4. OBSERVATIONS

4.1.1 Identification of specimens :

Plants collected were identified using keys proposed by Mathew &

Satheesh (1997).

Dalzellia zeylanica (Gardn.) Wight

1. Dalzellia zeylanica (Gardn.) Wight, Ic. Pi. Ind. 5 :34, 1852; Cook et a1 in

Water Plants of the World, 456, 1974; Nagendran & Arekal, Bull. Bot.

SUN. India, 23 (3-4) : 227, 1981; Janardhanan,Short Comm. Bull. Surv.

India, 24 (1-4) 206-207, 1932, Cook. Aquatic Plant Book, 191, 1990.

2. Terniola zeylanica (Gardn.) Tul., Archieves Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris 6 : 190-

192, t. 13, f3. 1852; Hooker, F.B.I., 5 : 62, 1886; van Royen, Acta Bot.

Neerl. 8: 475. 1959; Subramanyam, Aquat. Angiosp. 45, 1962; Mukkada,

New Phytol, 68 : 1 145- 1 158, 1969.

. 3. Lawia zeylanica tul., Ann. Sc. Nat. ser. 3, 1 1 1 1849; Trimen in A

Hand Book of the F 1. of Ceylon, 3 :416, 1895; Willis is Ann. R. bot. Gard

Peradeniya l(3) : 2 13, 1902; Engler in Engler & Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam.

18a : 34. f 26, 1930; Gamble in f1. Pres. Madras, 2 : 1195, 1925.

4. Tristichu zeylanica Gardn. In Cale. Joum. Nat. Hist. 7 : 177, 1847.

Thallus rosulate. frondose] dorsiventrally flattened, irregularly lobed,

crimson or green. attached to rocks by haptera and root hairs. Leaves dimorphic,

either in rosettes on a short stem or in longitudinal rows on dorsal side and

margin of stem; each rosette leaf long and linear with narrow and elongated cells

in the middle region, cells in the marginal region broader, shorter and lanceolate

and lanceolate. IFlowers terminal, solitary, pedecellate; emerging from a leafy

leathery. covered by small leaves; pedicel elongating after

anthesis. \

^ i

Indotristicha ramosissima (Wight) van R- t -4

I. Indotristicha ramosissima (wight) van Royen in Acta Bot. Neerl., 8 : 474. - 1959; Subramanyam, Aquatic Angiosperms, 45, 1962; Chopra &

Mukkada, Phytomorphology, 16 : 182-1 88, 1966; Nagendran & Arekal,

Bull. Bot. SUN. India, 23 (3-4) : 229, 1981,

2. Dalzellia ramosissima Wight in Ie. P1. Ind., 5 : 35, 1852; Engler in Engler

& prantl, Nat. Ptlanzenfam, 18 a : 33 ff, 16 A, 24, 1930.

3. Terniola ramosissima (Wight) Wedd. In DC. Prodr. 17:47, 1873; Hooker,

F.B.I., 5: 63, 1886.

4. Tristicha ramosissima (Wight) Willis in Ann. R. Bot. Gard., Peradeniya, 1

(3) : 208. 1902 and l(4) : 293-306, ff. 5-9, 1902; Gamble, F1. Pres.

Madras, 2: 1 194. 1925.

Stem attached to rocks at its base by multi lobed haptera ('feet'); haptera

in pairs on the prostrate axis. /Plant body green or chocolate, owing to the

presence of anthocyanin pigments in the epidermal cells. Shoots branched ;

branches dimorphic: large main branches of unlimted growth with triangular or

lanceolate photosynthetic scales; delicate lateral branches (ramuli) of limited

growth with helically arranged photosynthestic scales, upper scales on ramuli

linear, each with an apical notch, those forward the base of the ramuli triangular

or lanceolate. Flowers solitary terminal, pevicellate; floral shoots very short;

flowers arising within a leafy cupule formed by the partial union of

photosynthetic scales and one to three ramuli. Ovary elliptical, three - lobed.

Maferria indica Willis

1. Farmeria indica Willis in: Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Peradeniya, 1 (3): 248,

1902 & 1 (4): 403, 1902; Engler in Engler & Prantl, Nat. Pflazenfam. 18

a: 68, 1930; Gamble, F1. Pres Madras, 2: 1199, 1925; Arekal &

Nagendran in Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 80 B : 226-228, 1974.

2. Mafrria indica (Willis) C. Cusset in : Bull. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat Paris, 4e

ser.14, sect. B, Adansonia, no 1 : 34, 1992. > ,P

Farmeria metzgerioides (Trim9-WilJii - - il*

1. Farmeria metzgerioides (Trimen) Willis in. Ann R. Bot. Gard.

Peradeniya, 1 (3) : 247, 1902 & 1 (4) ; 397, 1902; Engler in : Engler &

Prantl, Nat. Planzenfam. 18 a : 67, 1920; Nagendran & Arekal, J. Mysore

Univ.. Sect. B. 27 : 1976-77; Raveendran & Mathew, J. Econ. Tax. Bot.

14 (3) : 1990; C . Cusset, Bull. Mus. Natl., Hist. Nat., Paris, 4e ser., 14,

sect. B. Adansonia no 1 : 19, 1992.

2. Podostemon metzgerioides Trimen in : A Hand Book of the F1. Ceylon

419, 1895.

Thallus dosrsiventrally flattened, attached to rocks at intervals by

haptera, creeping or with a free distal portion. Vegetative shoots marginal,

alternate along tallus. Leaves 4-6 per shoot, distichous, delicate, subulate, with

deciduous tips: leaf bases sheathing; sheathing bases become bracts on

floriferous shoots; a leaf like appendage may be present on the back of the base

of the inner leaf. Spathella funnel shaped after splitting a apogamous flowers.

Flowers apogamous or cleistogamous, pedicellate or sessile. Stamen 1. Ovaray

elliptical; stigma bitid, pappilate and subeequal, straight while in bud; ovules 2-

14. Capsule two-valved, dehiscent or indehiscent, ribbed or non-ribbed (smooth).

Cladopus hookerianus

1. Gr(tfithe1la hookeriana (Tul.) Warm., Danske Viid. Selsk. Skr. ser. 6, 11:

13, 1901; Willis, Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Peradeniya, l(3): 233, 1902 & l(4):

364, 1902; Cooke, FI. Pres. Bomabay 2: 521, 1906; Engler In: Engler &

Prantl, Nat. Pflanzenfam., 18 a : 61, 1430; Vartak & Bhadbhade, J. Univ.

Poona, Sci., 44: 186, 1973; Vidyashankari & Mohan Ram, Aquat. Bot.

28: 161-169, 1987.

2. Cladopus hookeriana (Tul.) Cusset, Flora du Cambodge, Laos, Vietnam,

14: 72, 1973; Nag. & Arekal, Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 23 : 231, 1981;

Cusset, Bull. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat. Paris, 4e ser., 14, sect. B, Adansonia,

no I: 24-25. 1992.

3. Podostemon hookerianus (Tul.) Wedd. In: DC., Prodr. 17:74, 1873;

Hooker. F.B.I., 5: 65, 1886.

