27 Word Links: A Strategy for Developing Word Knowledgekrowlands/Content/Academic_Resources/Vocabulary... · teacher asks the students to form a link with a new partner, that is,

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Voices from the Middle, Volume 15 Number 1, September 2007

Yopp | Word Links: A Strategy for Developing Word Knowledge

Word Links: A Strategy forDeveloping Word Knowledge

Ruth Helen Yopp

A quick look through middle schooltextbooks reveals that they aredense with specialized vocabulary.

Indeed, in order to comprehend conceptsand ideas expressed by the texts’ authors,students must understand a great deal ofterminology (Blachowicz, Fisher, Ogle, &Watts-Taffe, 2006).

Oftentimes, several specialized words appear in asingle sentence or paragraph, making comprehen-sion even more difficult. Figure 1 shares an ex-ample of a paragraph similar to those found inmiddle school science textbooks; students need tobe familiar with several content-related words ifthey are to understand it. Clearly, one of theteacher’s primary responsibilities is to support stu-dents’ acquisition of word knowledge.

Effective Vocabulary InstructionMuch has been written in the professional litera-ture in recent years about developing students’vocabulary, and many authorities agree that teach-ers should immerse students in word-rich envi-ronments that promote word consciousness,provide instruction in word-learning strategies so

students can learn words independently, and in-tentionally teach selected words (Blachowicz et al.,2006; Graves, 2000; Kame‘enui & Baumann,2004). In this article, I describe a strategy calledWord Links, which I have used to enrich students’understanding of selected words from texts theyare reading. This strategy is based on the prin-ciple that effective vocabulary instruction incor-porates four characteristics:

• It provides contextual information as well asdefinitional information (Stahl, 1999;Tannenbaum, Torgesen, & Wagner, 2006).

• It provides repeated exposure to wordsunder study and multiple opportunities forstudents to use and practice the words(Blachowicz et al., 2006; NICHD, 2000).

• It encourages students to think aboutrelationships among word meanings(Blachowicz et al., 2006; NICHD, 2000).

• It involves active engagement in learningtasks (Beck, McKeown, & Kucan, 2002;Kamil & Hiebert, 2005; NICHD, 2000).

Word Links offers students myriad opportu-nities to think and talk about the contexts in whichwords are used, to revisit words that they have beenlearning, to think about relationships among wordsas they connect with classmates, and to activelyengage with words as they decide whether or notto link with peers who have different words.

The StrategyThe first step in the Word Links strategy is to

identify words or terms that are worthy of ex-tended study. Often it is the teacher who selectsthe words because he or she has a deep knowl-

Plants contain a system of vascular tissues thattransport water, minerals, and food throughout theplant. Xylem brings water and dissolved minerals fromthe roots to the rest of the plant. Pholem transportssugars and other organic nutrients to the roots andother parts of the plant.

Figure 1. Sample paragraph from a seventh-gradescience text

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Copyright © 2007 by the National Council of Teachers of English. All rights reserved.

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edge of the content and therefore of the impor-tance and usefulness of the word candidates. Some-times, however, the students select the words. Thewords should relate to the content under study orthe book being read and should have been previ-ously taught. For example, before and during thereading of a chapter on cells in a seventh-gradelife science text, the teacher might have helpedthe students build understanding of the wordslisted in Figure 2, all of which provide a founda-tion for further learning about the topic. Thesewords represent key ideas from the text and arewords that the students likely did not fully under-stand prior to reading the chapter. Further, thestudents are likely to encounter these words againin their study of life science. The words might havebeen introduced by providing student-friendlydefinitions or by providing instructional contextsfor discussing word meanings (Beck, McKeown,& Kucan, 2002). That initial introduction mayhave been deepened by having students developsemantic maps (Blachowicz & Fisher, 2006) orengage in similar experiences that have beenshown to support learning new words (Stahl,1999). To further deepen students’ understand-ing of these words, a teacher using the Word Linksstrategy invites students to identify links amongwords in various ways.

