10 Goh and Härdter

191GENERAL OIL PALM NUTRITION

General Oil PalmNutrition

Kah-Joo Goh

Applied Agricultural Research Sdn. Bhd., Locked Bag 212, Sg Buloh Post Office, Sg. Buloh,

Selangor 47000, Malaysia. Fax: +60 3 6141 1278. E-mail: [email protected]

Rolf Härdter

International Potash Institute, c/o K+S KALI GmbH, Bertha-von-Suttner-Str 7, 34131 Kassel,

Germany. Fax: +49 561 9301 1146. E-mail: [email protected]

use (Goh et al., this volume). We will review

nutrient uptake, immobilization and removal by

oil palms, explain the role of each nutrient and

discuss the diagnosis and correction of nutrient

deficiencies. The utilization and recycling of

crop and factory residues is discussed by

Redshaw (this volume).

NUTRIENT UPTAKE, IMMOBILI-

ZATION AND REMOVAL

The nutrient requirements of oil palm vary

widely, and depend on the target yield, the type

of planting material used, palm spacing, palm

age, soil type, groundcover conditions, as well

as climate and other environmental factors.

Three types of nutrient demand can be

distinguished (Tinker, 1976):

� Nutrients removed in the harvested crop of

fruit bunches;

� Nutrients recycled to the soil in pruned

fronds, male inflorescences and by leaf-

wash;

� Nutrients immobilized in the palm biomass.

Nutrients removed in the harvested crop

must be replaced by recycling crop residues

such as empty fruit bunches (EFB) and palm

oil mill effluent (POME) (Redshaw, this volume)

and by the addition of mineral fertilizers, to

avoid depleting soil nutrients stocks. Nutrients

contained in pruned fronds and male inflores-

cences are returned to the soil when they are

removed from the palm, and nutrients are

leached by rainfall passing through the leaf

canopy (leaf wash). Nutrients immobilized in

INTRODUCTION

Although its economic products (palm oil and

palm kernel oil) contain mainly carbon (C),

hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O), the oil palm has

a large requirement for nutrients that is only

surpassed by a few crops, such as banana

(Soh, 1997). Whilst the first commercial oil

palms were planted on fertile coastal clay soils

in Malaysia, liparitic soils in North Sumatra and

volcanic soils in West Sumatra, most oil palms

are now planted on poor fertility status ‘inland’

or ‘upland’ soils in the islands of Borneo and

Sumatra and in Thailand. Nutrient losses due

to surface erosion and runoff are generally

greater in these countries due to the pre-

dominantly hilly terrain, fragile soil structure and

high rainfall. Thus, mineral fertilizers are of

great importance to supplement the poor

indigenous soil nutrient supply, and large yield

responses have been demonstrated in many

fertilizer experiments carried out in the region

(Goh et al., this volume).

Under intensified management and

depending on local soil and climate conditions,

fertilizers account for 50–70% of field upkeep

costs, 30–35% of variable costs and about 25%

of the total cost of production. An

understanding of the factors that contribute to

efficient fertilizer use is thus a crucial part of

maximizing yields and economic returns.

This chapter will provide an introduction to

the mineral nutrition of oil palms, and a prelude

to a discussion of methods to assess fertilizer

requirements (Foster, this volume) and

approaches to maximizing returns on fertilizer

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:22 PM191

192 Goh, K.J. & Härdter, R.

the palm trunk are returned to the soil at

replanting. Biomass may be utilized for

manufacturing, which results in the removal of

large quantities of nutrients and deprives the

soil of the organic residues required for soil

organic matter (SOM) replenishment.

Nutrient uptake and removal were

measured in experiments in Malaysia and

Nigeria (Tinker and Smilde, 1963; Ng and

Thamboo, 1967; Ng et al., 1968). Nutrient

uptake was greater in Malaysia compared with

Nigeria where climatic conditions result in

smaller yields, and potassium (K) deficiency

reduced total biomass production (Tables 1a

and 1b).

Nutrient use efficiency (kg nutrient t-1 fruit

bunch) is about two times greater for all

nutrients except for K in Malaysia compared

with Nigeria (Tables 1a and 1b). This may be

explained by the better growing conditions in

Malaysia (rainfall, solar radiation) and the oil

palm’s tendency to partition assimilates to

vegetative growth when subjected to stress or

poor field maintenance (Breure, this volume).

Thus, nutrient removal (as a percentage of total

uptake) for all major nutrients is larger in

Malaysia compared with Nigeria (Tables 1a and

1b).

Nutrient uptake in oil palm fruit bunches is

large, particularly for K (Table 2). A yield of 30 t

ahBFFt42(aisyalaM1-)

N P K gM

mlapgk1-

ry1-

tiurfdetsevrahhtiwlavomeR 94.0 280.0 36.0 41.0

eussitmlapnidezilibommI 72.0 220.0 74.0 270.0

delcycertneirtuN 35.0 670.0 96.0 91.0

ekatpulatoT 92.1 81.0 97.1 04.0

)ekatpulatot%(lavomeR 83 64 53 53

ahsmlap841(ekatpulatoT1-) 191 72 562 95

tgk(ekatpU1-

)BFF 0.8 1.1 0.11 5.2

Table 1a. Nutrient removal, immobilization and recycling in adult oil palms in Malaysia (after

Ng and Thamboo, 1967 and Ng et al., 1968).

ahBFFt7.9(airegiN1-)

N P K gM

mlapgk1-

ry1-

tiurfdetsevrahhtiwlavomeR 02.0 40.0 32.0 30.0

eussitmlapnidezilibommI 81.0 420.0 11.0 401.0

delcycertneirtuN 36.0 370.0 83.0 52.0

ekatpulatoT 10.1 41.0 27.0 83.0

)ekatpulatot%(lavomeR 02 92 23 8

ahsmlap841(ekatpulatoT1-) 941 12 701 65

tgk(ekatpU1-

)BFF 5.51 2.2 1.11 8.5

Table 1b. Nutrient removal, immobilization and recycling in adult oil palms in Nigeria (after

Tinker and Smilde, 1963)

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:23 PM192


FFB ha-1 results in the removal of about 110

kg K ha-1, of which 60 kg (54%) may be

recycled if all the empty bunches are returned

to the field after oil and kernels have been

extracted (Redshaw, this volume).

The distribution of nutrients taken up by oil

palms within the above-ground biomass was

measured for dura palms grown on a coastal

clay soils in Malaysia by Ng and Thamboo

(1967) and Ng et al., (1968) (Table 3). Based

on these measurements, a site must be able

to supply about 190 kg nitrogen (N), 11 kg

phosphorus (P), 210 kg K, 40 kg magnesium

(Mg) and 70 kg calcium (Ca) ha-1 yr

-1. Nutrient

removal as a percentage of total uptake ranges

from 20% for Ca to 45% for P. Data from these

classic experiments have been used widely

over the past 30 years, but new data for nutrient

uptake in tenera and clonal palms planted on

more representative ‘inland’ and ‘upland’ soils

is now urgently required.

The proportion of total annual nutrient

uptake contained in trunk tissue is small when

compared with uptake in leaves and bunches,

but a large amount of nutrients accumulates

in the trunk over the 25–30 year life span of a

palm stand. It has been suggested that a

portion of the nutrients contained in the trunk

may be remobilized during periods when the

soil nutrient supply is insufficient. Teo et al.,

(2000) showed that the yield from palms 27

years after planting on a Typic Paleudult

(Rengam Series) soil in Malaysia did not

decrease for a four year period after K fertilizer

was stopped. It was not clear, however,

whether the palms in this experiment utilized

K stored in the trunk or made use of soil K

reserves in the soil which may have increased

due to past applications of K fertilizer.

The nutrients contained in the trunk are

returned to the soil at replanting unless the

felled trunks are burned, which results in the

loss of most of the N and sulfur (S) contained

in the biomass, or removed for use in

manufacturing. Teoh and Chew (1988a)

estimate that the amount of K stored in the

trunk of tenera palms at replanting is sufficient

to meet the demand for vegetative growth and

yield for 2–6 years in the replanted palms.

About 350 kg K ha-1 is returned to the soil in

trunk material at replanting but total K uptake

in young palms in the first year after planting

is only 25 kg K ha-1. Thus, in the absence of

empirical data it may be assumed that much

of the K returned to the soil after felling the old

stand is lost due to leaching and surface runoff,

particularly since K is held in the cell sap and

is quickly leached from dead plant material

Table 2. Nutrient content in fresh fruit bunches (Ng and Thamboo, 1967 and Ng et al., 1968).

BFFtgk1-

BFFtg1-

N P K gM aC nM eF B uC nZ

49.2 44.0 17.3 77.0 18.0 15.1 74.2 51.2 67.4 39.4

Table 3. Uptake and distribution of nutrients among different plant components (148 palms

ha-1) (after Ng and Thamboo, 1967 and Ng et al., 1968).

tnenopmoC

N P K gM aC

gk % gk % gk % gk % gk %

MDevitategeV 14 12 4.1 21 64 22 7 91 01 41

sdnorfdenurP 76 53 9.3 43 27 53 31 63 44 26

)t52(sehcnubtiurF 37 83 1.5 54 87 73 21 43 41 02

ecnecserolfnielaM 11 6 0.1 9 31 6 4 11 3 4

latoT 291 001 4.11 001 902 001 63 001 17 001

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:23 PM193


during trunk decomposition. For this reason,

some plantations have attempted to remove

palm trunks at replanting and apply trunk chips

at suitable application rates where K demand

is greater in mature palms. This may improve

overall K use efficiency, but with this approach

young replanted palms are deprived of the

mulch benefits of the trunk chips.

