Organisational Behaviour
Leadership
Leadership and Management Managers require new skills to make the transition from the autocrat & supervisor role (1970s) and communicator & organiser role (1980+) to the coach, enabler and leader model for 2012 onwards.
Robbins & Judge P379: Working for a toxic boss.
Management and Leadership Traditional Distinctions
Managers’ Behaviours• Plan & Budget• Organise & Staff• Control
Leaders’ Behaviours• Vision & Direction• Align employees• Inspire & Motivate
Defining Leadership
The ability to influence others towards the achievement of goals (Robbins & Judge, 2011:376)
Worthwhile goals?Visionary?
Formal or Informal?
Discussion PointThink of a person you have worked with recently who you would
consider to be a good leader. What is it that makes this person stand out as a leader?
Leadership Theories Over TimeTrait Theories• Characteristics of leaders
Behavioural Theories• Ohio University Studies• University of Michigan Studies• The Managerial Grid
Contingency Theories• Fiedler• Hersey & Blanchard• Leader-member Exchange• Path-goal Theory• Leader-participation Model
Leadership Theories Over Time
Contemporary Issues•Trust & Leadership •Charismatic Leadership•Transformational Leadership•Emotional Intelligence & Leadership•Moral Leadership•Cross Cultural Leadership•Differences in Male and Female Leadership
Trait theory: “who leaders are”•Sought to find universal personality, social, physical or
intellectual traits that leaders had to a greater
degree than non-leaders. EG: strength, self-
confidence, decisiveness, IQ.
•Leaders are born not made.
•Early research concluded trait theory was erroneous
and over-simplified.
•No universal traits for leadership
•Little consideration to situational factors.
Trait Theories (cont.) Big 5 personality framework & some recent research provides
support for traits associated with leadership. EG •Ambition & energy (extraversion)
•Conscientiousness & openness to experience
•Desire to lead
•Honesty & integrity
•Self-confidence
•Intelligence, including emotional intelligence
•Job-relevant knowledge
•Self-monitors
*** Predict emergence and appearance rather effectiveness
Human Genome Map: Implications???
Trait Theory
Discussion Point•Suggest some personal traits of leaders you have
known or observed. Which traits do you
believe are most valuable. Why?
•Do introverts or extroverts make the best leaders?
•http://www.forbes.com/2009/11/30/introverts-good-leaders-leadership-managing-personality.html
Behavioural Theories
•What do leaders do?
•Specific behaviours differentiate leaders from non-
leaders
•If behaviours can be learned, leadership can be
learned & supply increased (select & train).
•Ohio State Studies
•University of Michigan Studies
Ohio Studies
•Late 1940s (Ralph Stogdill)
•Identify behaviours which fostered goal attainment
•1000+ dimensions reduced to 2 categories:
Initiating Structure
Consideration
Ohio State Studies: Initiating Structure and
ConsiderationInitiating StructureThe extent to which managers (leaders) are likely to define and
structure their roles and those of employees.
Focus on following rules, procedures, maintaining performance
standards, making the roles of employees exact, meeting deadlines,
etc.
These behaviours are more TASK oriented
Ohio State Studies (cont.)Consideration
The extent to which managers (leaders) are likely to
have job relationships based on mutual trust, respect
for subordinates’ ideas & regard for their feelings.
Friendly, approachable, equitable, close
These behaviours are more RELATIONSHIP oriented.
The two styles are not mutually exclusive, ie leaders
could be high on both task & relationship.
Ohio State Studies (cont.)
Research findings
High-High style = high performance & satisfaction more frequently.
However not always
HIS - increased grievances, absenteeism, turnover, lower satisfaction
for routine tasks.
HC - negatively related to performance ratings of leader by superior.
Concluded that generally HH = positive outcomes but situational
factors needed to be integrated.
Ohio State
Consideration
Initiating Structure
Behavioral Theories
University of Michigan Studies Production (Job) Oriented Emphasises technical or task aspects of the job.
Findings: associated with lower group productivity and lower job
satisfaction.