In preparation for this strategy, the teacherwrites each word on a large index card or 8 1/2" x11" piece of cardstock or paper—one for each stu-dent in the class. For instance, if there are 24 stu-dents in the first-period science class, 24 wordsare selected. If there are 29 students in the sec-ond-period class, 29 words are selected. The goalis to provide each student with a word, one noother student in the class will have.

It usually works well to distribute the wordcards randomly to the students. However, theremay be instances where the teacher strategicallydistributes the words so that less complex wordsare given to students who have less sophisticatedunderstandings of the topic and terminology (asdetermined by formal or informal assessments ofthe students’ content and word knowledge). Oncestudents have their word, they should spend a fewminutes reviewing their notes or the text to besure they know what their word means. Theteacher can provide additional support to any stu-dents who might have difficulty by meeting withthem briefly. The goal is to ensure that all stu-dents have sufficient knowledge about the wordon their card to be able to talk about it.

Next, students are asked to walk around theroom and find a partner whose word can be linkedto theirs in some way. Ideally, several links arepossible for each word, so students should be ableto find more than one person with whom to part-ner. Their task, however, is to select only one part-ner at this time. In the case of an odd number ofstudents, one triad will form. (It is most efficientif the teacher designates one student in advanceto find a pair with whom to link.) After pairs (andpossibly one triad) have been established, theteacher asks the students to prepare an explana-tion for the class that answers these questions:What do the words mean? What do they have todo with each other? How do they go together?

The students then stand alongside theirpartner(s) in a large circle around the perimeterof the classroom. The teacher invites each pair todisplay their word cards, say their words, and ex-plain the words’ meanings and relationship. Us-ing words from the list in Figure 2, one pair of

Figure 2. Words selected from a seventh-grade sciencetext chapter on cells

celltissueorganorgan systemsorganismunicellularmulticellularpopulationcommunityecosystemterrestrialaquaticcell membraneorganellescytoplasm

nucleusprokaryoticeukaryoticbacteriacell wallribosomesmitochondriachloroplastendoplasmic reticulumGolgi complexvesiclesvacuolelysosomesfunctionspecialized

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students might say, “Tissue is a group of cells thatwork together, and an organ is made up of at leasttwo tissues working together. These words go to-gether because organs are made up of tissue. Youcan’t have organs without tissue.” Another pairmight say, “My word is eukaryotic, and my partner’sword is nucleus. There are two kinds of cells:prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Only eu-karyotic cells have a nucleus, so that’s why we putthese words together. A nucleus is a membrane-covered organelle that holds the cell’s DNA.People are made up of eukaryotic cells.” Theteacher might ask if anyone else considered link-ing with nucleus and why, and encourage commentsthat serve to reinforce how the word fits into thelarger picture of the content under study. Figure3 shows two students sharing their word cards andexplaining how their words are linked.

After all the students have shared their wordsand explained the relationship between them, theteacher asks the students to form a link with a newpartner, that is, to make a different connection.Using the example above, the student holding theword eukaryotic might partner with the studentholding the word bacteria. The students explainto their classmates that they partnered becausebacteria are not eukaryotic cells. Rather, they are

Figure 3. Two students share their word cards andexplain how their words are linked.

prokaryotic cells and are much simpler than themore complex eukaryotic cells.

The process of examining other students’words in relation to their own words, consideringpossible links between words, and articulating themeanings of the words and the nature of the rela-tionship between them engages students in deepprocessing of word meanings. It requires studentsto think about contextual information as they re-flect on text content in order to determine rela-tionships among words. In addition, it providesan opportunity for students to use words they werepreviously taught as they attempt to make con-nections with peers around the room. Reviewingthe words in this way usually results in rich con-versations about the meanings of the words and isa motivating and interesting experience for thestudents. Negotiating these links with peers en-hances students’ understandings of both the wordsand the content as meanings and relationships areclarified or extended.

Word Links generally takes 20–30 minutes ofclass time and is a powerful strategy for reviewingand extending understandings of words. It alsoprovides the teacher with an opportunity to con-duct an informal assessment of the depth of com-prehension being achieved. If the students havedifficulty identifying and explaining connectionsamong the words, they may need more instruc-tion. On the other hand, their ability to make sev-eral appropriate connections might revealsubstantial understanding of the words and thecontent.