Pruned fronds account for 34–37% (N, P,

K and Mg), and 62% (Ca) of total uptake (see

Table 3). In a field of tenera palms planted on

volcanic soil in a very productive environment

in West Sumatra where yields in mature palms

were sustained at 30 t ha-1 fresh fruit bunches

(FFB), about 10 t dry matter ha-1 yr

-1 containing

125 kg N, 10 kg P, 147 kg K and 15 kg Mg

was returned to the soil in pruned fronds

(Fairhurst, 1996). Pruned fronds contribute

directly to the supply of P and indirectly by

reducing the P sorption capacity in soils

containing large amounts of iron (Fe) and

aluminum (Al) oxides.

Even in optimal environments where soil

conditions and climate are non-limiting, nutrient

uptake is rather small in the first year after

planting (Figure 1). During this time, it is

important that proper planting techniques are

used (Gillbanks, this volume), and sufficient

fertilizer (particularly P) is applied to ensure

that palms establish an effective root system.

Nutrients are supplied with fertilizer, placed in

the planting hole and around the seedling, and

EFB placed around the seedling palms. During

the second and third years after planting,

however, there is a large increase in the

demand for nutrients, particularly for K and N,

due to the rapid growth in above- and below-

ground biomass (Ng, 1977) (Figure 1). From

Years 3–5 onwards, annual nutrient demand

tends to stabilize.

Figure 1. Nutrient uptake of oil palms for the first 10 years after field planting (Ng, 1977).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

0

50

100

150

200

250

Uptake (kg ha-1

)

Year

K N Mg P

Table 4. Nutrient demand in oil palm (148 palms ha-1) (Tan, 1976; Tan, 1977).

)sry(doireP

ahgk(dnamedtneirtuN1-)

stinU N P K gM aC

3-0 ahgk1-

ry1-

04 6 55 7 31

9-3 ahgk1-

ry1-

762-191 24-23 783-782 76-84 411-58

9-0 ahgk1-

2271-6621 072-012 7842-7881 324-903 327-945

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:23 PM194


Unlike most crop plants, the demand for K

is greater than the demand for N, and this is

one reason for the large requirement for K

fertilizer during the immature phase,

particularly in palms planted on highly

weathered acid, upland soils containing small

amounts of exchangeable K. Tan (1976, 1977)

estimated the nutrient requirements of palms

of different ages based on a number of field

experiments (Table 4) but there is now

evidence that nutrient demand is larger,

particularly when very high yields are obtained

in favorable sites (Goh et al., 1994a).

A greater proportion of total K uptake was

partitioned to fronds at high yield levels (Teoh

and Chew, 1988a) (Table 5), probably because

the frond production rate (fronds palm-1 yr

-1)

and frond weight (kg frond-1) were larger on

the more fertile soils. Part of the increase in K

partitioned to fronds may be regarded as

‘luxury consumption’ because the yield

response to K fertilizer application on these

coastal clay soils was very small.

Other workers have also reported a larger

total nutrient requirement in very productive

clonal palms with a large yield potential (Woo

et al., 1994). Over a 6-year period after field

planting, K requirements increased by 11%

but K use efficiency increased by 51% (Table

6). This was explained by the greater

productivity of clonal palms selected for

efficient oil (as opposed to bunch) production.

Further work is required to determine the

nutrient requirements of clonal palms with the

potential for very large oil yields (Ng et al., on

clones, this volume).

NUTRIENTS AND NUTRIENT

SOURCES

I Classification of mineral nutrients

and their functions in plant

metabolism

Mineral nutrients are inorganic elements that

have essential and specific functions in plant

metabolism. An essential element must be

involved directly in the nutrition of the plant,

e.g. as a constituent of an essential metabolite

or for the action of an enzyme system (Mengel

and Kirby, 1987). All essential nutrients are

equally important for normal plant growth and

crop production, since in the absence of a

single essential nutrient the plant is unable to

complete its life cycle.

* Teoh and Chew, 1988a; ** Ng and Thamboo, 1967 and Ng et al., 1968

Table 5. Effect of oil palm productivity on K uptake and distribution among different plant

components (148 palms ha-1).

*ytivitcudorphgiH **ytivitcudorpwoL

seiresrognaleS seireshairB seiresrognaleS

tnenopmoC ahKgk1-

% ahKgk1-

% ahKgk1-

%

rettamevitategevevitalumucteN 8.221 12 5.901 42 7.55 22

sdnorfdenurP 4.962 74 0.281 14 2.68 43

sehcnubtiurF 8.261 92 5.941 33 4.39 73

ecnecserolfnielaM 3.61 3 9.8 2 1.61 6

latoT 3.175 001 9.944 001 4.152 001

Table 6. Oil yields and K use efficiency in

clonal and seedling (D x P) palms in the first

six years after planting (Woo et al., 1994).

retemaraPlanolC

mlap

PxD

mlap

ahgk(dleiyliO1-) 003,23 004,91

ahKgk(noitacilppaK1-) 745,1 004,1

gkliogk(dleiyliO1-

)K 9.02 09.31

)%(ycneiciffE 151 001

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:23 PM195


Based on the quantity required, mineral

nutrients are usually classified as either macro-

or micronutrients. The essential nutrients are

C, H, O, N, P, K, Mg, Ca, S, chlorine (Cl), boron

(B), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn),

molybdenum (Mo), and Fe. To date, cobalt

(Co), sodium (Na) and silicon (Si) have not

been accorded the status as plant nutrients and

have not yet been shown to be essential for

the oil palm.

Mineral nutrients function as constituents

of organic structures, activators of enzyme

reactions, charge carriers and osmoregulators.

Nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus are com-

ponents of proteins and nucleic acids. Other

nutrients, such as Mg and most of the

micronutrients (except Cl), are essential

components of organic structures that catalyze

enzymes either directly or indirectly.

Potassium, and probably chlorine, are the only

nutrients that are not constituents of organic

compounds. These two nutrients play essential

roles in osmoregulation, maintenance of

electrochemical equilibrium in cells, and

regulation of enzyme activity.

All essential elements are intricately

involved in physiological processes leading

to the final economic product of the oil palm:

the oil contained in the mesocarp and kernels

of the fruits contained in fruit bunches. Before

discussing the important interactions between

the effects of individual nutrients, we shall

discuss the role of each nutrient. The

relationship between nutrition and oil palm

diseases is reviewed by Turner (this volume).

II Macronutrients

Macronutrients are essential elements required

for normal plant growth. For oil palm, this group

comprises the nutrients N, P, K, Mg, Ca, S and

Cl.

Nitrogen (N)

Physiological role of N

Young nursery palms contain about 1.4% N,

while the overall average concentration in

mature oil palm tissue is 0.44–0.65% N (Ng

et al., 1968). The concentration of N in fruit

bunches ranges from 0.35–0.60% N.

Nitrogen is a constituent of many essential

organic compounds (e.g. amino acids,

proteins, nucleic acids) and some of these

proteins act as enzymes that catalyze

biochemical reactions in the plant. Thus N

plays an essential role in almost all

physiological processes.

Effects of N

Nitrogen application increases leaf area, and

improves leaf production and the net

assimilation rate of oil palms (Corley and Mok,

1972). Vegetative growth and leaf area index

(L) increase when N is applied to young palms.

An increase in canopy size leads directly to

improved net assimilation and increased

biomass production (Breure, this volume). In

older palms, however, where L> 6.5, there may

not be a response to N application, and yields

may actually decrease due to increased inter-

palm competition and mutual shading (Breure,

this volume). Under such circumstances,

thinning may be required before a response to

N fertilizer is obtained (von Uexküll, this

volume). When N is deficient, it is translocated

from the older to younger and more

physiologically active leaf tissue and this

explains why deficiency symptoms first appear

on older leaves.

In experiments with oil palm clones, yield

components were found to respond differently

to N application (Donough et al., 1996). There

was a significant yield response to N

application, but mean fruit weight and the

fruit:bunch, shell:fruit and oil:dry mesocarp

ratios were not affected. The application of N

fertilizer resulted in a significant increase in

kernel:bunch ratio and a decrease in the

oil:bunch ratio. Total oil yield was increased

significantly, however, due to an increase in

fruit bunch yield (Figure 2).

Excessive N

Excessive N in relation to other nutrients can

result in a decrease in yield and increased

susceptibility to disease and insect pests (e.g.

leaf-eating caterpillars, bagworms). Application

of N to palms affected by crown disease

prolongs the recovery period, and may

predispose palms to spear-rot and lethal bud-

rot.

Nitrogen should not be applied to affected

palms until they have produced >25 healthy

leaves. Excessive N application may also

induce B deficiency and ‘white stripe’. Unless

proper soil conservation practices have been

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:23 PM196


carried out, the application of N fertilizers can

result in groundwater and river water pollution

due to surface runoff and leaching. With

increased concern over the environmental

impact of oil palm cultivation, minimum

standards for efficient N-use will likely feature

in future environmental regulations.