Employee Oriented
Emphasises interpersonal relations & human needs of subordinates.
Findings: associated with higher group productivity & higher
job satisfaction.
The two styles were thought to be distinct., ie leaders could not be high on
both dimensions.
Behavioural Theories:
Discussion Point•Explain the similarities and differences between the findings of the
Ohio and Michigan studies on leadership.
•Would you prefer working for a leader who has a task or relationship
focus? Why?
•Do you think a leader can be both task-oriented and people- oriented?
•Do you think your leadership style will change over time? Why?
The Managerial Grid987654321
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
High
HighLow
Low
1.9
1.1
9.9
5.5
9.1
9,1: Country club managementProduction is incidental to lack of conflict and good fellowship
1,1: Impoverished managementEffective production is unobtainable because people are lazy, apathetic, and indifferent and also sound and mature relationships are impossible because human nature inevitably leads to conflict.
5,5: Dampened pendulum (middle of the road)Push for production but not all out giving space and being fair but firm.
9,9: Team managementProduction is from integration of task and human requirements.
1,9: Task managementPeople are a commodity, just like machines. A manager's responsibility is to plan, direct and control the work of subordinates.
Conc
ern
for P
eopl
e
Concern for Production
Fiedler’s Contingency Model Leader Behaviours•Task-oriented: Low LPC
• Relationship-oriented: High LPC
Contingency Variables•Leader/member relations (group atmosphere)
•Task structure (routine/non-routine)
•Leader position power (reward, legitimate, etc)
Leader Effectiveness Criteria•Performance. Match leader’s style with situation most favourable
for the leader’s success. Style is fixed. ……. Implication?
Contingency Variables Affecting Leader Behaviour
Contingencies•Group’s characteristics•Leader’s characteristics•Employees’ characteristics•Organisational structure characteristics
Leader’sBehaviours
Employee’s Behaviour
Influ
ence
s
Influ
ence
s
Feedback
Findings of the Fiedler Model
• Category• Leader-Member Relations• Task Structure• Position Power
I
Good
HighStrong
II
Good
HighWeak
III
Good
LowStrong
IV
Good
LowWeak
V
Poor
HighStrong
VI
Poor
HighWeak
VII
Poor
LowStrong
VIII
Poor
LowWeak
Good
Poor
Perf
orm
ance
Relationship-Oriented
Task-Oriented
Favourable Moderate Unfavourable
Explaining Fiedler–Task orientated leaders effective for HFS - Everyone gets along, the task is clear & leader has power so take
charge and provide direction
–And HUFS - Structure and task direction are needed, since relations are poor
HT makes no difference to leader’s popularity.
–Relationship orientated leaders effective for MF. - Good relationship skills help to improve relations, clarify task
structure & establish position power.
–So, leaders should - 1) know their style, 2) diagnose the situation.
- Poor match of leader style & situation is problematic
Limitations of Fiedler’s Model •LPC scale is a questionable measure of leader behaviour.•LPC score is assumed to be constant over time.•Task structure and group atmosphere are not really contingency variables•Research evidence weak.•Confusing?
•Do you think leadership style if fixed or flexible? Why?
Discussion Point
Hersey & Blanchard’s Theory•Focuses on the followers•Contingency = Followers’ maturity
•Two dimensions of maturity: job & psychologicalJob: ability to do a job (knowledge, skills, etc)Psychological: willingness to do a job
•Two leadership dimensions: task and relationship which can be high or low•As follower maturity increases, leaders should move from task to relationship behaviours
•Two leadership and maturity dimensions are combined resulting in 4 leadership styles
Hersey & Blanchard (Situational Leadership)
Behavior of Leaders
Readiness of Followers
Hersey & Blanchard (Situational Leadership)
Unable and UnwillingUnable and WillingAble and Unwilling
Able and Willing
Clear, Specific DirectionsHigh Task OrientationSupport & ParticipationLet Followers Perform
Task Behaviour
Hersey & Blanchard’s Situational
Leadership Model
R4Able-willing
R3Able-unwilling
R2Unable-willing
R1Unable-unwilling
Rela
tions
hip
DELEGATING
Low T Low R
PARTICIPATINGLow THigh R
SELLINGHigh THigh R
TELLINGHigh TLow R
Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory
Situational Leadership Theory (SLT)
A contingency theory that focuses on followers’ readiness;
the more “ready” the followers (the more willing and able) the
less the need for leader support and supervision.