The cards can be used again for further re-view. For example, students might sort them ordraw pictures representing their meanings on thereverse side, or the teacher might use them in agame to review the terms with the students.

Variations on a ThemeThinking in ConceptsOne extension of the Word Links strategy is tocolor code the word cards so that superordinateconcepts, if they exist in the word list, are writtenon one color of card and subordinate concepts are

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written on a different color. For example, in ourlist of life science terms, the words organ system,ecosystem, organelle, prokaryotic, and eukaryotic mightbe written on orange card stock, and the remain-der of the words might be written on yellow cardstock. After the students make their Word Links(with no attention to the color of the card), theteacher asks those with orange cards to stand indifferent areas of the classroom. Those with theyellow cards are asked to determine which orange-card word best serves to encompass their word,and to stand near the person holding that card.Students with the words cell, tissue, and organ mightchoose to stand by the person with the term organsystem. These students would explain that organsystems are made up of organs, which are madeup of tissue, which is made up of cells. Students

with the terms nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, en-doplasmic reticulum, chloroplasts, Golgi complex, vacu-ole, and lysosomes might stand by the student withthe word organelle and then explain that organellesare structures within a cell and that the terms areall examples of organelles. These are only twopossible groupings. The students may organizetheir words in other ways, which is acceptable aslong as the students can explain the connectionsamong the terms in accurate ways. The teachermay conclude this portion of the strategy by ask-ing if there are alternative ways the words couldhave been organized. Students are usually happyto share the other groupings they considered, ex-plaining why those words belong together as well.

If the words are not easily organized intosuperordinate and subordinate categories, the

SIDE TRIP: A STRATEGY FOR DEVELOPING WORD KNOWLEDGE

Vocabulary is a key pathway to literacy and enjoyment ofliterature. If interested in seeking additional informationin this vein, try these Web-based resources regardingidentification of words of importance, personalizingstudent vocabulary lists, and other vocabulary ideas. Hereare some favorites:

• http://www.vocabulary.com/ is an interactive site forintermediate and secondary students containing awealth of puzzles and activities.

• http://wordcentral.com/ is Merriam Webster’s WordCentral where students can sign up for a buzz word ofthe day, build their own dictionary, and experiencesome vocabulary fun.

• http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/reading/main/buildingvocab.html is part of English Works!and offers tried and true ideas.

• http://www.studystack.com/frames.jsp reveals thenext generation of interactive flash cards.

• http://www.public.asu.edu/~ickpl/learningvocab.htmoffers additional strategies including mnemonics andmapping to encourage vocabulary development.

• For help in deciding what words are the most impor-tant for our students to learn and for ideas on how toteach those words, go to Scholastic’s article byFrancie Alexander at http://content.scholastic.com/browse/article.jsp?id=4509.

• At http://www.readingrockets.org/article/9943, LindaDiamond and Linda Gutlohn offer a variety of lessonmodels to suit a variety of instructional settings.

• For more graphic organizers, word wall basics, andother very practical ideas, go to http://www.dpsk12.org/departments/secondary/tip.htm.

For some extra scaffolding ideas for your English LanguageLearners, peruse these sites:

• http://www.colorincolorado.org/teaching/vocabulary.php includes help with pre-teachingvocabulary, cognates, audio learning, and modeling.

• http://esl.about.com/od/englishvocabulary/ht/htvocab.htm provides many activities, lists, andrecommendations to enhance vocabulary develop-ment.

—Joyce Brigman and Karen Wood

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teacher might instead ask each pair of students topartner with another pair and create Word Clus-ters. Student pairs circulate through the room andtalk to other pairs of students to determinewhether and how their words fit together and tolook for the closest fit. After the Clusters areformed, each small group explains to classmateshow their four words are related. Sometimes, theteacher might ask students to cluster with the pairstanding nearest them and request that they finda connection, stretching the students to considerthe interrelatedness of words and perhaps thinkmore broadly or deeply about their words thanthey would have if they were permitted to choosetheir own clusters.