Nitrogen deficiency symptoms

Nitrogen deficiency affects chloroplast

development and function, and in N-deficient

leaves, proteins are hydrolyzed (proteolysis)

to produce amino acids which are redistributed

to younger leaves. Thus, N deficiency results

in poor palm growth, and affected palms

appear stunted. Older fronds affected by N

deficiency first appear uniformly pale green,

before turning pale or bright yellow (chlorosis),

and may subsequently be affected by die-back

(necrosis) if severe and prolonged deficiency

is not corrected. When deficiency is very

pronounced, necrosis develops first on the tips

and margins of pinnae. The rachis and midrib

of severely deficient fronds are yellowish

orange, and pinnae are narrow and roll

inwards. Deficiency symptoms are distributed

over the entire frond, but older leaves are

affected first.

Nitrogen deficiency is found under the

following conditions:

� Acute shortage of N (e.g. sandy soils, soils

with low organic matter status, acid peat

soils where the rate of N mineralization is

small due to lack of biological activity);

� Palms affected by severe competition from

weeds (e.g. Imperata cylindrica and Mikania

micrantha);

� Poorly drained soils where root

development and soil N mineralization are

decreased under anaerobic soil conditions;

� Palms affected by transplanting shock due

to poor root establishment (i.e. seedlings

handled carelessly and planted in soil

affected by moisture stress).

In addition to the application of mineral N

fertilizers, N deficiency may be prevented

through proper soil preparation and planting

standards, control of noxious weeds, and the

establishment of legume cover plants (LCP)

(Giller and Fairhurst, this volume).

Nitrogen fertilizer is the driving force for rapid

vegetative palm growth, and an adequate

supply of N is particularly important during the

first five years after planting. When sufficient N

fertilizer is applied and with good management,

palms come into production 24 months after

planting with a yield of 5–9 t ha-1 fruit bunches,

but production may only commence 36 months

after planting where insufficient N fertilizer is

applied and general crop care is poor.

Figure 2. Fruit bunch (FFB) and oil (CPO) yield response of four oil palm clones (54A-115E)

to N fertilizer (Donough et al., 1996).

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

10

15

20

25

30

35

3

4

5

6

7

Bunch yield (t ha-1

) Oil yield (t ha-1

)

Fruit bunches

Crude palm oil

54A

926

115E

90A

N-level:

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:23 PM197


A vigorously growing canopy of LCP returns

about 230–330 kg N ha-1 yr

-1 to the soil

(Watson, 1964; Han and Chew, 1982). An

adequate supply of P is required to maximize

biological N2-fixation in LCP. An application of

40–130 kg P ha-1 in the form of a reactive

phosphate rock is required when LCP are sown

on acid, infertile upland soils, particularly where

the land has been cleared from sheet alang-

alang (Imperata cylindrica). A large amount of

nutrients accumulates in the above-ground

LCP biomass, and these nutrients are returned

to the soil surface as a protective mulch of leaf

litter (Giller and Fairhurst, this volume).

Application rates for N

The recommended annual application rate is

0.25–1.75 kg N palm-1 for mature palms and

0.25–0.75 kg N palm-1 for young palms 2–3

years after field planting.

Application rates must be adjusted to meet

site-specific requirements, however, by taking

into account palm age, the results of soil and

leaf analysis, and the site yield potential (which

is in turn affected by the amount of solar

radiation, the amount and distribution of rainfall,

and soil type).

Larger N application rates are required to

increase the leaf area where the planting

density is small (112–128 palms ha-1) . The

application of excessive amounts of N to high-

density plantings (138–148 palms ha-1),

however, may result in increased inter-palm

competition, and thus reduced yield.

Sources of N

The characteristics of common N fertilizers

used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. Urea

(46% N) has replaced ammonium sulfate (AS,

21% N) as the standard N-fertilizer for oil palms

in Indonesia because it is less costly, contains

more N (i.e. resulting in smaller transport and

storage costs), and is less acidifying in soil (see

Annex 1). Approximately three times more CaO

is required to correct the change in soil pH due

to a given amount of N applied as AS compared

to urea.

By contrast, about 44% of the total N

fertilizer used in Malaysia is in the form of AS

which is easier to handle (not hygroscopic),

and losses as gaseous NH3

+ after application

(volatilization) are small when compared with

urea. In 12 trials carried out in Malaysia, the

relative efficiency of urea was 80–85% when

compared to AS due to large volatilization

losses from surface-applied urea (Tarmizi et al.,

1993). In spite of its lower use efficiency when

compared with AS, urea remains a cost

effective source of N. Furthermore, when

applied properly and in the right environment

(e.g. clayey soils with relatively high rainfall)

urea is as effective as AS.

Other N sources include Ca ammonium

nitrate (CAN, 26% N), ammonium nitrate (AN,

33% N) and ammonium chloride (25% N) (see

Annex 1). Precautionary measures to note:

� Ammonium nitrate should not be used on

sandy soils or soils with high infiltration rates

because it is more susceptible to leaching

losses than either urea or AS.

� The Cl content in ammonium chloride may

cause a reduction in the oil:wet mesocarp

ratio in fruit bunches, especially when

applied in combination with large amounts

of KCl. Ammonium chloride is hygroscopic

and should be applied promptly after

delivery because it cakes easily.

Crop and factory residues (pruned fronds,

empty bunches, POME) also contain significant

amounts of N (Redshaw, this volume).

Timing of N application

Nitrogen losses due to leaching, surface runoff

and volatilization can be reduced if N fertilizer

is timed and applied carefully.

To minimize volatilization losses, urea

should not be applied to dry soil or when only

a small amount of rainfall (<5 mm d-1) is

expected after application. Ideally, urea

should be applied during wet periods when it

is likely that moderate rainfall will occur (≥20

mm d-1) within one day of application. Nitrogen

fertilizers should be applied 3–4 months

before the onset of the dry season, and large

amounts of N (>0.5 kg N palm-1) should be

applied in split applications. Nitrogen fertilizers

should not be applied immediately before or

during high rainfall periods to minimize

leaching losses.

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:23 PM198


Clearly, an essential tool for timing N

fertilizer applications is a properly maintained

meteorological station with long-term records

of rainfall (mm d-1), raindays and the timing of

rainfall events (recorded with a pluviometer).

Such records have been used successfully to

determine the probability of the occurrence of

rainfall events and thus to improve the timing

of N fertilizer application.

Placement of N fertilizers

Losses due to N immobilization are greater

when N fertilizers are applied over decomposing

organic residues. Nitrogen fertilizers should be

applied over the clean weeded circle in young

plantings (≤5 years after field planting), and

application should be timed to follow circle-

weeding so that competition from the ground

vegetation is minimized. In mature palms (i.e.

after canopy closure), uptake efficiency may be

greater when N fertilizer is broadcast over the

soil surface, unless the inter-row vegetation is

very vigorous and competitive.

Soil pH in soil beneath the circle decreases

where large applications of fertilizer N have

been applied over several years (Fairhurst,

1996). A decrease in soil pH results in a

reduction in cation exchange capacity (CEC)

in variable charge soils, and thus acidification

may result in a decrease in the soil’s capacity

to store cations (i.e. K and Mg) applied in

mineral fertilizers. The negative effect of N

fertilizers on soil pH is reduced when fertilizer

is broadcast using a mechanical spreader

because the fertilizer material comes into

contact with a greater volume of soil. Tractor-

mounted spreaders are now often used to

broadcast fertilizer in plantations where labor

is very costly or in short supply, but low ground-

pressure vehicles must be used to avoid soil

compaction. There are also reports that palm

response to N is greater when the fertilizer is

broadcast (Zakaria et al., 1990). Nitrogen

fertilizer should never be applied in heaps or

in a narrow band around the base of the palm,

as this practice will increase N losses and may

cause severe damage to palm roots.

Optimum leaf N concentration

The optimum leaf N concentration in leaf dry

matter (taken from frond #17) can range from

2.5% to 3% depending on palm age, planting

density, and climate. Leaf N concentrations

<2.6% in young palms (≤5 years after planting)

or <2.3% in older palms (>6 years after

planting) indicate N deficiency and suggest the

requirement for a corrective application of N

fertilizer unless wet ground conditions indicate

the need to first improve drainage.

Phosphorus (P)

Physiological role of P

The overall average P concentration in

vegetative dry matter ranges from 0.147% in

nursery palms to 0.052% in mature palms (Ng

et al., 1968). The average P concentration in

fruit bunches is 0.074% (Ng and Tamboo,

1967).

Phosphorus is an essential constituent of

nucleic acids (deoxyribonucleic acid, DNA and

ribonucleic acid, RNA) that are involved in the

storage and transfer of genetic information. P

is contained in phospholipid compounds in cell

membranes and is responsible for maintaining

the necessary separation between the various

physiological processes in plant cells.

Phosphorus is also contained in adenosine tri-

phosphate (ATP), the key compound involved

in all energy transfers in plant cells.

Phosphorus deficiency is thus expected to

cause considerable disruption to plant growth

and function; leaf expansion, leaf surface area

and leaf number are all reduced under P

deficiency. In addition, the photosynthetic

efficiency of chlorophyll is smaller in leaves

affected by phosphorus deficiency. The

chlorophyll content of tissue affected by P

deficiency is increased and this explains the

dark green appearance of P-deficient plants.