4. Mniopsis hookeriana Tul. Ann. Sci. Nat. Ser. 3(2): 105, 1849.

Thallus branched, ribbon like or cup like, ribbon like thalli creeping over

rocks, attached by haptera on the lower surface; cup-like thalli attached to rocks

at a single central point on the lower surface. Vegetative shoots very short,

arising on the thallus margin. Leaves six per shoot, distichous alternate ; distal

portion delicate and subulate ; sheathing bases become bracts on floriferous

shoots. Most vegetative shoots develop into floriferous shoots. Spathella

membranous, splitting into several lobes, funnel shaped after splitting. Flowers

terminal, pedicellate. Tepals 2, narrow, membranous, one on either side of the

andropodium. Stamens 2, monadelphous; anthers bilobed, lobes subequal,

dorsifixed, introrse: pollen in dyads. Overy globose, smooth, anisolobous; style

reduced, stigma bifid; ovules numerous, arranged on a swollen axile placenta;

septa membranous. Capsule smooth, dehiscent, two-valved with dehiscence ribs

valves sub equal. the larger valve persistent. Seeds many.

Podostemum subulatum Gardn.

1. Podostemum subulatum Gardner, Calc. Journ. Nat. Hist., 7: 184, 1847;

Tul., Ann. Sci. Nat. ser 3, 11: 193, 1849; Arch. Mus. Paris 6: 135, 1852;

Hooker, F.B.I., 5: 65; 1886; Trimen, F1. Ceylon 3: 418, 1895; Willis,

Ann. R. Bot. Gard., Peradeniya 1 (3): 229, 1902 & 1 (4): 328, 1902;

Gamble, F I . Pres. Madras, 2: 1196, 1925, Subramanyam Aquat.

Angiosperms, 50, 1962; Vartak & Bhadbhade, J. Univ. Poona, Sci. 44:

190, 1973: Nair & Bhargavan, J. Econ & Tax. Bot. 6(3): 709-710, 1985 as

<< Podostemon subulatum >>.

2. Zeylanidium subulatum (Gardn.) C. Cusset, Bull. Mus. natl. Hist. Nat.,

Paris, 4e ser., 14. sect. B, Adansonia, no 1 : 32, 1992.

Podostemum munnarense

I . Polypleurum stylosum (Wight) J.B. Hall

2. Polypleurum stylosum (Wight) J.B. Hall, Kew Bull. 26(1): 13 1, 1971.

3. Dicracia s ~ l o s n Wight, << Dicraea >>, Icon. PI. Or. 5:33, 1952; Wedd.

In DC.. Prodr. 17:70, 1873; Willis, Ann. R. Bot. Gard. Peradeniya l(3):

225, 1902:

Thallus brached, ribbon-like, attached at the base and other points on the

lower surface; creeping or partially free floating . Vegetative shoots marginal ,

alternate, most develop into floriferous shoots, each shoot with 5-6 (-8) leaves.

Leaves alternate. persistent, delicate, apex subulate; sheathing bases mono-or

bithecous: becoming fleshy, floral bracts on floriferous shoots. Intrapetiolar

stipules present, usually suppressed in lower leaves. Bracts 5-6 (-8) alternate,

distichous; the lower pair small, upper pairs successively larger. Spathella

membranous, splitting at the tip into 3-6 lobes, funnel shaped; rarely unlobed

with a single split along the upper side and boat shaped. Flowers terminal or

axillary, solitary. zygomorphic and pedicellate. Tepals 2, narrow, membranous

one on either side of the andropodium. Stamens 2(-8) with an andropodium:

additional stamens in the fork of the andropodium. Androecium shorter than the

gonoecium before anthesis. Anthers dorsifixed and introrse, two -lobed, lobes

subequal; pollen in dyads. Ovary elliptical, superior, bicarpellate, smooth; style

reduced. stigma bifid (rarely trifid), lobes subequal ; ovules many on a swollen

axile placenta ; septa membranous. Capsule elliptical, anisolobous, two-valved,

valves subeuqual, smaller valve three ribbed, larger valve three or five-ribbed

(excluding the dehiscence ribs). Seeds many. L

Thallus creeping, attached by haptera along the lower surface, or by

haptera at the base of the stem only and the distal region free- floating, haptera of

two types, one with flat attaching region, the other a proproot-like structure

emerging from the lower side of the thallus just below the secondary shoots ;

haptera two - to many - branched. Spathella membranous, funnel shaped,

slightly curved at its base and erect above splitting into two lobes. Flowers

terminal, pedicellate. Tepals 2, narrow , membranous, one on either side of the

andropodium. Stamens 2. monadelphous; pollen in dyads. Ovary elliptical,

bicarpellate; stigma bifid Capsules two-valved, valves equal, each three ribbed

(excluding the dehiscence ribs). Seeds many. Polypleurum stylosum is a --- -- -- ---_ -- morphologically variable species, especially in terms of the thallus.

Willisia selaginoides (Bedd.) Warm. Ex Willis

I . Willisia selaginoides (Bedd.) Warm. Ex Willis in Ann. R. Bot. Gard.

Peradeniya 1(3) 235, 1902 & l(4): 370, 1902; Engler, Engl. & Prantl, Nat.

pflanzenfam. 18 a: 5 1. 1930.

2. Willisia selaginoides (Bedd.) Warm. Danske Vidensk. Selsk. Sk., ser. 6 .

nat. 1 l(1): 58. 1901; Cusset, Bull. Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat, Paris, 4e ser., 14,

sect. B. adansonia. no 1 : 26. 1992.

3. Mniopsis selaginoides Bedd. In Mardr. J. Sc. Ser. 3,II: 105. 1849.

D 4. Podostemon selaginoides (Bedd.) {enth. In Benth & Hook., Gen. PI. 3: {\A (4

113, 1880: Hooker. F. B. I. 5: 68, 1885!

Thallus crust-like, closely attached to robes by haptera, irregularly lobed

olive-green or chocolate. Leaves quadrangular and narrow towards the base of

vegetative shoots and broad towards the tip ; leaves smaller below. Spathella

membranous. Flowers emerge from the spathella at a circular region near its tip.

Spathella funnel shaped after rupturing, margin irregular. Flowers terminal,

pedicellate. Pepals 2. one on either side of the andropodium, narrow,

membranous longer than ovary. Anthers bilobed, dorsifixed, introrse, pollen in

dyads. Ovary bicrpellate, anisolobous; style reduced, stigma bifid, lobes

subequal ; ovules many, on a swollen axile placenta; septa membranous.

Capsule two valved, valves subequal, each valve one- ribbed (excluding the

dehiscence ribs). The mid portion of the dehiscence rib is swollen.

, l..+.. . :," Zeylanidium lichenoides (Kurz) En@. -----J

.. . , .~. ~. ,_--

I . Zelanidium lichenoides ( ~ u r z . ) ( ~ n ~ l . & Prantl Nat. Pflanzenfam., ed. 2,

18 a 6 1, 1928; Subramanyam, Aquat. Angiosperms, 49, 1962;

2. Hydrobryum lichenoides Kurz, Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 42 (2): 103, 1873;

Willis, ann. R. Bot. Gard. Peradeniya, l(3): 242, 1902, Cooke, F1. Pres.

Bombay, 2(1): 522, 1906; Gamble, F1. Pres. Madrras, 2: 1199, 1925.

3. Podostemum microcarpum Wedd., in DC., Prodr. 17: 76, 1873.

Zeylanidium mahesRwarii Mathew & Satheesh

Thallus prostrate, tightly attached to rocks by the haptera on lower

surface; vegetative shoots arising from dorsal surface. Leaves 4-6 (-8), to lmm

long , with persistent sheathing bases; bracts 4-6 (-8). Spathella approximately 2

mm long , papillate. boat shaped after splitting. Flowers 5.5 - 6mm long,

anemophilous. Pedicel 3-4mm long. Tepals 1.3- 1.6 mm long. Stamens 2, 2.7-

3.2 mm long . shorter than the ovary before anthesis. Andropodium attached to

the pedicel about 1 mm below the ovary; a short gynophore below the ovary.