LOW Amount of Follower Readiness HIGH
Amount of Leader Support &Supervision Required
HIGH LOW
Hersey & Blanchard’s Theory: Implications
•Easily understood model with clear recommendations.
•Leader must constantly monitor employees’ readiness/maturity
levels.
•Leadership style should change to fit changing situations.
Hersey & Blanchard’s Theory: Limitations
•Difficulty in addressing different readiness levels in a team situation.
•Follower readiness is the only contingency variable used.
•Some leaders may not be able to adapt their styles to fit the
situation.
•Model is not strongly supported by empirical data.
Hersey & Blanchard
–Which style have you used or experienced.
–Was it effective? Why?
Discussion Point
Robert House’s Path-Goal TheoryEffective leaders clarify the path and remove obstacles to help
followers achieve their work goals, while ensuring followers’ goals
are compatible with those of the organisation.
4 leadership behaviours:
• Directive (specific guidance)
• Supportive (friendly, concerned)
• Participative (consultative)
• Achievement oriented (sets challenging goals, emphasises excellence)
Robert House’s Path-Goal TheoryTwo classes of contingency factors: 1. Environmental
• Task structure• Formal authority system• Work group
2. Subordinate• Locus of control• Experience• Perceived ability
The Path-Goal TheoryLeader Behavior•Directive •Achievement-oriented• Participative•Supportive
Environment contingency factors • Task structure • Formal authority system•Work group
Subordinate contingency factors • Locus of control• Experience•Perceived ability
Outcomes •Performance• Satisfaction
Path-Goal Theory of Leadership
Supportive behavior Participative behavior
Leader identifiesemployee needs.
PathAppropriate goalsare established.
DirectiveLeader connects
rewards with goal(s)
Directive
Leader provides assistanceon employee’s path toward goals.
Employees become satisfied and motivated and accept the
leader.
Effective performanceoccurs.
Both employees and organization better reach
their goals.
Achievement Motivation
House’s Path-Goal Theory: Implications
•Directive style positively influences work on non-routine tasks.
•Supportive style positively influences work on routine tasks.
•Participative style positively influences work for employees with
an internal locus of control.
•Achievement-oriented style does not influence work on routine
tasks.
Path-Goal Theory
–Compare Fielder’s contingency model with the path- goal
theory. What are the similarities and differences?
–Which do you prefer? Why?
Discussion Point
Leader–Member Exchange Theory
• Leaders select certain followers to be “in” (favourites)
based on competence and/or compatibility & similarity to leader
• “Exchanges” with these “In” followers will be higher quality than with
those who are “Out”
• RESULT: “In” subordinates will have higher performance ratings, less
turnover, and greater job satisfaction
• Fairness ..... Self-fulfilling prophecy ......?
Leader–Member Exchange Theory
Personal Compatibility and/or Subordinate Competence
Leader
Subordinate D
Subordinate E
Subordinate F
Subordinate A
Subordinate B
Subordinate C Out
-Gro
up
In-G
roup
Form
al R
elati
on
Hig
h In
tera
ction
Trus
t
LMX Theory Research Findings
• Supportive
• Leaders do differentiate
• In-group have higher performance, lower turnover, greater
satisfaction with superiors and overall satisfaction.
• Self-fulfilling prophesy??