In P-deficient plants, shoot growth is

affected more than root growth because a

greater proportion of assimilates is partitioned

towards the roots and this leads to a decrease

in the shoot:root dry matter ratio. This adaptive

response to poor P supply causes severe sink

competition and the transfer of assimilate to

the roots, leading to reduced flower initiation

and floral abortion, pyramid-shaped trunk

growth and smaller yields.

Effects of P

Soil P recapitalization is required during the

establishment period on most inland soils in

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:23 PM199


Sumatra and Borneo. Large amounts of P

fertilizer must be applied to the LCP and palms

during the three year development to build up

soil P stocks. Phosphate fertilizers are

susceptible to loss by erosion and surface run-

off, however, and soil conservation measures

(platforms, terraces, bunds) and mulching with

empty bunches should be carried out to reduce

the loss of P applied in fertilizer. Insufficient P

application during the establishment phase

leads to poor palm development (stunting,

pyramid-shaped trunks), poor LCP develop-

ment (soil losses due to the effect of erosion

and surface runoff on exposed soil) and

inefficient use of N and K fertilizers.

There is usually a significant response to P

fertilizers in palms not previously supplied with

P, and regular annual P applications are

required to sustain optimum yields. Foster and

Prabowo (1996a) found that P fertilizers

increase average frond weight, frond

production rate, and fruit bunch yields due to

an increase in bunch weight (Figure 3), but

bunch number was not affected by P

application. Optimal P content in frond #17 was

0.15–0.19% dry matter and concentrations less

than 0.13% were found to indicate severe P

deficiency.

Unlike N, P fertilizers have a great residual

effect and when large amounts are applied at

one application, the frequency of application

may be reduced to once in 2–4 years (Chan,

1982b; Foong and Sofi, 1995). On Malaysian

inland soils, the optimum leaf P concentration

is about 0.165% P (Zakaria et al., 1992) and a

large response to P fertilizer can be expected

if the P concentration in frond #17 is less than

0.165% or the extractable P content (Bray II)

in the soil is <20 mg kg-1soil. A clear relationship

between leaf P, soil P and yield has been

shown for coastal soils in Malaysia.

Excessive P

Oversupply of P by fertilizer application may

result in excessively high P levels in palm roots,

which can depress growth and retard the

uptake and translocation of micronutrients such

as Cu, Zn and Fe. Thus, excessive applications

of soluble P (triple super phosphate, TSP or

diammonium phosphate, DAP) have been

reported to induce Zn and Cu deficiencies on

very sandy soils and peat soils in North

Sumatra, Indonesia and in Malaysia.

Phosphorus deficiency symptoms

In contrast with most other nutrients, P-

deficient leaves do not show specific symptoms

in oil palm other than reduced frond length.

Another visible symptom of P deficiency in oil

palm is stunted growth with short dark green

fronds. Trunk diameter and bunch size are also

reduced, and palms show a pronounced

pyramid shape due to the progressive

depletion of soil P. There is some anecdotal

evidence that premature desiccation of older

leaves is associated with P deficiency but no

conclusive evidence is available at present.

Figure 3. Effect of P fertilizer on frond

weight (FW), frond area (FA), frond

production (FP), bunch yield (BY), bunch

number (BN), and bunch weight (BW) in

North Sumatra (average of 6 experiments)

(Foster and Prabowo, 1996a).

FW FA FP

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Increase (%)

BY BN BW

-1

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Increase (%)

P1 P2

Vegetative characteristic

Generative characteristic

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:24 PM200


Legume cover plants are difficult to

establish in low P status soils. Phosphorus-

deficient LCP have small leaves and the

groundcover is patchy and sparse (Shorrocks,

1964). Under such situations, Imperata

cylindrica and other grasses generally out-

compete LCP. Other plants that indicate acid,

low P-status soils are Straits rhododendron

(Melastoma malabathricum) and tropical

bracken (Dicranopteris linearis). In tropical

soils, most of the available P is contained in

the topsoil. Thus, when sufficient P fertilizer is

applied to LCP at planting, the soil is covered

with a protective living mulch that reduces the

loss of P due to sheet erosion and surface

water runoff. Replenishment of soil P on

sloping land must always be complemented

with soil conservation measures (terracing,

platforms, bunds).

Application rates for P

Phosphorus fertilizer requirements range from

0.3–0.4 kg P palm-1 (coastal clay soils) to 0.4–

0.7 kg P palm-1 (inland soils) in Malaysia

(Zakaria et al., 1992; Foster and Prabowo,

1996a; Goh and Chew, 1995), while in

Sumatra, recommended rates are 0.4 kg P

palm-1 on volcanic and alluvial soils, and 0.8

kg P palm-1 on highly weathered Ultisols

derived from sandstone.

Since most soils used for oil palm are acid

and very P-deficient, a one-time blanket

application of 60–130 kg P ha-1 as reactive rock

phosphate should be applied to ensure rapid

LCP establishment. Part of the P fertilizer

applied is taken up by the LCP and re-

deposited at the soil surface in the form of leaf

litter. When the LCP is shaded out at canopy

closure, all the P contained in the LCP biomass

is returned to the soil.

Sources of P

The characteristics of common P fertilizers

used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1.

Phosphate fertilizers range from fully water-

soluble sources (e.g. TSP, SSP, mono-

ammonium phosphate (MAP), DAP, quality

NPK compounds) to partially acidulated

phosphate rocks and phosphate rocks of

variable reactivity. Phosphate fertilizers have

a wide range of P content (8–24% P) and

solubility. The choice of P fertilizer is largely

dependent on agronomic and economic

efficiency (e.g. cost:value ratio) of the P source.

On acid soils, quality rock phosphate is the

most suitable P fertilizer source but a source

with citric acid solubility of >8.5%, finely ground

to pass through an 80–100 mesh sieve should

be selected.

In experiments where various sources of

phosphate rock were tested using TSP as a

control, agronomic efficiency was found to be

closely related to the reactivity of the rock

phosphate source, the chemical and physical

properties of the soil, and the length of the crop

cycle (Chien and Menon, 1994). For oil palm,

both the soil conditions (i.e. low pH) and the

long growth cycle (>25-year crop cycle) favor

the use of rock phosphates. For young palms

(≤3 years after planting), a basal application

of 0.2–0.5 kg palm-1 reactive rock phosphate

applied in the planting hole and yearly

applications of a soluble P source (e.g. TSP,

DAP) or quality NPK compounds are

recommended.

In very acidic soils (pH <4.5), reactive rock

phosphate may be used from two years after

planting (Goh and Chew, 1995). The P

requirement for mature palms (≥8 years old)

is smaller provided that soil P stocks have been

built up in the first eight years after planting

and the application of reactive rock phosphate

may be decreased (Zakaria et al., 2001). Other

sources of P include EFB, BA, POME, and

pruned fronds (Redshaw, this volume)

Timing of P application

Because P is held by soil colloids (clay

particles, SOM) leaching losses of fertilizer P

are small except, perhaps, on very coarse,

sandy soils containing small amounts of clay

and SOM. Phosphorus fertilizer thus remains

close to the surface where it has been applied

and is therefore particularly vulnerable to loss

through erosion and surface runoff. Timing of

application is not an important consideration

but uptake by palms depends on an adequate

supply of soil moisture because of the

comparatively poor mobility of P in the soil.

Placement of P fertilizers

Phosphorus fertilizer should be applied over

the soil in the weeded circle of young palms

(<3 years after planting) where the palm root

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:24 PM201


system is most active. In mature plantations,

however, where a single palm’s roots can

extend 20–30 m from each palm, P should be

applied broadcast over the inter-row (except

the area occupied by the path). Because P

uptake is greatest where there is a proliferation

of quaternary roots near to the soil surface, it

has been suggested that most of the P fertilizer

should be applied over the frond stack where

the soil surface is protected from surface runoff

and erosion.

Optimum leaf P concentration

The optimum leaf concentration ranges

between 0.15–0.19% P. Leaf P concentrations

<0.13% indicate deficiency, especially if found

in combination with high leaf N status. The

close interdependency of N and P was studied

by Ollagnier and Ochs (1981) who defined a

‘critical curve’ for leaf P depending on leaf N

content, to reflect the ratio between N and P in

protein compounds (Figure 4). Thus, an

assessment of palm P status should include

reference to the N:P ratio as well as the leaf P

concentration per se. For example, palms may

be P deficient even where the leaf P

concentration is greater than the commonly

used critical value of 0.15% if the leaf N

concentration is 2.5% (Figure 4).

Potassium (K)

Physiological role of K

Compared to other nutrient elements whose

concentration in palm vegetative tissue

decreases with increasing palm age, the K

content in oil palm vegetative dry matter

remains fairly constant throughout the life cycle

from nursery through to maturity at (1.0–1.3%)

(Ng et al., 1968). Fruit bunches contain about

0.65% K, and K is the nutrient required in the

largest quantity by oil palms. To produce even

moderate yields, total palm uptake must be

about 2,000–2,750 kg K ha-1 during the first

ten years after planting (see Table 4) (Ng and

Thamboo, 1967; Chew et al., 1994).