Ovary nearly obovoid. 1.25mm long and 1 mm wide; stigma multilobed 1- 1.25

mm diameter. Capsule obovoid , valves subequal , larger valve persistent each

valve broadly three ribbed; pedicel to 1 cm long. Fruits and seeds mature by the

beginning of December. , ,L>

L '

Hydrobryopsis Engl. ' - Thallus branched. Vegetative shoots very short, marginal, in the axils of

the thallus branches. Most vegetative shoots develop into floriferous shoots.

Leaves 4-6, distichous, alternate; leaf bases sheathing ; sheathing bases become

bracts on floriferous shoots ; leaf tips delicate, subulate, deciduous. Spathella

membranous, splitting along the upper side, boat-shaped after splitting. Flowers

terminal, sessile. Tepals 2, one on either side of the andropodium. Stamens 2,

meonadelphous; pollen in dyads. Ovary superior, globose, bicarpellate; style

reduced, stigma bifid ; ovules many, on a swollen axile placenta. Capsule

smooth, dehiscent, two valved, with dehiscence ribs; valves subequal, larger

valve persistent, smaller valve deciduous. Seeds many.

4.1.2 Distribution

Altitude wise distribution of Podostemaceae population in the study area

In the study area Polypleurum Spp, Podostemum S ~ E , Zeylanidium S ~ Q ,

Hydrobryopsis sessilis. Willisia Spp.were prevelant in high lands (600-1800m)

(table 1 ).

C W J - In the midland (300-600m) (table 11) besides Polypleurum, Podostemum, 1

' .4? d. Zeylanidium /genera !Dalzellia Spp., Maferria Sp. was also present. In the

., . - . . -s; 4fy" lowlands of the study area Mafe;ria indica, Farmaria metzgerioides, Cladopus

. .- hookerianus, Indotristicha ramosissima were seen (table I & 11). The pa- highland preferring Podostemads Polypleurum siylosum, Zeylanidium

C.. . lichenoides were equally represented in lowlands also,Willisa selagznordes was

also observed at Kannampara- Pooyamkutty at 60 m altitude. Zeylanidium

olivaceum was observed in Cheeyappara waterfalls. In the top of the waterfall

Zeylanidium lichenoides and Z. olivaceum co-occur. During present collection

Indotristicha Sp. was found totally restricted to lowland and to an extent in the

midlands in the study area.

4.1.3 PHENOLOGY

Phenology of podostemads began with germination in the high water

period by the end of May-June. In July and August vegetative growth begins

under water. Water level recede by November and vegetative thalli were

established on rocks. By the month of December on complete exposure of the

, a.

Indotristicha is the tristichoid with root shoot distinction. Germination

of seeds started in the high water period by the last week of May or first week of

June. In the high water seasons vegetative growth progresses evidenced by the

progressively varied length of floating thalli were seen under water. In the

months of January up to February and March with the lowering of water, these

plants began flowering. Fruit bearing Indotristicha was the only podostemad G? '

-. 2. Dalzellia : V Y c

c, b - i

Dalzellia is the only crustace$ tristichoid in the study area. They started - . 7 Gh

germination in high water period and completed its vegetative growth by month

of October and November. They began flowering in the last week of December.

Simultaneous flowering and fruiting were seen in January and February, by the

end of March perishing thalli bearing dry broken fruits were seen.

3. Polypleurum :

Polypleurum is the genus, which start germination in the high water

period and complete it by the first week of September. They were seen at various

heights of rocks. With lowering of water, (partly submerged) they started

flowering in September and continued to December with simultaneous fruiting.

In January fruiting continued with matured seeds. In February dly thalli with

dispersed fruit remnants were observed.

4. Podoslemum:

In the genus Podostemum germination and vegetative stages were

prolonged from high water period in June up to December. Flowers were seen

clustered in January. February and March. Fruiting started simultaneously in

March and seeds matured and dispersal completed and thalli dried up in May.

Perishing thalli persisted up to the beginning of high water period.

5. Zeylanidium :

Germination of the genus Zeylanidium began in high water period and

vegetative growth continued up to November. Along with these vegetative thalli

flowering starts. which continues up to last week of January. Fruits mature

correspondingly and the process continues till February. Dried thalli were seen

only in the last week of March. Seeds were completely matured by that period,

and thalli perished.

6. Hydrobryopsis :

The genus Hvdrobryopsis germinates in June and vegetative phase

continues up to November. Flowers and fruits were produced by December and

January. They perish by the middle of March.

In the genus C'ladopus after germination vegetative stage progresses

quickly. They begins flowering by the end of November and fruits are available

by the middle of December. Simultaneous maturation and drying up of thalli

were noticed in February.

8. Maferria :

Maferria had a delayed in germination and vegetative phases which

commences by the middle of high water period. They began flowering in late

January and continued up to February. Fruits were available by late February.

Since they were totally aquatic fruit development, maturation and dispersal are in

a fast pace. Their thalli were seen in a partially dry stage in April -May.

9. Farmaria :

Farmaria is the genus, which has a prolonged vegetative stage. Ailer a

similar delayed germination, reproductive phase starts by February and

continued up to the dry water period. Similarly drying up of thalli is visible till

the on set of high water period.

10. Willisia:

Willisia. a highly restricted genus completes their growth in the high

water period and flowers in early November. In December and January thalli

with dried fruits persists.

1. Germination 2. Vegetative stage 3. Flowering 4. Fruiting 5. Seed production 6. Perishing

Tenn I Term 2 Term 3 Term 4 (June-July) (Aug-Sept-Oct) (Nov-Dec) (Jan-Feb)

Term 5 (March)

Term6 (April-May)

PHENOGRAM

Intermingling of Podostemads on rocks

I. Dalzellia :

Dalzellia is the only crustaceous tristichoid member in the study area.

The favorable site of occurrence of these plants was dorsolateral position of

stable rocks. They were also found dorsally together with the persisting thalli of

Polypleurum. Dalzellia thalli were observed intermingling with Polypleurum and

Zeylanidium thalli in stations such as Urulanthanny.

2. Indotristicha :

Indotristicha is the tristichoid member with root-shoot distinction. The

basal parts of the thallus were attached to dorsolateral, lateral and even

ventrolateral positions of stable rocks. When mature plants were seen dorsally,

vegetative thalli develope in ventrolateral position beneath the water. These

plants were seen intermingling with other podostemads.

3. Polypleurum:

The genera w~th the ability to grow on all position of stable rocks in

stations where these plants were prevalent., The dorsal surface of the rocks

were prominently covered with them. They were capable enough to establish on

the rock position maxlmum number of other podostomad genera were found to

occur with them (table I) Dalzellia, Indohisticha plants were seen on the same

rock ventrally to Polypleurum Zeylanidium was found at the same level at P' Athirappilly station. Polypleurum co-occurs with the isolated genus

Farmaria metzgerioides at Perurnthenaruvi station.

4. Podostemum:

The genus is restricted to certain stations in the study area. These plants

occur on dorsolateral and lateral position of stable rocks. In station such as

Urulanthanny, they were restricted to isolated stable rocks. However their

predominance was seen in rocks of Elathukkadavu. (table I).

5. Zeylanidium : , -

The genus Zeylanidium %erJseen on dorsal and dorsolateral positions of

stable rocks, intermingled with polypleurum and Dalzellia (table I). Zeylanidium

thalli in the fruiting stage; were found to co-occur with Maferria at Vellarippara - Kallar. This genus was having dominance in waterfall rocks

(table I).