Selecting Personal WordsAnother follow-up to the Word Links strategy isto allow students to select a word to discuss in ajournal. After interacting with peers about theirword, students select a word from among thoseon the word cards for personal reflection. Theyselect a word for whatever reason they wish: it isinteresting, confusing, or fundamental to the topic.The students write about the word, including whythey chose it and what it means. As they writeabout the word, students utilize other words fromthe list, thus making even more links. Examplesof Personal Words selected by two eighth-gradestudents are depicted in Figure 4, along with thelist of words from a chapter on the Civil War usedby their Social Studies teacher. Note the commentsprovided by the first student who explains her se-lection of the word abolitionist. She conveys anunderstanding of the word and the content understudy, includes other words from the list in herwriting, and makes personal connections to thewords. The second student’s journal entry like-wise communicates an understanding of the wordhe selected, as well as an interest in the languageas he compares words that have similar spellings.

Using Word Links with FictionWord Links are not the exclusive domain of con-tent texts. The strategy can also be used with fic-tion. Figure 5 shares Word Links made by three

banimmigrationexportracistcompromisefugitiveabolitionistpopular sovereigntyboycottarsenalplatform

Figure 4. Personal Word selections made by twostudents from a list based on an eighth-grade socialstudies text about the U.S. Civil War

secedeexecuteresidentblockaderebellionhygieneironcladenlistcavalryemancipationliberation

Personal Word: I like the word abolitionist because I wouldhave been an abolitionist if I lived in the 1860s. Slaveryand racism are terrible, and I would have been involved inbanning (or abolishing) slavery. I might have helpedfugitives by helping them hide from the people who wereafter them. The Emancipation Proclamation would havemade me happy.

Personal Word: The word secede makes me think of theword succeed. It is interesting that the Confederate statesdid not succeed in seceding from the Union!

pairs of students after exploring the rich languageused by Edgar Allan Poe in The Tell-Tale Heart(1983). If there are insufficient words to engagethe entire class in the Word Links strategy basedon a single short story or text selection, the teachermight use this strategy after reading several ofPoe’s stories. The opportunity to talk to peersabout possible links supports a developing under-standing of the meanings of the words and mayalso stimulate students to discuss the stories—en-hancing their comprehension—or use the wordsin other contexts.

Revisiting WordsAfter engaging in Word Links, the teacher shouldretain the word cards developed for this strategy,not only because of their usefulness in the othermore immediate activities described above, butalso because the cards should be revisited and canbe utilized to make links with words that are im-portant to understanding future content. For ex-

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Figure 5. Sample word links made by eighth-grade students reading Edgar Allan Poe’s The Tell-Tale Heart

their relationships to words held by their class-mates. The language-based social interaction withpeers provides support for students’ developingunderstandings as they grapple with the words andthe relationships between words. Through WordLinks, students interact multiple times and inmultiple activities with words that have previouslybeen taught, thus providing broad exposure to thewords, and students are actively engaged in think-ing about the language of the text. What betterway to support students’ acquisition of wordknowledge and their understanding of the text thanWord Links?

ReferencesBeck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., & Kucan, L. (2002).

Bringing words to life: Robust vocabulary instruc-tion. New York: Guilford.

“They both have to do with being smart. To do something cunningly means to do it cleverly. Sagacity is wisdom. In The Tell-Tale Heart, the main character thinks he can’t be a madman because he is so clever about sneaking into the old man’s room.”

“These words are sort of opposites. To refrain from something means to hold back, but people who behave with audacity don’thold back. They are bold. I would probably refrain from arguing with a teacher, but someone with audacity probably wouldn’t.”

“You would be very vexed, or annoyed, if someone treated you with derision, or ridiculed you. In the story, the narrator wasvexed by the old man’s eye, and he thought the police were treating him with derision. That’s why he confessed in the end.”

cunningly sagacity

refrained audacity

vexed derision

ample, many of the words in Figure 2 used by thelife science teacher might be used in a later studyof organ systems or genetics. Also, word cards fromdifferent subject areas can be intermingled in aWord Links activity. Students may make interest-ing links between words in mathematics and sci-ence, for instance.