Potassium is taken up actively against a

concentration gradient by palm roots, and

supply is thus coupled to the metabolic activity

of the palm. K+ is the most abundant cation in

the cytoplasm, and it is not metabolized or

bound in organic complexes of plants.

Potassium is thus highly mobile within the palm

and its concentration is greater in more

metabolically active tissue.

Potassium activates a number of enzymes

that catalyze biochemical reactions involved

in the synthesis of starch, proteins and fats. It

is also required in the various steps of protein

synthesis (e.g. the translation of genetic

information and the incorporation of inorganic

nitrogen into amino acids) and for the transport

of assimilates. Potassium also enhances the

effect of phytohormones (e.g. indole acetic acid

(IAA) and cytokinins) required for the growth

of meristematic tissue. Potassium plays an

important role in the conversion of light into

biochemical energy during photosynthesis and

is thus required for the fixation of CO2.

Potassium also has a central role in the

osmoregulation of plants (e.g. cell extension,

stomata regulation) and other functions related

to water stress tolerance. Thus, when the K

supply is sufficient, the decline in

photosynthetic activity under conditions of

drought or salinity stress is reduced.

Furthermore, K is involved in the translocation

of photosynthates from source (leaves) to sink

(inflorescences, fruit bunches, roots).

Effects of K

Potassium increases drought- and disease-

resistance in oil palm (Turner, this volume) and

bunch size and bunch number are reduced in

K-deficient palms. On some soils (e.g. sandy

soils, peat soils) K deficiency is usually the

largest single nutritional factor limiting yields.

0.14

0.15

0.16

0.17

0.18

0.19

0.20

2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2

Critical leaf P (%)

Leaf N (%)

Critical leaf P = 0.0487

x Leaf N% + 0.039

Figure 4. Critical line for leaf P in relation to

leaf N content (Ollagnier and Ochs, 1981).

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:24 PM202


Multiple regression analysis revealed a

significant positive correlation between oil palm

leaf K status and the number of functional

leaves as well as yield components (bunch

number and bunch weight) (Nair and

Sreedharan, 1983). In a fertilizer experiment

in North Sumatra, K increased yield, bunch

weight and bunch number but there was no

response to P (Figure 5) (Kusnu et al., 1996)

As we shall see, bunch components

(oil:bunch, fruit:bunch, dry mesocarp:fruit

bunch, kernel:bunch and kernel:fresh fruit) are

affected strongly by interactions between N and

K.

A large response to K fertilizer can be

expected where soil exchangeable K <0.2 cmol

kg-1 soil.

Excessive K

Excessive K application may induce deficiency

of other cations in acid soils, for example Mg

and B deficiency (Woo et al., 1992). Large

applications of KCl resulted in a decrease in

the oil:bunch ratio (Foster et al., 1988), but this

may be due to the effects of Cl rather than K.

Potassium deficiency symptoms

Potassium deficiency does not immediately

result in the appearance of visible deficiency

symptoms, but is indicated by reduced growth

rates, decreased leaf turgor and increased

susceptibility to drought and diseases such as

Cercospora leaf spot, Ganoderma basal stem-

rot and vascular wilt (Fusarium sp.)

(Pendergast, 1957; Turner, 1981; Turner, this

volume; von Uexküll, 1982) (Figure 6).

Bunch failure and plant failure are two

physiological disorders that may be linked to

an inadequate K supply (Turner, 1981). In

young palms, K deficiency results in a ‘flat-

topped’ appearance due to progressive frond

shortening with each emerging leaf. A

considerable variety of symptoms has been

Figure 5. The effect of three levels of K at two levels of P on oil palm yield components in

Sumatra, 1992–1995 (Kusnu et al., 1996).

P1 P2

100

110

120

130

140

150

Bunch yield (t ha-1

)

K0 K1 K2

P1 P2

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Bunch number (bunch palm-1

)

P1 P2

10

11

12

13

14

15

Bunch weight (kg bunch-1

)

Figure 6. Relationship between leaf K

content and the occurrence of fusarium wilt

in oil palm (based on Turner, 1981).

10

14

18

22

26

30

0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9

Fusarium wilt (%)

Leaf K (%)

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:24 PM203


associated with K deficiency in mature palms,

related to local differences in environmental

and genetic factors.

A. Confluent Orange Spotting (COS),

sometimes referred to as ‘speckled bronzing’

or ‘speckled yellows’

Orange spotting is the most common K

deficiency symptom and starts with the

development of pale yellow, irregularly shaped

spots along the pinnae of older fronds in the

canopy. As the symptoms become more

severe, the spots turn orange and, in severe

cases, spots fuse together to form bright

orange lesions which transmit light when the

leaf is held against bright sunlight. At a more

advanced stage, brown spots appear in the

centre of the orange spots and marginal

necrosis develops along leaflets, starting from

the distal end. Pinnae also become brittle and

the edges of leaves become desiccated and

shattered.

Occasionally single palms can be found

with very intense and bright orange spotting

when surrounding palms appear to be normal.

Such symptoms are usually of genetic origin

and are sometimes described as genetic

orange spotting (GOS).

B. Diffuse yellowing or ‘mid-crown yellowing’

Symptoms of diffuse yellowing may be found

on palms planted on K-deficient, acid sands

or peat soils, especially during or after periods

of water stress. Pinnae in the lower to middle

part of the canopy become pale (dull khaki or

ochre coloured chlorosis) and then turn yellow

or orange yellow. Later, a very clearly defined

and often necrotic band develops around the

leaf margin of pinnae. In severe cases, older

fronds suddenly desiccate and die. These

symptoms should not be mistaken for ‘peat

yellows’ or Zn deficiency (see below).

C. Orange blotch or Mbawsi symptom

The first symptom of orange blotch is the

appearance of large, elongated diffuse olive-

green blotches emerging in pairs half way

along the pinnae of older fronds. With

increasing age and severity the blotches turn

bright yellow to orange and eventually

brownish yellow before the pinnae desiccate

and die.

D. White stripe

White, pencil-like stripes occur on both sides

of the mid-ribs of leaf pinnae, usually in the

middle to upper part of the crown of young

palms 3–6 years after field planting. White

stripe is probably caused by a nutrient

imbalance involving excessive N use in relation

to K (leaf N>2.5% and leaf K<1.0%) and

probably a lack of B. White stripe should not

be mistaken for Chimera, which is a genetic

defect.

Application rates for K

Potassium requirements for mature palms vary

between 0.3 and 3.0 kg K palm-1 yr

-1 (Ng and

Thong, 1985). This large variation underlines

the importance of making site-specific fertilizer

recommendations based on the results of leaf

and soil analysis, and an understanding of

fertilizer K use efficiency. Response to K is

often poor if there is strong inter-palm

competition for light.

Potassium requirement in oil palm is also

related to the magnitude of nutrient losses,

particularly due to runoff and leaching (Maene

et al., 1979; Chang et al., 1995 and Foong and

Sofi, 1988).

Chronic K deficiency has been reported on

soils containing very wide exchangeable Mg:K

ratios (>300:1). In Milne Bay Province, Papua

New Guinea, this results in very low leaf K

levels that can only be corrected by very large

applications of K fertilizer or empty bunches

(e.g. >2.5 kg K palm-1).

Sources of K

The characteristics of common K fertilizers

used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. Part of

the oil palm’s requirement for K can be supplied

by recycling EFB or BA (if incineration is

permitted). About 0.2 t EFB is produced for

every ton of FFB, which contains about 1% K

(fresh weight basis). Thus, with a yield of 25 t

FFB ha-1, about 160 kg K is removed in fruit

bunches but about 50 kg K is contained in 5 t

EFB that may be recycled to the field. In

practice, larger application rates of EFB (20–

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:24 PM204


40 t ha-1) are used as a substitute for K fertilizer,

supplying 200–400 kg K ha-1 over about 20%

of the plantation, and each field is mulched

once every five years.

Bunch ash can be used as a substitute for

KCl at a rate of 2:1. It is strongly alkaline and

has an ameliorative effect on very acid soils

(e.g., peat soils, acid sulphate soils) by the

effect of increased pH on soil microbiological

activity and thus the release of N from SOM

(Redshaw, this volume). Bunch ash is very

hygroscopic and its nutrient content (fresh

weight basis), decreases rapidly during

storage and should therefore always be

applied fresh.

Potassium chloride (KCl or muriate of

potash) is the most important K fertilizer used

in oil palm because it is the least costly source

of K and supplies Cl in addition to K. Sulfate of

potash has been used but is more costly and

provides S which is usually supplied in

sufficient quantities in N (AS) and Mg (kieserite)

fertilizers. Other sources of K include EFB, BA,

POME, and pruned fronds (Redshaw, this

volume).

Timing of K application

Potassium fertilizer can be applied throughout

the year, even under dry conditions. Application

during very wet periods, however, should be

avoided to reduce losses due to surface runoff

and leaching.

Placement of K fertilizers

Placement should aim to maximize the

contact between applied fertilizer and palm

roots. This is achieved by spreading the

fertilizer evenly over the entire application

zone. In immature palms, K fertilizer should

be broadcast over the soil in the weeded circle

but after canopy closure in older palms K

fertilizer should be broadcast over the entire

soil surface except for the harvesters’ path.