(, ~ ' 3

6. Hydrobryopsis: b' ' \

Hydrobtyopis s the genus having @ crustaceous nature. They

were seen growlng on dorsal and dorsolateral positions of stable rocks. Found to

co-occur with Zeylan~dium or Maferria at Vellarippara-Kallar, Dominating

singly at Kurumkayam (tablel).

7. Farmaria :

Farmaria is the genus showing maximum restriction in the study area

(table 1). They do not intermingle with other podostemad genera. Found on the

lateral and ventro-lateral positions of rocks. Rocks of their occurrence are rough

and creviced.

8. Maferria :

Monospecific genera kestricted to one river Kallar in the study area.

They occur on they ventrolateral positions of smooth rocks. They co-occur with

Zeylanidium. C'ladopus and Hydrobryopsis. (Table I).

T A ~ L ~ ; 1 1 1 ',Nlr'l iL FORM ASSOCIATKD

S/>rr<~gvrcr. O~.dogonium. Tetra.sp~ru. ( <~.vrtiur./ tali, h4icrocy.~fis, Microsporu. Scrt~i,i/t..~nrzr.v, ( ymbellu, Sirogonizrmn. Pinnuluriu,

S ~ I ~ O : L , , R J , S~'enede.smu.s, Pinnuluriu.

(.~luluJopu.s

Zeylunrdiunr

Hydrubryopsr.~

Famuriu

Maferriu /

Willisin

~ j , ~ ~ ~ ~ / / i r / o r r u

i ( o n m Tetrusporu. / ' i t ~ ~ ~ i i ! t i / . : t i . ( ' I~l~~rydon~onus, O . ~ c i l l u / ~ r i ~ ~

. S / J I ~ , , ~ t . ~ , ( )~,dr~gon~um. Te~ru.spor~~. i'111171~iur1ir. ('l7Iumydomonus,~~leocup.~u, ( ' l rk~ro~~o~~i~imi , Nostoe, O.scilla/oriu

h'elritmr dc~g~tzrs. I'mnularia, Selenuslrurn, .'icc.n~~~/e.~~trir.s

/'mnuI~rnu. Sprromra

Sr~rrogvr.~~. Oedogonium. Teirasporu. /'rnn~rlorro, C%lamydomonu.s. C/~lorellu, O . sc~ l l~r /~~r~u

Sp~rogvru

I'/ecopleru Sp.

( 'oler~p~eru 1,urvu -.

IJ.vrrocor~due ("oleopteru Sp. -

C?oleopleru Sp. (Larva) 3

Plecop~eru Sp. .,,

3

Plecopteru Sp.

9. Farmaria :

Genus with crustaceous thallus. They occur on dorsal and dorsolateral

surfaces of stable rocks. They were seen on rocks in Chaliyar

(table 1)

10. Willisia :

This is the only genera with vertical disposition and is highly restricted

to high altitude stations. Position of attachment was dorsal; no other

podostemads co-occur with them.

4. 1.4 Associates

The epiphytic algal members associated around various Podostemaceae

thalli were separated and examined. They were seen to be members of fresh

water ecosystem. both filamentous and unicellular

(Table 111). Chlorophyoeae such as Spirogvra, Oedogonium, Chlamydomonas,

Scenedesmus, Cyanophyceac such as Oscillatoria and Diatoms were those

commonly observed algal flora. In certain spots stagnancy of the water body and

nutrient enrichment lead to eutrophication. Podostemaceae as such was visibly

enveloped by algae (Plate VI). Cyanophyceae members such as Nostoc,

unicellular chlorophyceae such as Chlamydomonas, Tetraspora, Chlorella were

the main components of these algal mass.

The floral and reproductive regions in various Podostemaceae thalli

were seen to be ensheathed in algal threads. Zndobisticha, Polypleurum and

Podostemum were those found with maximum number of algal associates. Spots

where Podostemaceae growing along with riparian angiosperms were somewhat ,--

rare. However. Cyperus varietie2 , Utricularia, Eniocolorj Spp, Rotula aquatic~

were seen in shallow flowing stations. ,

During the low water period or dry season (March) a number of

angiosperm seeds were found to be germinated among the mud covered

Indotristicha as seen in Mukkadavu. These include plants such as MuNugo,

Oldenlandia and others. The dispersing fruits of riparian trees were also found

among Podostemacae thalli.

Aquatic animal forms in streams were caddis fly larvae, Coleoptera

Sp., Psephenidae Sp.. Plecoptera Sp., Pyrrocoridae Sp., snails and fishes. The

aquatic arthropods of different growth stages were observed among the

Podostemaceae thalli in the interstitial space of thalli and on the rocks.

Coleoptera Sp. were observed along with the maximum number of

Podostemaceae thalli (Table 111). In the beginning of low water period (March),

Indotriticha became prominent with its reproductive phase. Large number of

worms of varied categories was found around the above cluster of elongated

thalli. A large number of Coleoptera larvae were found associated with species

of Polypleurum. Psephenadae Sp. was another prominent arthropod associate of

Indotristicha at Blavana (Table 111, PI. VII). Another animal form associated

with the genus Zeylanidium was Pyrrocoridae Sp.

Snails were also found attached to the same rocks of Podostemaceae. In

the reproductive phase of the plants, aquatic arthropods were seen moving

rapidly among the thalli. They were indirectly helping pollination and dispersal

processes as they move over and above the mature flowers and fruits. In plants

such as Polypleurum Sp. movements of mature stamen (aided by the arthropod)

initiates release of a spray of pollen. This was visible with the naked eye. These

pollen might reach the stigma and pollination could occur since a large number

of flowers were clustered in a single thallus. The members of the genus

Psephenidae were associated with the thallus of Indotristicha. They were of very

rapid movement and were visibly initiating pollination.

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF KERALA 10 0 I0 w xtkw -

1m0dim * @mbw of K c 4 691. 1973 1915)

4.1.5 Geology of the study area

Physiography

Study area lies in Kerala state with North latitudes 80 17' 3 0 and 120

27' 40". (Fig. I j

Western Ghats in the east, Arabian sea in the west are natural

boundaries of the state. Dakshin Kannada, Kodaga end Mysore districts of

Karnataka are the north and north eastern political boundaries. While Nilgiri,

Coimbatore, Madurai, Ramanathapuram, Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari districts

of Tamil Nadu border south and south eastern parts of the state politically.

Through Kerala is a small strip of land wide range of variation can be

observed in physical features. Five major physiographic zones are recognized in

the state

Attitude Percentage of state area

1 Mountain Peaks >1800m 0.64%

2 Highlands 600-1 800m 20.35%

3 Midlands 300-600m 8.44%

4 Lowlands 10-300m 54.17%

5 Coastal Plalns & Lagoons <10m 16.40%

Kerala has 44 rivers priginations frbm Western Ghats of which 41 7

, ,$ rivers flow west ward and three eastwards. cy

The state falls wiih in the realm of tropical climate and the dominant -' feature experienced is monsoon. High variation in the relief from the east,

proximity to the sea influences climatic parameters resulting in subtropical

climatic region in eastern parts of the state. Western Ghats extend all along the

east but its breaches allow hot air from Tamil Nadu which forms the separate

climate in Palghat gap and Ariankavu pass.

Maximum rainfall is recorded with the state in the areas where Western

Ghats have high elevations and farther from the sea. Southern most districts of

Thiruvanathapuram receive the least where Western Ghats are lower in elevation

and sea in very closer.