Supporting VocabularyDevelopmentThe Word Links strategy provides students withthe opportunity to talk with peers about the mean-ings of words critical to comprehension of the con-tent as they try to establish links among the words.The students consider the nuances of word mean-ings as they think about them not only in the largercontext of the text but in the smaller contexts of

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Blachowicz, C., & Fisher, P. J. (2006). Teachingvocabulary in all classrooms (3rd ed.). Upper SaddleRiver, NJ: Merrill.

Blachowicz, C. L. Z., Fisher, P. J. L., Ogle, D., &Watts-Taffe, S. (2006). Vocabulary: Questionsfrom the classroom. Reading Research Quarterly,

41, 524–539.

Graves, M. (2000). A vocabulary program to comple-ment and bolster a middle-grade comprehensionprogram. In B. M. Taylor, M. F. Graves, & P. VanDen Broek (Eds.), Reading for meaning: Fosteringcomprehension in the middle grades (pp. 116–135).Newark, DE: International Reading Association.

Kame‘enui, E. J., & Baumann, J. F. (2004). Vocabulary:The plot of the reading story. In J. F. Baumann &E. J. Kame‘enui (Eds.) Vocabulary instruction:Research to practice (pp. 3–10). New York:Guilford.

Kamil, M. L., & Hiebert, E. H. (2005). Teaching andlearning vocabulary: Perspectives and persistentissues. In E. H. Hiebert & M. L. Kamil (Eds.),Teaching and learning vocabulary: Bringingresearch to practice (pp. 1–23). Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum.

Life science. (2001). Austin, TX: Holt, Rinehart andWinston.

National Institute of Child Health and Human Devel-opment. (2000). Report of the National ReadingPanel: Teaching children to read: An evidence-basedassessment of the scientific research literature onreading and its implications for reading instruction.Washington, DC: Author.

Poe, E. A. (1983). The tell-tale heart and other writings.New York: Bantam.

Stahl, S. A. (1999). Vocabulary development. Cam-bridge, MA: Brookline.

Tannenbaum, K. R., Torgesen, J. K., & Wagner, R. K.(2006). Relationships between word knowledgeand reading comprehension in third-gradechildren. Scientific Studies of Reading, 10, 381–398.

SIDE TRIP: WORD ASSOCIATION WITH ATWIST

The author describes ways for students to makeconnections between vocabulary words. TheReadWriteThink lesson plan “Focusing ReaderResponse through Vocabulary Analysis” presents asimilar idea. Adding one word at a time, studentscompile a list of words associated with a novelthey have recently read, ranging from detailsabout the plot to feelings about a character. Smallgroups of students then arrange the collectedwords into at least four categories, which theypresent and explain to the class. The discussionranges from vocabulary and comprehension toliterary analysis and reader response.

To learn more, visit the lesson plan at: http://www. readwritethink.org/lessons/lesson_view.asp?id=837.

—Lisa Storm Finkwww.readwritethink.org

Ruth Helen Yopp, formerly a sixth-grade teacher, currently teaches reading and language artsmethods courses at California State University, Fullerton.

Call for 2008 Hoey Award NominationsThe NCTE Edwin A. Hoey Award for Outstanding Middle Level Educator in the English Language Arts recog-nizes exceptional English language arts teachers in grades 5–8 who instill their own love of learning in theirstudents. This award honors Edwin A. Hoey, who brought limitless imagination and creativity to the pages of Readduring his nearly 40-year career as writer, editor, and managing editor of the renowned educational magazine.

Nomination packet information can be found on the NCTE website at www.ncte.org/middle/hoey and mustbe postmarked no later than February 1, 2008. Results will be announced in Spring 2008, and the award will bepresented at the 2008 Annual Convention in San Antonio, Texas, at the Middle Level Luncheon.

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27 Word Links: A Strategy for Developing Word Knowledgekrowlands/Content/Academic_Resources/Vocabulary... · teacher asks the students to form a link with a new partner, that is,