This helps to minimize leaching losses that

may be large if K ferti l izer is applied

continuously over the weeded circle. It has

been shown that the soil exchange complex

in low CEC, variable charge soils rapidly

reaches saturation point when K fertilizer is

broadcast over the weeded circle (Kee et al,

1995a).

Optimum leaf K concentration

For most soils, the ‘normal’ concentration of K

in frond #17 is 0.9–1.3%, but optimum K

concentrations can vary over a wide range

depending on factors such as the concentration

of total leaf cations, palm age, soil moisture

status, and palm spacing (i.e. inter-palm

competition for light) (Foster, this volume).

Furthermore, in contrast to other nutrient

elements, leaf pinnae are not a very reliable

reference tissue, and it has been shown that

the rachis tissue in frond #17 is a more sensitive

and representative reference tissue for

assessing palm K status (Table 7) (Teoh and

Chew, 1988b).

Very low leaf K levels (<0.7%) are common

on alluvial soils in Milne Bay Province, Papua

New Guinea where the ratio between soil

exchangeable Mg and K is very wide.

Magnesium (Mg)

Physiological roles of Mg

The concentration of Mg in oil palms ranges

from 0.16% in mature palms to 0.22% in

nursery palms. There is a concentration

gradient for Mg within the palm biomass with

large concentrations in young tissue (e.g.

crown cabbage) and smaller concentrations in

the roots (Ng et al., 1968). Fruit bunches

contain 0.09–0.234% Mg (Ng and Tamboo,

1967).

Magnesium has many functions in the

metabolism of oil palm. The most important role

of Mg is as a constituent of chlorophyll, the

green pigment that converts light energy into

Table 7. Proposed classification for K

status based on rachis tissue analysis from

frond #17 (Teoh and Chew, 1988b).

noitacifissalC eussitsihcarniK%

hgiH 06.1>

etauqedA 06.1-13.1

lanigraM 03.1-10.1

woL 10.1<

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:24 PM205


biochemical energy during photosynthesis.

Between 10–35% of the total Mg content of

the palm is contained in chlorophyll, depending

on the Mg supply status of the palm. Under

conditions of Mg deficiency and where light

intensity is low, the proportion of Mg

incorporated in chlorophyll may be >50% of

the total Mg in the plant. Magnesium is also

an essential component of the enzyme that

catalyzes chlorophyll synthesis and functions

as a bridging element between ribosome sub-

units in protein synthesis.

Magnesium deficiency interrupts the

synthesis of proteins and results in an

accumulation of low-molecular weight N

compounds that are the precursors of proteins

(e.g. nitrate, nitrite, amides and amino acids).

In this regard, the balance between Mg and K

supply is very important since an excessive

supply of K may cause a reduction in Mg

uptake and lead to a complete cessation of

protein and thus oil formation. Magnesium is

required by a number of other enzymes such

as those required in energy metabolism (e.g.

Mg-ATP-esters).

Magnesium is involved directly in the

fixation of CO2 in photosynthesis by catalyzing

the enzyme carboxylase. About 5–10% of the

total Mg in the plant is incorporated in pectate,

a structural element of cell walls, and thus Mg

plays an important role in maintaining the

integrity of cell compartments isolating different

physiological processes. Magnesium is also

involved in the transport of carbohydrates

(CH2O) from leaves (CH

2O source) to bunches

(CH2O sink).

Effects of Mg

In experiments on a Typic Paleudult in Sumatra

deficient in Mg and K (exchangeable Mg 0.12

cmol kg-1, exchangeable K 0.12 cmol kg

-1),

mature oil palms did not respond to Mg in the

first two years of application (Kusnu et al.,

1996). During the third and fourth years,

however, an annual application of 0.27 kg Mg

palm-1 as kieserite increased the FFB yield

significantly due to an increase in bunch

number (Figure 7).

Frond dry weight, leaf area, leaf production

and yields are smaller in palms with acute Mg

deficiency. A positive linear correlation between

Mg content in frond #17 and oil:bunch ratios

was obtained when Mg was in the range of

marginal supply (Figure 8) (Foster (pers.

comm.). Correcting Mg deficiency resulted in

an increase in the mesocarp:fruit ratio and an

increase in the mesocarp oil content (Prabowo

and Foster, 1998). These results may be

Figure 7. The effect of Mg on yield

components, bunch number (BN), bunch

weight (BW) and FFB yield (Y) of oil palm

(average 1992–1995) (Kusnu et al., 1996).

-Mg +Mg

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

100

110

120

130

140

150

Bunch palm-1

kg bunch-1

Yield (kg palm-1

)

BN BW Y

Figure 8. The relationship between leaf Mg

concentration (as percent of total leaf

cations, TLC) and oil:bunch ratio (Foster, H.,

pers. comm.).

15

17

19

21

23

25

27

20 25 30 35 40 45

Oil:bunch ratio

Mg (%TLC)

y = -0.0211x2

+ 1.9557 x -5.9841

R2

= 0.7865

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:24 PM206


explained by a reduction in starch accumu-

lation in storage organs when Mg deficiency

results in impaired CH2O transport. The results

also show that oil:bunch ratio is reduced when

Mg is small as a proportion of total leaf cations.

Excessive Mg

Excessive amounts of Mg fertilizer, particularly

when applied in the form of dolomite, may

induce K deficiency due to antagonisms

between Ca, Mg and K uptake.

Magnesium deficiency symptoms

Magnesium-deficient pinnae of older palm

fronds are chlorotic, and the symptoms are

commonly described as orange frond. The first

symptoms appear on older, basal fronds

because Mg is mobile and translocated from

older to younger tissues in Mg-deficient palms.

Under conditions of severe deficiency, the

affected leaves turn ochre to bright yellow and

become desiccated. A diagnostic feature of Mg

deficiency is that shaded parts of leaves,

though deficient in Mg, remain green whilst Mg-

deficient tissue fully exposed to the sun turns

yellow. The occurrence of chlorosis on pinnae

or frond parts exposed to the sunlight may be

explained by an accumulation of photo-

synthates (i.e. starch) in the leaf. This results

in a feedback reaction that leads to the

accumulation of toxic oxygen species that

finally cause the chlorosis and necrosis of Mg

deficient fronds . Severe Mg deficiency is thus

often erroneously called ‘sun-scorch’.

Magnesium deficiency occurs commonly on

palms planted on light-textured soils,

particularly where the topsoil has been eroded

and the amount of soil exchangeable Mg is

<0.2 cmol kg-1. Mg deficiency may also be

induced by large concentrations of other

cations, e.g. Ca2+

, K+, NH

4

+ on volcanic soils or

H+, Al

3+, Mn

2+, K

+ and NH

4

+ on acid mineral soils

with a small buffer capacity.

Application rates for Mg

An annual application of 0.06–0.25 kg Mg

palm-1 yr

-1 is sufficient for maintenance. Where

acute Mg deficiency is detected, a corrective

application of 0.30–0.75 kg Mg palm-1 is

required, but should be applied in several split

applications.

Sources of Mg

The characteristics of common Mg fertilizers

used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. A

number of different Mg fertilizers are available,

contrasting in solubility (and thus their

availability for uptake) and cost. Kieserite,

langbeinite, and synthetic Mg sulfate can be

used where a rapid acting source of Mg is

required independent of soil pH. Magnesite and

dolomite are only suitable for use on acid soils,

where they are used to ameliorate soil pH and

CEC as well as supply Mg. In a fertilizer

experiment in Malaysia, a large economic

response was obtained when 420–840 kg

dolomite ha-1 yr

-1 was applied to palms an acid

sandy soil four years after planting (Goh et al.,

1998).

Tang et al. (2001) obtained a 9% increase

in fruit bunch yield with kieserite compared with

a 6% increase where the equivalent amount

of Mg was applied as dolomite to mature palms

planted on inland soils in Malaysia. The

economic efficiency of the two sources was

found to depend greatly on CPO prices. Thus

dolomite is favored as an Mg source during

periods of low CPO prices.

Yields were greatest when 0.15–0.20 kg Mg

palm-1 was applied as kieserite in a long-term

experiment on a Rengam Series soil in

Malaysia (Mohd Hussin et al., 1998). Larger

application rates led to a decrease in fruit bunch

yields when kieserite was used, and an

increase in yield when dolomite was used. The

continuous use of dolomite may aggravate

rather than ameliorate Mg deficiency, however,

due to the antagonism between Mg and Ca

(Ng et al., 1995). Magnesium is released very

slowly from dolomite and should therefore not

be used for vigorously growing young palms

or for very deficient palms where the demand

for Mg is large. Other sources of Mg include

EFB, BA, and pruned fronds (Redshaw, this

volume)

Timing of Mg application

Large losses of basic cations (i.e. Ca2+

and

Mg2+

) can be expected in the humid tropics

where rainfall exceeds evapo-transpiration and

on soils that have a small effective CEC. On a

Rhodic Paleudult with annual rainfall of >1,900

mm yr-1, Mg losses (contained in soil and

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:24 PM207


fertilizer) ranged from 48 kg Mg ha-1 in young

palms (4 years old) to 30 kg Mg ha-1 in mature

palms (22-year-old) (Omoti et al., 1983). To

minimize losses, Mg should not be applied

during the rainy season. Split applications are

recommended particularly if the total annual

recommendation is >0.30 kg Mg palm-1

(e.g.