Recent studies on rainfall series for an eighty year period from 1901-

1980 reveal mean rainfall in the state barring coastal belt has decreased dry 10-

20% in the second half of this period.

Temperature:-

Temperature data for the years 1931-1979 indicate that the period from

March- May is the hottest in the state with temperature reaching > 3 2 ' ~ .

Temperature is minimum in July when state receives maximum rainfall 2 8 . 5 ' ~

for the state.

Wind in the state in seasonal. In Kannur- Kasargod wind is from

northwest direction. While in Palghat Gap winds are from east in November -

March and from west other wise. Wind speed extend from 15km/hr. 40-45 km/hr

during or before monsoon rains (Pisharody 1992)

Humidity denotes the amount of moisture content in the atmosphere. The

annual mean relative humidity various from 7944% in the morning to 73-77% in

the evening along coastal areas. In the Palghat gap it is 79% and 63%

respectively. During the months of January to March afternoon humidity reduces

to 60-63%

4.1.6 Chemical assessment of water

a) Qualitative assessment

In thc course of the present study preliminary visits were made to

collection stations. These spots were carefully observed for ecological details and

were recorded there itself. From these data spots were selected for further

repeated assessments.

Qualitative index of the spots were represented taking the parameters

such as presence and odour of sewage, use of the station for washing and

bathing. The extend was represented by increasing number of signs. Data were

represented in ( I'able IV).

A station such as Mukkadavu represented as A++ B++ C+ denotes that

the spot with presence of sewage, extreme odour of sewage and the spot used to

an extent as washing and bathing site. The probable source of contaminant is

mentioned in remarks Station free of all these contaminants such as Silent Valley

was represented as (0)

TARLE I V: TABLE ON OUALITATIVE CHARACTERS IN SPOTS OF

PODOSTEMACEAE Stat ions P lan t s present Qual i tat ive index R e m a r k s

u ~ + ' L I I K ~ ~ U / / z. A++ B++ C++ Uncontrolled anthropogentc tnter vent~on

h ('hikklri Z., D., I. C t Sand mining.

Domestic Sewage

('herl~tr falls 2. A+ B+ C+ Uncontrolled anthropogen~c mter ventlon

h. ('huputh Z., D., F . Br~dge of racks constructed hence habitat disturbed.

C+ -

Und~sturbed. L.. h'unnunpuru D., W . A+ C++ Presence of anthropogenic intervention

Extreme anthropogenic intervention and Sewage.

3. (/rtiltrn/hunny

4. Mzikkudtt~.rr 1

h. Mukkudut~~ 2

5. h;c.du,,untroot.

Kud~tilzt

6. Th~~nmultr

7. Pultrr~rr~i

ti . ~ , t r r r r full

h. 1'ulurin.i-2

8. Kullur

9. u. Ponmztdil

h. Ponmtid~ 2

10. Silenl Cu l lq

I I . Nrllium pulhy

12. hlzmnur

13. Thommrnkuthlr

u. ~ ' u r r r full

h. C'ullukkuduvu

14. C'huli~~ur.

I 5 Elrrnrhu Ktrdt~vu

16. Klrruml(u?~um

17 C'rllurhoov~i

18. Kurhungui

(I. ('hrmrnunnur

h. l'tmnivur

D., P.

I.,P.,Z.,D.

z., 1.

P., I., z P., D.

P., D.

I.

Z., P., M.

z., M.

M

W., z .

P., Z.

Po., z., P.

z., P.

P., I.

D., C.

H., C., P.

H., P.

z., P., Po.

z., P.

z., P.

z., P.

19. Mumulukundum D., C. 20. ('hrr>~ttp/~urcr z. 21. Trekoj. P., I., F. 22. Pertimthrnur~rl*i P., F., D. 23. firzmrlli z., P. 24. Punumurtrm P., D.

Presence of anthropogenic intervention

No remarkable change natlced

No remarkable change noticed

No remarkable change noticed

High anthropagenlc intervention

Notable decrease in population

Ecstattc rocks heavy Scour

Chance for habitats loss

Hlgh anthropogen~c lnterventlon

No remarkable change notified undisturbed

Na remarkable change nottfied.

No remarkable change not~ced.

Na remarkable change noticed.

Large-scale pebble maning.

Heaving stltataon in the river

Slltation in river

Siltation, pramlnent wash~ng and bathing site

Slltation

No remarkable change nat~ced.

No remarkable change not~ced.

Sewage present not in a l m l n g level.

Thick population afpodastemads

Fxcesstve use as washing s ~ t e chance far hab~tat loss

Sewage present not in alarm~ng level

Thtck population of podastemads

Hydroclectr~c project reverses the flow hence

total habttat loss

Landsltde caused extensive habttat lass

Extreme anthropogenac tnterventxon

No remarkable change notxed

Sewage present not alarming level

Sewage present not to alarming level

Extreme Sand mlning has lead to siltation

& Pebble transpan hahltat loss may result

Qualitative index . A-Sewage in water

B - Odour of sewage,

C - Site used for washing and bathing.

0 - Unpolluted.

+ - Presence, ++ - Presence Causing disturbance.

Plant Names C--

D-Dalzellia

F-Farmaria

1 I-Hvdrobrvopsis . .

1-bdotristih

M-Maferria

P-Polypleurum

Po-podostemum

b) Quantitative assessment

The collection 'stations' for water analysis were selected at random.

The primary criterion of selection was representation of members of both

subfamilies. These stations were representative of different rivers. The

qualitative assessment of individual spots was done in the spot. Observations

based on the presence of pollution, usage as bathing and washing site and

permanent alterations in the site were recorded (table - V).

Quantitative assessment of the water was done in the laboratory.

Temperature was determined at the spot itself. In the present investigation water

temperature followed the similar trend of air temperature.

1. Turbidity :

Turbidity was measured using turbidometer. Higher values were

obtained at spots with stagnant water or with organic pollution as in Mukkadavu,

and Kuthungal (table V).

Spots of Chaliyar and Periyar characterised by siltation showed higher

values of turbidity. (table V). As is indicated in the graph, the highest value was

recorded at Chaliar : lowest being available in Athirampilly. (7.5). These values

were recorded during reproductive season of Podostemaceae.

2. Dissolved oxygen content:

The dissolved oxygen content showed generally higher values since

sample water was from turbulent rivers and waterfalls. The highest values of

oxygen content were recorded in the post monsoon season. The maximum value

of 15.8 was recorded from Pooyamkutty river during the reproductive phase of

podostemads (table VI). The graph representing these values showed regular

variations (table V). Lowest values were recorded in Mukkadavu in the post

monsoon season (6.2 mglml) and from Kuthungal in the pre-monsoon season.

3 Free carbon dioxide content:

Presence of free C02 content is variable with each spot in the study area.

In a single spot the values vary in each season. The values were generally found

to be high at organically polluted sites (table -V). Highest values recorded at

Mukkadavu; lowest being (.45) at Urulanthannni in the low water period. The

lowest values in the reproductive season are seen at Pooyamkutty (0.88).

4. Alkalinity :

Alkalinity values showed wide range of variation from one station to

another (tablev) they also exhibited clear seasonal variation showing higher

values during low water period. The lowest values were observed during high

water period, (graph 111). Highest values (16) at Mukkadavu and Kuthungal.

Lowest values at Neduvannor kadavu (4).

