the need for leader support and supervision.

LOW Amount of Follower Readiness HIGH

Amount of Leader Support &Supervision Required

HIGH LOW

Hersey & Blanchard’s Theory: Implications

•Easily understood model with clear recommendations.

•Leader must constantly monitor employees’ readiness/maturity

levels.

•Leadership style should change to fit changing situations.

Hersey & Blanchard’s Theory: Limitations

•Difficulty in addressing different readiness levels in a team situation.

•Follower readiness is the only contingency variable used.

•Some leaders may not be able to adapt their styles to fit the

situation.

•Model is not strongly supported by empirical data.

Hersey & Blanchard

–Which style have you used or experienced.

–Was it effective? Why?

Discussion Point

Robert House’s Path-Goal TheoryEffective leaders clarify the path and remove obstacles to help

followers achieve their work goals, while ensuring followers’ goals

are compatible with those of the organisation.

4 leadership behaviours:

• Directive (specific guidance)

• Supportive (friendly, concerned)

• Participative (consultative)

• Achievement oriented (sets challenging goals, emphasises excellence)

Robert House’s Path-Goal TheoryTwo classes of contingency factors: 1. Environmental

• Task structure• Formal authority system• Work group

2. Subordinate• Locus of control• Experience• Perceived ability

The Path-Goal TheoryLeader Behavior•Directive •Achievement-oriented• Participative•Supportive

Environment contingency factors • Task structure • Formal authority system•Work group

Subordinate contingency factors • Locus of control• Experience•Perceived ability

Outcomes •Performance• Satisfaction

Path-Goal Theory of Leadership

Supportive behavior Participative behavior

Leader identifiesemployee needs.

PathAppropriate goalsare established.

DirectiveLeader connects

rewards with goal(s)

Directive

Leader provides assistanceon employee’s path toward goals.

Employees become satisfied and motivated and accept the

leader.

Effective performanceoccurs.

Both employees and organization better reach

their goals.

Achievement Motivation

House’s Path-Goal Theory: Implications

•Directive style positively influences work on non-routine tasks.

•Supportive style positively influences work on routine tasks.

•Participative style positively influences work for employees with

an internal locus of control.

•Achievement-oriented style does not influence work on routine

tasks.

Path-Goal Theory

–Compare Fielder’s contingency model with the path- goal

theory. What are the similarities and differences?

–Which do you prefer? Why?

Discussion Point

Leader–Member Exchange Theory

• Leaders select certain followers to be “in” (favourites)

based on competence and/or compatibility & similarity to leader

• “Exchanges” with these “In” followers will be higher quality than with

those who are “Out”

• RESULT: “In” subordinates will have higher performance ratings, less

turnover, and greater job satisfaction

• Fairness ..... Self-fulfilling prophecy ......?

Leader–Member Exchange Theory

Personal Compatibility and/or Subordinate Competence

Leader

Subordinate D

Subordinate E

Subordinate F

Subordinate A

Subordinate B

Subordinate C Out

-Gro

up

In-G

roup

Form

al R

elati

on

Hig

h In

tera

ction

Trus

t

LMX Theory Research Findings

• Supportive

• Leaders do differentiate

• In-group have higher performance, lower turnover, greater

satisfaction with superiors and overall satisfaction.

• Self-fulfilling prophesy??

Leader-Participation Model

Premise:

• Rule based decision tree to guide leaders about when and when

not to include subordinate participation in decision making

• Considers 12 (7) contingency variables to consider whether or

not to include subordinates in decision making

Contingency Variables in the Revised

Leader-Participation Model1. Importance of the decision

2. Importance of obtaining follower commitment to the decision

3. Whether the leader has sufficient information to make a good decision

4. How well structured the problem is

5. Whether an autocratic decision would receive follower commitment

6. Whether followers “buy into” the organization’s goals

Contingency Variables in the Revised

Leader-Participation Model7. Whether there is likely to be conflict among followers over solution alternatives

8. Whether followers have the necessary information to make a good decision

9. Time constraints on the leader that may limit follower involvement

10. Whether costs to bring geographically dispersed members together is justified

11.Importance to the leader of minimizing the time it takes to make the decision

12. Importance of using participation as a tool for developing follower decision skills

Leader-Participation ModelVroom & Yetton, revised by Vroom and JagoLeader Behaviours•Continuum of autocratic to group consensus (5 styles)•Leader’s behaviour should adjust to the task

Contingency Variables (decision tree)•7 contingencies; 12 in revised model

Evaluation of the Model•Subordinates may desire to participate even though the model advises an autocratic style•Too complicated to use on a regular basis•Consistent with knowledge about groups

Leader-Participation Model

Employee Involvement Continuum

Increased Leader Control

Increased Employee Involvement

1 2 3 4 5

ReviewAlmost by definition, the role of leader requires two things: progress

towards some goal, such as through task accomplishment, and the

maintenance of an enthusiastic following through relationship

building. Emphasis to one, to the exclusion of the other, will most

likely prove ineffective.

Discuss this statement and give examples of its managerial

implications. (Self assess)

Contemporary Issues in Leadership•Charismatic Leadership

•Transformational Leadership

•Trust and Leadership

•Emotional Intelligence and Leadership

•Moral Leadership

•Leadership and Cultural Differences

Charismatic Leadership•What is it? (Page 387)

•Who are they (examples)?

•Key characteristics (Exhibit 12.3)

•Born or made?

•Why is it important?

•When is Charisma a liability?

Charismatic leaders

Vision and Articulation

Personal Risk

Sensitivity to Environment

Sensitivity to Followers

Unconventional Behaviour

Transformational Leadership•Transactional leadership

•Motivate followers to achieve goals by clarifying task and role

requirements.

•Transformational leadership

•Builds on top of transactional leadership but goes beyond

•Individualised consideration to followers

•Frames the message; creates a vision

•Inspires followers to transcend their self-interests, give extra effort and

achieve extraordinary results.

•Intellectual stimulation

•Research suggests correlation with lower turnover, higher productivity

and satisfaction

Trust, Ethics and LeadershipTRUST: A positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically (rights & interests of vulnerable followers not abused).

WHAT GENERATES TRUST?•Integrity / Honesty•Benevolence•Competence / Ability See Covey reading on MoodleCONSEQUENCES OF TRUST•Encourage risk taking•Facilitates information sharing•Effective groups•Enhanced productivity

Trust and Leadership

“It’s not possible to be both a trusting boss and a politically

astute leader. One requires openness and the other requires

concealment.”

Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Explain.

Discussion Point

Emotional Intelligence

•Self-awareness

•Self-management

•Self-motivation

•Empathy

•Social Skills

Self assessment: EI

WHAT'S MY EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE SCORE?

Indicate your level of agreement with these ten statements using the

following scale:

Strongly disagree

Disagree

Neither agree or disagree

Agree

Strongly agree

.

•I am usually aware from moment to moment of my feelings as they change.

•I act before I think.

•When I want something, I want it now!

•I bounce back quickly from life’s setbacks.

•I can pick up subtle social cues that indicate others’ needs or wants.

•I’m very good at handling myself in social situations.

•I’m persistent in going after the things I want.

•When people share their problems with me, I’m good at putting myself in their shoes.

•When I’m in a bad mood, I make a strong effort to get out of it.

•I can find common ground and build rapport with people from all walks of life.

Leadership: Key Findings•List and explain four key points you have taken from your reading of

the literature on leadership.

•What is your leadership style?

•What might you do differently as a result of your knowledge about

leadership?

•How is leadership linked to motivation, attitudes and communication?