>2 kg kieserite palm-1). Where it is necessary

to correct severe Mg deficiency, corrective

applications of Mg fertilizer should always

precede applications of K fertilizer, based on

the principle that the diagnosed major limiting

cation should be corrected first to avoid

antagonistic effects and hence improve both

K and Mg use efficiency.

Placement of Mg fertilizers

Losses of Mg applied as fertilizer can be

reduced when contact between root and

nutrients is maximized by broadcasting over

a large soil surface area. In immature palms,

Mg fertilizer should be broadcast over the

entire weeded circle, but in mature palms (i.e.

after canopy closure), Mg fertilizer should be

broadcast over the entire soil surface except

the harvester’s path. This helps to minimize

leaching losses that may be large if Mg

fertilizer is continuously applied over the

weeded circle.

Dolomite is usually spread evenly over the

inter-row area and not over the weeded circle.

The rate of release of Mg from dolomite may

be greater when applied to the soil in the

weeded circle where the past application of

large amounts of acidifying N fertilizers has

resulted in a decrease in soil pH. Dolomite has

a liming effect on the soil and this results in an

increase in N losses when urea is applied

immediately after dolomite.

Optimum leaf Mg concentration

The optimum range for frond #17 is 0.30–0.40%

for young palms and 0.25–0.30% for mature

palms. Magnesium deficiency is indicated if the

Mg concentration in the tissue of frond #17

decreases to <0.20% and where Mg as a

proportion of total leaf cations is small (Foster,

this volume). Visual deficiency symptoms are

usually evident when leaf Mg concentration is

<0.15%.

Calcium (Ca)

Physiological roles of Ca

The overall average concentration of Ca in oil

palms is about 0.14% in nursery palms and

about 0.25% in mature palms (Ng et al., 1968).

Unlike other nutrients, the Ca content is greater

in older, mature palm tissue. The Ca

concentration in bunches is between 0.06 and

0.29% (Ng and Tamboo, 1967). The large

variation in bunch Ca content may be due to

differences in the stage of ripeness at sampling

since in most crop species the Ca content

decreases as fruit near maturity (Marschner,

1995). In addition, a smaller Ca content in

bunches compared to other palm tissues may

be expected because:

� Bunches are organs with low rates of

transpiration;

� Calcium is transported almost exclusively

in the xylem with the transpiration stream;

and

� There is very little re-translocation of Ca

from fronds to fruits because Ca is not

mobile in the phloem.

Calcium uptake in mature oil palms is about

90 kg Ca ha-1 yr

-1, of which only about 20 kg

ha-1 yr

-1 is removed in FFB (Ng and Thong,

1985).

Calcium is a structural component of

pectates found in the middle lamella of cell

walls. It is essential for cell extension and

division, membrane stabilization, maintenance

of cation:anion balance in cells, and

osmoregulation. Calcium is also involved as a

messenger in the transfer of environmental

signals (caused by high or low temperatures,

or by the physical impact of rain and wind).

Effects of Ca

There are no reports of a growth response to

Ca in field palms. Seedlings grown in sand

culture without Ca are stunted with abnormally

short and narrow leaves and prominent leaf

veins. At an advanced stage of deficiency,

leaves are small, malformed and affected by

terminal necrosis.

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:25 PM208


Excessive Ca

Excessive Ca application may depress the

uptake of K, Mg and micronutrients such as B

due to the antagonistic effect of Ca on K and

Mg uptake. This has been reported for oil palms

planted on soils containing very large amounts

of exchangeable Ca (e.g. coral soils and recent

volcanic soils in Papua New Guinea). In

addition, Ca applied in the carbonate form may

induce Fe and Mn deficiency by raising the soil

pH.

Calcium deficiency symptoms

To date, Ca deficiency has not been reported

in field palms.

Application rates for Ca

Large responses to lime have been reported

on acid low Mg-status soils, acid sulfate soils,

and peat soils. This may be due to a direct

effect of Ca, or more likely the effect of

increasing the soil pH on the availability of Mg,

N, and P as well as micronutrients (e.g. B, Cu

and Zn). Liming precipitates Al3+

and results in

improved root growth and nutrient uptake.

An application of lime may be required to

increase pH in peat soils where acid soil

conditions inhibit biological activity and thus

the mineralization and release of nutrients

(particularly N) from peat. The growth of LCP

is reduced under very acid soil conditions, and

an application of lime may thus increase

biological N2-fixation.

Calcium application rates vary considerably

depending on the liming strategy. In peat soils,

100–150 kg CaO ha-1 yr

-1 may be applied

during the establishment of oil palms. To

improve LCP growth, an application of 150–

500 kg CaO ha-1 as dolomite or lime may be

required.

Sources of Ca

The characteristics of common Ca fertilizers

used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. Lime is

used only in situations such as those described

above. Phosphorus fertilizers and dolomite

fertilizers are the main sources of Ca in oil palm

plantations. Calcium content varies in the

different types of fertilizer used. Single super

phosphate (SSP, 22% Ca) contains more Ca

than TSP (13% Ca), whilst rock phosphate

contains between 32% and 36% Ca depending

on the source. The Ca balance in oil palm is

also affected by the choice of Mg fertilizer, since

dolomite contains 21% Ca, but kieserite does

not contain Ca. In contrast to the water-soluble

P fertilizers that have a slight acidifying effect,

rock phosphates and dolomite have a liming

effect. Other sources of Ca include EFB, BA,

POME, and pruned fronds (Redshaw, this

volume).

Timing and placement of Ca fertilizers

Decisions concerning the timing and placement

of Ca fertilizers are made according to the

purpose of application. For example, lime is

placed in the planting hole in peat soils to

increase soil biological activity. It may be

necessary to apply small amounts of lime or

dolomite in the weeded circle to counter the

acidifying effect of N-fertilizers.

Optimum leaf Ca concentration

The optimum Ca concentration in frond #17 is

0.5–0.7% for young palms (<6 years after field

planting) and 0.5–0.75% for mature palms.

Sulfur (S)

Physiological role of S

Sulfur is taken up by oil palm in amounts similar

to Ca and Mg uptake. The overall average

concentration of S in whole palms is 0.17–

0.36% (Ng et al., 1968). Sulfur is a constituent

of some amino acids (e.g. cysteine and

methionine) that are essential building blocks

of proteins. It is also a structural element of

coenzymes required for the formation of long-

chain fatty acids and thus for the synthesis of

mesocarp and kernel oil.

Effects of S

There is very little information on the effect of

S on oil palm growth and yield. Application of

S was found to increase biomass production

in palm seedlings (Forde, 1968), but S

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:25 PM209


deficiency was considered to occur only rarely

in oil palm based on a survey in Malaysia (Ng

et al., 1988). Other workers found there was

no response to S application (Lim and Chan,

1995), but this may have been due to past use

of fertilizers containing S (e.g. AS and kieserite)

or to S inputs contained in rainfall. S deficiency

is most likely to occur where plantations are

located far from S emission points (i.e.

industrial and coastal zones).

Excessive S

Fruit bunch yields are reduced only when very

large applications of S cause imbalances with

N, P, K and Mg fertilizers (Lim and Chan, 1995).

Sulfur deficiency symptoms

The early stages of S deficiency resemble N

deficiency. Sulfur-deficient pinnae are pale and

small. Under acute S deficiency, small brown

necrotic spots may appear. Sulfur deficiency

may result in increased incidence of

Cercospora disease (Cavez et al., 1976) and

has been identified in young palms grown on

acid soils and poorly drained soils, with low

soil organic matter status, or those formerly

covered by savannah vegetation (Cavez et al.,

1976). Despite its strongly acidifying effect on

the soil, an application of elemental S may be

required particularly where non S-containing

N-fertilizers (e.g. urea) are used.

Application rates, sources, timing, and

placement of S fertilizers

The characteristics of common S fertilizers

used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1.

Sufficient S is usually applied with N (AS), Mg

(kieserite) and P (SSP) fertilizers. Elemental

S corrects S deficiency effectively in oil palm

nurseries and where acute S deficiency occurs

in the field. It is not recommended as general

treatment in the field, however, due to its strong

acidifying effect on the soil.

Optimum leaf S concentration

The optimum range proposed for S is 0.20–

0.23% in frond #17 (Ollagnier and Ochs, 1972).

Results of experiments, and practical

experience, however, suggest that the critical

leaf S concentration is probably <0.16% (Lim

and Chan, 1995).

Chlorine (Cl)

Physiological roles of Cl

Oil palm leaf tissue contains 0.04–0.6% Cl

(Foster et al., 1993; Lim and Chan, 1995). This

amount is in the same order of magnitude as

the concentration of P and Mg, but 1–2 orders

of magnitude greater than that required for

optimal plant growth (Marschner, 1995). This

may explain why Cl is generally described as

a micronutrient. It has been shown, however,

to be an essential nutrient for oil palm in

amounts that place it in the macronutrient

category (Ollagnier and Ochs, 1971; Ollagnier

1973). Based on biomass growth, the

calculated annual absorption of Cl per palm

is about 0.02 kg for one year old palms, 0.15–

0.21 kg for palms 2–8 years old, and 0.05–

0.10 kg for >8 years after planting. Whilst most

of the Cl in plants occurs as the free chloride

anion, there are more than 130 chlorinated

organic compounds found in higher plants

(Engvild, 1986). Chlorine is essential for the

‘water-splitting’ process in photosynthesis and

is also required for the stimulation of ATPase,

which triggers the transport of protons

required to regulate pH in the cytoplasm.