5. Chloride content:

This parameter established variation in every station. In these stations

pattern of variation in not uniform. The maximum values were seen in the dry

water season in stations maximum anthropogenic intervention in the study area

(table I)

6 Hardness:

Total hardness of the sample water from different stations varied

seasonally. The lowest values were observed during dry water period. Highest

values were obtained in the reproductive stage of Podostemaceae

4.2. Reproductive biology

4.2.1 Morphology of floral parts

4.2.2 Palynology

The Present study includes 5 genera of the family Podostemaceae.

I . Indotristicha Sp. * Pollen grains monads, spherical 19.1 pantoporate pores X covered by opercula formed of large granules.

Exine granulate. fine granules spread over the surface. They become

aggregated in to various patterns such as elongate faint ridges and islands of

various shapes.

2. Dalzellia Sp.

Pollen grains monads, spherical pantoporate, operculum formed of

granular aggregations and fusion of granules forming pin-shaped granules.

Exine surface finely granulate; granules aggregate to form various

patterns in the form of ridges and gives a cloud pattern.

3. Polypleurum Sp.

Pollen grain in diads, pantoporate, pores represented by operculum,

which superimpose in circular depressions.

4. Zeylanidium Sp.

Pollen grain in diads, three zonocolpate, and apertures possibly confined

to one surface.

Exine surface granulate, granules appeared along the margin of colpi in

to ridges on the colpar face. In the non-colpar face granules are aggregated to

form islands of various shapes.

5. Podostemum Sp.

Pollen in diads, pantoporate, pores being represented as conical

depression without operculum.

Exine surface granulate, granules fairly distinct, varying in size and

shapes. In the picture a pollen system was seen with pollen fitted in to a cup like

structure with thick convolute margins and a stalk only half the grain is exposed.

Granules were spread uniformly on the pollen part and extra pollen part.

The size of stamen and pollen grain were measured. Pollen

number per stamen was also measured. (Table .:VIP

Figure I1

Dalzellia zeylanica (Gardn.) Wight

A. Habit,A leafy cupule spread out.

B. A single leaf likestructure

C'. A floriferous shoot with cuple (cu); anther (a); filament (0; stigma

(st) and pedicel (ped)

I). A perianth spread out.

E. Gynoecium: ovary (0); stigma (st).

Indotristicha ramosissima (Wt.) van Royen

A. Habit

H. A leafy cupule spread out; scale ramulus (r).

C . A floriferous shoot with cuple (cu); anther (a); filament (f);

stigma (st) and pedicel (ped).

L). A perianth spread out.

E Gynoecium: ovary (0); stigma (st).

F . C. S. of ovary showing placenta (pl); ovule (ov) and septum (s).

Figure Vl

Farmeria indica (Willis) Arekal & Nag. Maferria Sp.

A. Habit showing the attachment of thallus (th) to stone (sto)

H. A floriferous shoot with flower bud (fb) and bracts (br).

U A floriferous shoot with an opened flower showing bracts (br); spathe

(sp): stigma (st); anther (a); and filament (f).

D. A spathe after opening.

. A stamen showing tepal

k. C.S. of ovary

Figure VI

Clado~us hookeriaoua

A. Cup form of thallus (th) - upper view.

B A floriferous shoot showing bracts (br); spathe (sp); ovary (0);

C. stigma (st); andropodium (and); filament (f) and anther

D. A flower showing pedicel (ped); ovary (0); stigma (st) and anther

t: C. S. of ovary showing placenta (pl); ovule and septum (s).

- ._ - . . Dtss~r. END

. .. . - . APICAL CAP

. . .- ... . PUOXiMAL END

- - - - . -- FRUIT S r A l l X

Six Podostemaceae members two from each Tristichoideae and four

from Podostemaceae were selected of this study. The number of stamens per

flower was noted. They were clearly separated in the maturity bud. The anther

part was carefully placed on a slide and mounted in glycerin. The anther was

dissected carefully observing through a compound microscope. The number and

size of pollen were determined using an ocular micrometer.

4.2.3 Ovule number

The mean ovule number per ovary varied widely among species

(Table1V)from six in Maferria indica to 210 in Dalzellia. Ovule number shows

considerable variation from genus to genus. Dalzellia Sp. has the highest mean

ovule number (195+20) in Tristichoidea, while among the Podostemaceae

members Polypleurum genus have the highest mean ovule numbers (175+20).

The ovule number did not show any significant difference among species of

same genus as in Polypleurum.

4.2.4 Pollen ovule ratio

The Pollen /ovule ratios were calculated by dividing the mean number

of pollen grains per flower by the number of ovules per flower.Maferria Sp has

the highest pollen /ovule ratio 106.6 while Zeylanidiurn Sp. has the lowest ratio

6.25. (table VII).

4.2.5 Fruit and seed morphology

Morphological standards of fruits (Fig.\*

Proximal end : The end of the fruit where the fruit stalk is attached. The

shape of the fruit is described on the basis of this point of

attachment.

Distal end : The end diametrically opposite to the proximal end.

Apical circle: Part of the distal end where the ridges converge sub apically

marking and apical circle.

Ridges : The longitudinal or reticulate raised area, which leaves concave

or shallow interridge area.

Size & shape: Shape may be described in terms of the proximal end

attachments. Length measured from proximal end to disal end.

Breadth measured at ,the maximum broad point.

Fruit Surface: Elongate, or cellular cells with nodules or web like patterns.

Fruit

Fruit in members of Podostemaceae were found to be loculisidal capsules

.In the present work the number of fruit per centimetelrj of the thallus were

counted. It ranged from three in Maferria indica and four in Willisia

selaginoides to fourteen in Zeylanidium lichenoides and Cladopus. Fruits in all

Indian podostemads were stalked except Hydrobryopsis sessilis., which are

meagerly stalked to sessile in most of them (table VIII).

The fruits with longest stalks are Willisia selaginoides (3cm)and of the

(proposed new species) Polypleurum disciformum with (2.5 cm) long stalk. The

size of the stalk and fruit are measured using standard tape and micrometer .

The largest size of fruits was observed in Willisia selaginoides with 5mm

x2mm size. Smaller fruits were found in Hydrobryopsis sessilis.

Fruits were ovate to obovate or elliptical in shape. The capsules were

reported smooth in C'ladopus, Hydrobryopsis and Farmaria. Maximum number

of ribs were found in Polypleutrum (Sp.) (8-9), and Dalzellia and Indotristicha

(9).

Zeylanidium Sp. has 6 ribs. These ribs were transverse and prominent

(visible to naked eye) on fruit surface.

Fruits on SEM showed ribs cellular and elongate. Ridges radiating all

over the surface converging at the distal end forming an apical cap like portion.

The pattern of ridges was varied in each genera and between two sub families

Tristichoideae and Podostemaceae .

The ultra structure interspecific differences are not so prominent in the

genus Zeylanidium which showed faint longitudinal ribs and cellular interridge

are (Pl. XIII) the inter- specific differences are prominent in Podostemum with

Podostemum subulatum exhibiting non - convex ridge area with shallow, smooth

or non curved interridges area. However the species Podostemum munnarense

showed convex cellular and elongate ribs with cellular inter ridges area, which is

only slightly concave (depressed in comparison to

P . subulatum).

The intergeneric similarities are more in ultra structure of fruits such as

Polypleurum stylosum with convex ridges and cellular interridge area is more

similar to Podostemum munnarense. The proposed new species Polypleurum

discforum longitudinal ribs are more similar to on less convex as in Podostemum

subulatum (PI. X). The scleroidal cells in Polypleurum sfylosum are more

similar to the cells on ultra structure of Indotristicha ramosissima (Plate IX& X).