Leader-Participation Model
Premise:
• Rule based decision tree to guide leaders about when and when
not to include subordinate participation in decision making
• Considers 12 (7) contingency variables to consider whether or
not to include subordinates in decision making
Contingency Variables in the Revised
Leader-Participation Model1. Importance of the decision
2. Importance of obtaining follower commitment to the decision
3. Whether the leader has sufficient information to make a good decision
4. How well structured the problem is
5. Whether an autocratic decision would receive follower commitment
6. Whether followers “buy into” the organization’s goals
Contingency Variables in the Revised
Leader-Participation Model7. Whether there is likely to be conflict among followers over solution alternatives
8. Whether followers have the necessary information to make a good decision
9. Time constraints on the leader that may limit follower involvement
10. Whether costs to bring geographically dispersed members together is justified
11.Importance to the leader of minimizing the time it takes to make the decision
12. Importance of using participation as a tool for developing follower decision skills
Leader-Participation ModelVroom & Yetton, revised by Vroom and JagoLeader Behaviours•Continuum of autocratic to group consensus (5 styles)•Leader’s behaviour should adjust to the task
Contingency Variables (decision tree)•7 contingencies; 12 in revised model
Evaluation of the Model•Subordinates may desire to participate even though the model advises an autocratic style•Too complicated to use on a regular basis•Consistent with knowledge about groups
Leader-Participation Model
Employee Involvement Continuum
Increased Leader Control
Increased Employee Involvement
1 2 3 4 5
ReviewAlmost by definition, the role of leader requires two things: progress
towards some goal, such as through task accomplishment, and the
maintenance of an enthusiastic following through relationship
building. Emphasis to one, to the exclusion of the other, will most
likely prove ineffective.
Discuss this statement and give examples of its managerial
implications. (Self assess)
Contemporary Issues in Leadership•Charismatic Leadership
•Transformational Leadership
•Trust and Leadership
•Emotional Intelligence and Leadership
•Moral Leadership
•Leadership and Cultural Differences
Charismatic Leadership•What is it? (Page 387)
•Who are they (examples)?
•Key characteristics (Exhibit 12.3)
•Born or made?
•Why is it important?
•When is Charisma a liability?
Charismatic leaders
Vision and Articulation
Personal Risk
Sensitivity to Environment
Sensitivity to Followers
Unconventional Behaviour
Transformational Leadership•Transactional leadership
•Motivate followers to achieve goals by clarifying task and role
requirements.
•Transformational leadership
•Builds on top of transactional leadership but goes beyond
•Individualised consideration to followers
•Frames the message; creates a vision
•Inspires followers to transcend their self-interests, give extra effort and
achieve extraordinary results.
•Intellectual stimulation
•Research suggests correlation with lower turnover, higher productivity
and satisfaction
Trust, Ethics and LeadershipTRUST: A positive expectation that another will not act opportunistically (rights & interests of vulnerable followers not abused).
WHAT GENERATES TRUST?•Integrity / Honesty•Benevolence•Competence / Ability See Covey reading on MoodleCONSEQUENCES OF TRUST•Encourage risk taking•Facilitates information sharing•Effective groups•Enhanced productivity
Trust and Leadership
“It’s not possible to be both a trusting boss and a politically
astute leader. One requires openness and the other requires
concealment.”
Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Explain.
Discussion Point
Emotional Intelligence
•Self-awareness
•Self-management
•Self-motivation
•Empathy
•Social Skills
Self assessment: EI
WHAT'S MY EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE SCORE?
Indicate your level of agreement with these ten statements using the
following scale:
Strongly disagree
Disagree
Neither agree or disagree
Agree
Strongly agree
.
•I am usually aware from moment to moment of my feelings as they change.
•I act before I think.
•When I want something, I want it now!
•I bounce back quickly from life’s setbacks.
•I can pick up subtle social cues that indicate others’ needs or wants.
•I’m very good at handling myself in social situations.
•I’m persistent in going after the things I want.
•When people share their problems with me, I’m good at putting myself in their shoes.
•When I’m in a bad mood, I make a strong effort to get out of it.
•I can find common ground and build rapport with people from all walks of life.
Leadership: Key Findings•List and explain four key points you have taken from your reading of
the literature on leadership.
•What is your leadership style?
•What might you do differently as a result of your knowledge about
leadership?
•How is leadership linked to motivation, attitudes and communication?