Tristichoideae fruits on ultra structure showed raised longitudinal ribs (9)

and depressed inter ridge area. (PI. IX). The pattern of cells in the inter ridges

area differs in Dalzellia and Indotristicha. (PI. IX) the scleroidal nature of cells

over laying the ribs in Indotristicha are not seen in both Dalzellia species.

The non ribbed fruits Grifithella (C1adopus)and Hydrobryopsis on higher

magnification showed in conspicuous ridges all over this surface which converge

at the distal apical cap region. (PI. XII). The ridges were showing web like

patterns and nodules in surface magnification in Cladopus. The brochi of

Hydrobryopsis were of anatomising nature.

Fruit SEM

1. Dalzellia zeylanica : I

Fruits obovate in shape and brown colored Fruit wall ridged, ridge

acutely slanting roof shaped with a sharp top edge and converging sub apically

marking out a vacant 'apical circle' at the distal end. At the proximal end

convergence was not clear Adjacent ridges widen out from the apical end and

again coverage at the proximal. Lower edges adnate producing a concave

channel all along the length. At higher magnification ridges seem to be

composed of thick thread like structures bound together and concave channel

(inter ridge space) made up of cellular structures overlain by broken fine threads

and scattered nodules

2. Dalzellia Sp. . . . . Fruits ovate in shape, nine ridged and brown in colour.

Fruit surface ridged, marked by low rib-like structures composed of

compound threads. Inter ridge area shallowly concave.

On magnification inter ridge area is cellular being reticulate towards

apical edge. Striate reticulate below ie: in the zonal regions. Faint nodular

structures

3. Zndotristicha ramosissima

Fruit ovate brown in colour lx 0.25 mm in size.

Fruit surface ridged; ridges on higher magnification seen to be

composed of thick thread like structures bound together concave inter ridges area

whole surface overlain by a cellular net pattern. The apical cap region marked by

a 'cell mass', cells scleroidal.

4. Dalzellia gracilis

Fruits ovate elongate with a broad proximal end and narrow distal end

with an apical asymmetrical flap. Brown in colour

Fruit surface faintly ridged, ridges being marked by elongate white lines

converging at both ends (more at the distal end).

On magnification it was seen that ridges are made of elongate thread

like structures bound together. Inter ridges area very shallowly concave. 'Pebble

like' structures of various sizes and shapes spread all over.

5. Cladopus hookerianus

Fruits obovate to oval in shape and brown in colour.

Fruit surface inconspicuously ridged; ridges divided and fused to form

striate depressions all along the fruit surface Ridges concave to distinct 'apical

cap' like portion. Fruit surface also had 'open web' like units; with granules at

their junctions.

6. Zeylanidium lichenoides

Fruits ovate in shape.

Surface faintly ridged marked by faint white lines, which radiate from

the base to the apical end, converging at the acute tip. Inter ridge area was

shallow.

On magnification fruit surface; inter ridges area was cellular, with

nodules of various size and shapes and interjectional area.

7. Zeylanidium Sp.

Fruits ovate, and dark brown coloured.

Fruit surface ridged with acuminate tip. At higher magnification ridges

are marked by rib-like structures. Inter ridges areas were shallow, and mildly

concave.

On magnification inter ridge area appeared cellular, overlain by a

mixture of thread like structures. 'Stomatoid' structures were seen in the inter

ridges area.

8. Hydrobryopsis sessilis

Fruits obovate, brown in colour

On magnification fruit surface appeared striate and reticulate ridged.

Dichotomous and anastomising ridges superimpose and produced dark lumina

and elongate areas of varying sizes.

9. Willisia Sp.

Fruits (3x2) rnrn size, brown in colour, surface ridged, ridge marked by

low elevation connecting proximal and distal ends.

Surface on magnification showed striate reticulate patterns in which

elongate 'muri' fuse intermittently to form islands.

Willisia had a seed mass ovate in shape, single seeds irregularly obovate

arranged in areolate pattern.

10. Podostemum subulalum

Fruits widely ovate in shape, eight ribbed and brown coloured

Fruit surface ridged, ridges on higher magnification seen to be

composed of elongate thread patterns. Ridges not prominent found to converge at

the distal portion. Inter ridge area flat, cellular, cells ellipsoidal.

11. Podostemum munnarense,

Fruits widely obovate, size (3x2) mrn, dark brown in colour, surface

ridged.

Fruit surface ridges converge at the apical tip. Intemdge area flat; and

cellular. Ridges elliptically cellular.

12. Polypleurum disciformum

Fruit ellipsoidal with a narrow proximal end and broader distal end with

a semicircular tip. Surface faintly ridged marked by compound lines converging

at both ends, coalescing at the apex. Leaving rounded protuberances according to

the number of ridges.

On magnification inter ridge area of various sizes and shapes.

13. Polypleurum stylosum

Fruit obovoid with eight to twelve ridges; and brown in colour.

Fruit surface on magnification revealed that ridges were slanting roof

shaped; base of adjacent ridges touches each other producing a concave canal in

between. Whole surface cellular with a mantle of cell layers covering the ridges,

producing a circular compound island at the apical end.

14. Maferria indica

Fruits elongate with a broad distal end. 1x.75 mm size, and dark brown

in colour.

Fruit surface on magnification was reticulate ridged with 'muri' of the

ridge being thicker than 'lumina' (inter ridge area). Pebble like nodules of

different size & shapes were seen spreading all over the surface.

Seed number:

Mean seed number ranged from eight in Maferria indica to two hundred

and seventy five in Willisia selaginoides (Table VIII). The mean seed

production range did not differ within species of a genus. This was

well evidenced by Polypleurum sfylosum having seventy-five and

Polypleurum disciformum (proposed new species) have seventy-four seeds.

Closely linked genera such as Zeylanidium lichenoides have forty and

Hydrobryopsis having thirty-five seeds show least variation.

Seed size

Seed size ranges from 1 6 . 5 1 ~ x 8.89 .in Cladopus Sp. to 29.21 x 20.54 p

in Willisia Polypleuerum and Cladopus were the genera showing maximum

mean size variation 2 - 4 p on hydration (table IX).

The mean seed length variation on hydration is maximum in Cladopus

while mean seed breadth increased maximum in Polypleurum. In Tristichoideae

members size increased up to 4 p on both aspects on hydration (PI. XIV, XV,

XVI).

Seed colour :

Podostemaceae seeds exihibited a range with dark brown in Willisia,

brown to yellow in Polypleurum, Indostriticha and Dalzellia. Maferria

indica seeds are distinctly bright orange in colour.

'i

ll

TABLE V: DATA OF WATER CHEMISTRY OF DIFFERENT COLLECTION SPOTS IN VARIOUS SEASONS

Dissdved 63 CollRtiw O W ~ M yk,";$ Hamness Turbidity

FreeC02 Alkalinity

m t m t

TABLE ON FRUIT CHARACTERS

I,\ -. .;

. FRUIT

PLANT DENSITYICM

.> t - < Qt. '

> w $2 B \ \"

-C P.

1. Polypleurum stylosum i 8 ~ x 1 0 ' x 1 . 5 x 1 0 ' p ~ 11.5 x 104x19.05 ~"110.8 mg

2.Polypleurumdisciformurn 10 ~ x 1 0 ' ~ 1 . 5 ~ 1 0 ~ p f C ~ . 5 ~ 1 0 ' ~ 2 9 . 2 1 p ~ 1 0 . 8 m ~ I

4. Podostemum subulatum i 7 ~ x l ~ ' x 1 . 2 x l ~ 3 p . r r . 11.75 x 10' x 27 .954.75 mg I

5. Podostemum munnarense 4 ~ x 1 ~ 3 x 2 x 1 0 ' p r C I ~ 11.2xl0'x25.4p~\ 3 m g i

6. Zeylanidium lichenoides 14 (1 13.05 x 77.4 p vh 1192.8 x 15.88 (1 1% 10.67 mg

7. Hydrobryopsis sessilis 1 12 11 27 x 82.5p.+, 15.24 x 25.4 p b.42 mg

i 14 1127 diameter pv, 8.Cladopus hookerianus x 1 O3 x 19.05 p* b.6 mg

9. Willisia selaginoides ~ 3 ~ x l ~ 3 x 2 x l ~ 3 p Y + x103x19pr" l10mg

10. Mafferia indica I 1 !

3 (1.75 r lo3 x 0.75 x 1O 'p~ 1 .I x 12.7 pro (0.16 mg

11. lndotristicha ramossisirna 3 1.5 x 10' 11.4 x 10' p m b.66 mg

12. Dalzellia zeylanica 8 1.54 x 1.27 prS\ 11.4 x lo4 pf?, (0.75 mg

! 1

~~~-~~

FRUIT WEIGHT FRUIT SIZE FRUIT STALK

TABLE :m TABLE ON SEED CHARACTERS

r---- T 1 I SEED ON

/ 1. Polypleurum stylosum ~ 75 (24.13 x1 1.43 p . 4 x 16.5

1 SEED NUMBER

k. Polypleurum disciformumi 74 b6.67 x 13.97 b7.94 x 19.05

SEED S U E IN p $ HYDRATION IN p "I

3. Zeylanidium Sp 43 b.06 11.43 p . 6 7 x 15.24

rnunnarense 130 L6.67 x 16.51 L . 5 6 x 25.4

6. Zeylanidiurn lichenoides

7. Hydrobryopsis sessilis

8.Cladopus hookerianus

9. Willisia selaginoides

10. Ma fferia indica

11 . lndotristicha ramossis~rna

.

PLATE I

A. Podostemaceae in a natural habitat-Zeylanidium liehenoides (Kurz) Engl

A. Vegetative thglus of fodostemaceaein different coloures 0 .

b) Indotristicha and Polypleurum very young - --

PLATE - . ( I

A. Thallus on different substrata

a. On a rock - Dalzallia zeylanica (

b. On a log - Zeylanidium lichenoisdes .--.- -.

-** .. . I - .

A. Dry thallus on rocks

a. lndotristicha ramosissima (Wt) van Royen on rocks and in water -- - .... ~ ~

b. Zeylanidium lichenoides (Kurz) Engl - 7.

A. & B lndotristicha ramosissima (Wt.) van Royen 1 '--

h thallus showing eutrophcation

L-

A. Oedogonium showing cap cells 20x

B. Spirogyra filament, Chlamydomonas 20x

C. Diatoms 20x

D. Scenedesmus 2Ox

E. Scenedesmus and Cymbella 20x

F . Spirqyra filament 20x

Animal forms of associated

A. Psephenidae Ap.

B. Pyrrocoridae

Plecoptera Sp.

C. Coleoptera Sp.

PLATE -' V 1 I

A. Podostemaceae Pollen

a. Indqtristicha ramosissima (Wt.) van Royen

b. Dalzallia zeylanica

c. Z~~lanidium lichenoides (Kurz) Engl. (300 x)

d. Podnskmum subulatum (3000 x)

e. PoUeu.aup s t y l o ~ (Wt.) Hallk (3000 x)

A. Dalzallia zeylanica (Gardn.) Wt.

-Fruit entire showing seedmass inside 45x

B Dalzallia zeylanica (Gardn.) Wt.

- Surface enlarged 200x

C . DalzaNia gracilis

-Fruit surface enlarged 200x.

I). Dalzallia gracilis

-Fruit surface enlarged 200x

E. Indoiristicha ramosissima (Wt.) van Royen.

-Fruit wall broken. 50x

t . Indoiristicha ramosissima (wt.) van Royen

-Fruit surface enlarged. 200x

PLATE - 1 X

PLATE X

Photomicrographs of Fruits (Fig.A.F)

A. Podo.sremum subulatum. Gardn.

-Broken fruit with seedmass. (40)

B. P. suhulutum. Gardn.

-Fruit surface enlarged (200x)

C. Pofvpleurum Sp.

-Fruit entire (35x)

D. Polypleurum Sp.

-Fruit surface enlarged ( 2 0 0 ~ )

E. Po(vp1eurum stylosum

-Fruit (40x)

F. Polypleurum stylosum.

-Fruit surface enlarged (200x)

PLATE -X

Photomicrographs of Fruit (Fig. A-F)

A . Z maheswarii fruit surface enlarged (300~)

B. Podos~emum munnarense.

-Fruit wall surface enlarged. (200x)

C. P.munnurense - Seed mass enlarged. (200x)

D. Ze.ylanidium maheswarii - Broken Fruit wall

E. Ze.ylanidium maheswarii Mathew & Satheesh Fruit. (70x)

F . Podostemum munnarense.

-Broken fruit showing seedmass. ( 3 5 ~ )

PLATE - X I

A. ('ladopus hookrianus

-Fruit enlarged. ( S o x )

B. (.'ladopus hookrianus

-Fruit surface enlarged 500x

C: Hydrohiyopsis sessils .

-Fruit entire 45x

D. Hydrobtyopsis sessilis.500~

E Mafirria indica

-Fruit. ( 2 0 0 ~ )

F. Maferria indica

-Fruit surface enlarged. lOOOx

PLATE - X I I

Willisia selaginoides (Bedd.) Warm. Ex Willis.

A. Fruit entire. (24 x)

B. Fruit surface enlarged. (200x)

Zeylanidium lichenoides (Kurz)Engl.

C. Fruit entire. (55x)

I). Fruit surface enlarged (200x)

. - ' . I - t.. , -.

PLATE- XI11 tC

PLATE. XIV

Tristichoideae seeds on hydration. (20x)

A. Dalzallia ze.vlanica (Gardn.) Wt.- seed

8. Dalzallia zeylanica (Gardn.) Wt.-seed showing on hydration. (20x)

C. Indo~risticha ramosissima (Wt.) - hydrated seed. (20x)

D. Dalzallia gracilis-hydrated seed. (20x1

. ','

, ' . .. -,':.,

. . . , : . / , ' ' I L 1 ' . I . ' - ' <

Podostemoideae seeds on hydration.

A. Cladopus hookerianus - seed.(20x)

B. ('kudopus hookerianus - seed with outer integument spread on hydration. (20x)

C. Polvpleurum siylosum (Wt. ) Hall - seed with outer integument spread on

hydration. (20x)

D. Podostemum munnarense (Nag. & Arekal ) Mathew & Satheesh - seed with outer

integument spread on hydration. (20x)

PLATE = xv

PLATE XVI

A. Podostemum subulafum Gardn. - seed with outer integument spread on

hydration. (20x)

B. Hydrobyopsis sessilis (Willis) Engl.- seed with outer integument spread on

hydration. (20x)

C. Willisia selaginoides (Bedd.) Warm.ex Willis - Seed mass SEM

D. WiNisia selaginoides (Bedd.) Warm.ex Willis -seed with outer integument spread - on hydration. (20x)

PLATE - X V J