Chlorine is a strong osmoticum and

preferentially transported into the vacuoles of

root cells, where its presence results in

increased water and nutrient uptake. It is also

involved in stomata regulation, and thus in

water and gas exchange in oil palm leaves.

The role of Cl in N-metabolism and protein

synthesis is not yet clear, but it has been

shown that amino acids accumulate in Cl-

deficient plant tissue.

Effects of Cl

A significant yield response to Cl was found in

fertilizer experiments on low Cl status volcanic

soils of recent origin in Papua New Guinea

(Foster et al., 1993). Yield was increased due

to an increase in bunch weight (Figure 9).

Chlorine also results in improved palm

vegetative growth, probably due to improved

palm moisture status (von Uexkull, 1985;

1990), and Mg uptake, which is particularly

important on volcanic soils where the large

concentration of Ca in the soil is antagonistic

to Mg uptake (e.g. volcanic soils in West New

Britain, Papua New Guinea). Chlorine may also

be involved in insect and disease resistance

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:25 PM210


of oil palms. Deficient palms respond rapidly

to an application of Cl.

Excessive Cl

Excessive Cl application results in an increase

in mesocarp water content and thus a reduction

in the oil extraction rate.

Chlorine deficiency symptoms

To date, deficiency symptoms for Cl have not

been identified in oil palm. Chlorine deficiency,

however, leads to wilting and reduced

vegetative growth due to restricted stomata

opening. Chlorine deficiency may also lead to

premature senescence, frond fracture, stem

bleeding and stem/frond cracking in coconut

palms (von Uexküll, 1985).

Application rates and sources of Cl fertilizers

The characteristics of common fertilizers

containing Cl that are used in oil palm are

shown in Annex 1. Sufficient Cl is usually

supplied when KCl is used as the source of K

even though Cl losses due to leaching are large

under conditions of high rainfall. Ammonium

chloride is another source of Cl, recommended

on high K status soils where K fertilizers that

contain Cl are not required.

Timing and placement of Cl fertilizers

Chlorine is usually applied as KCl or

ammonium chloride; hence it is linked to the

timing of N and K fertilizer applications

Optimum leaf Cl concentration

The optimum Cl concentration in frond #17 is

0.45–0.6%. A response to Cl application can

be expected when leaf Cl concentration is

<0.2%. The Cl concentration in frond #17

should be monitored as part of routine leaf

analysis.

III Micronutrients

The important micronutrients in oil palms are

B, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, and Mo. Concentrations in

oil palm vegetative dry matter are in the range

10–200 mg kg-1.

Boron (B)

Physiological roles of B

The above-ground biomass of oil palm contains

7.0–8.5 mg B kg-1 (Ng et al., 1968). Concentra-

tions are similar in the crown and trunk, but

decrease with increased frond age. Mature

palms accumulate about 0.5 kg B ha-1 in above-

ground biomass. About 0.07 kg B ha-1 is

removed in fruit bunches.

Boron is essential for root elongation,

nucleic acid synthesis, cell wall synthesis,

phenol metabolism, tissue differentiation,

plasma membrane integrity, carbohydrate and

protein formation, pollen germination, as well

as pollen tube growth. A large increase in the

IAA content of leaf tissue was found in B-

deficient palms (Rajaratnam and Lowry, 1974),

due to an increase in the concentration of

Figure 9. Effect of Cl on FFB yield and yield components of oil palm in Papua New Guinea

(Foster et al., 1993).

-Cl +Cl

15

17

19

21

23

25

27

29

31

33

35

Bunch yield (t ha-1

)

-Cl +Cl

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

Bunch number (bunch palm-1

)

-Cl +Cl

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

24

Bunch weight (kg bunch-1

)

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:25 PM211


phenolic acids which inhibit the oxidation of IAA

(Rajaratnam, 1976). A large concentration of

IAA leads to the disintegration of cell walls, and

this explains the characteristic morphological

changes in leaf appearance that can be

observed in B-deficient palms.

Boron deficiency symptoms

Boron deficiency is the most widespread micro-

nutrient disorder in oil palm. It is particularly

common under high rainfall conditions, and on

sandy and peat soils where B is readily leached

from the soil.

Boron deficiency is more likely to occur

where:

� Soil pH is very low (<4.5) or high (>7.5);

� Large application rates of N and K fertilizers

result in vigorous vegetative growth and

large bunch yields; and

� Boron removal in crop yields has increased

after the introduction of the pollinating

weevil (Elaeidobius kamerunicus).

Meristematic growth is impaired in B-

deficient palms, leading to retarded growth of

root tips and other apical tissues. Thus, B

deficiency symptoms involve abnormalities in

leaf development such as ‘crinkle leaf’, ‘hook

leaf’, ‘little leaf’, ‘fishbone leaf’, ‘stump leaf’,

and ‘blind leaf’. Boron-deficient leaves are

also brittle and dark green. The earliest

symptom of B deficiency is the shortening of

younger leaves (Rajaratnam, 1976), often with

narrow pinnae, and this gives palms a

characteristic ‘flat top’ appearance.

Leaf production stops completely under

acute B deficiency. A large crater is formed in

the middle of the crown with the apical bud in

the center. Yield reduction in B-deficient palms

may be caused by floral abortion because

pollen germination and pollen tube growth are

impeded in B-deficient palms.

Application rates for B

The recommended B application rates are

0.01 kg B palm-1 in the first year, and 0.015–

0.035 kg B palm-1 for mature palms. Regular

applications of B fertilizer are particularly

important in high yielding environments where

large amounts of N, P and K fertilizers are also

used.

Sources and placement of B fertilizers

The characteristics of common B fertilizers

used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. Boron

is usually applied in the form of sodium borate.

Uptake is most rapid when B is applied in the

leaf axils (Rajaratnam, 1972). This may,

however, lead to uneven distribution within the

palm, and even result in B toxicity if excessive

amounts are applied. Boron fertilizers are

therefore best applied to the soil close to the

trunk in the weeded circle. Large application

rates (>0.03 kg B palm-1) should be applied in

two split applications.

Optimum leaf B concentration

The optimal concentration of B in frond #17 is

15–25 mg kg-1.

Copper (Cu)

Physiological roles of Cu

Oil palms contain 7–10 mg kg-1 Cu in the

above-ground biomass. The concentration of

Cu is largest in the cabbage and inner parts of

the trunk, and smallest in the rachis (Ng et al.,

1968). Based on average growth rates and

tissue concentrations, the accumulation of Cu

in the biomass of oil palm is 47–70 mg palm-1

in the first year after planting, and 350–1,000

mg palm-1 yr

-1 in mature palms. Fruit bunches

contain about 5 g Cu t-1, equivalent to the

removal of about 0.15 kg Cu ha-1.

Copper is an essential constituent of

proteins and enzymes (e.g. cytochrome-

oxidase) and is involved in the electron

transport in Photosystem I in photosynthesis.

Copper is contained in polyphenol oxidase, an

enzyme involved in the synthesis of lignin, and

Cu is also required for carbohydrate, lipid and

nitrogen metabolism. Pollen viability is

decreased under Cu deficiency.

Copper deficiency

Palms affected by Cu deficiency are stunted,

and during the early stages of deficiency,

chlorotic rectangular speckles (0.5–1 mm

diameter) appear on the youngest open fronds.

Under more severe Cu deficiency, newly

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:25 PM212


emerged fronds are shorter than older leaves,

and interveinal yellowing occurs on affected

pinnae, starting from the distal end of the leaf.

Leaf tips and margins gradually become

necrotic.

Copper deficiency was first observed on

peat soils (where Cu is complexed by organic

compounds) and described as ‘mid-crown

chlorosis’ (Ng and Tan, 1974; Ng et al., 1974).

Since then Cu deficiency has been identified

on coarse-textured ferrallitic and ferraginuous

soils poor in Cu, and calcareous soils

developed from limestone. Copper deficiency

is accentuated by the application of N and P

fertilizers, but decreased by the application of

K fertilizer (Wanasuria and Gales, 1990).

Application rates for Cu

On mineral soils, Cu deficiency can be corrected

by a single application of 10–25 g Cu palm-1 as

copper sulfate. A larger application rate of 0.1

kg Cu palm-1 is required on peat soils.

Sources of Cu

The characteristics of common Cu fertilizers

used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. Copper

sulfate, available in two different forms of

hydration, is the main source of Cu for oil palm.

Uptake is more efficient, however, when Cu is

applied in a chelated form.

Placement of Cu fertilizers

Cheong and Ng (1977) reported that mature

palms planted on peat soil recovered from Cu

deficiency (in terms of frond length and color)

4–6 weeks after they were sprayed with 4.5 L

of a copper solution (200 mg Cu L-1 water).

Palms recovered fully four months after the first

foliar application of Cu. It is more difficult to

correct Cu deficiency through soil application

on peat soils, however, because Cu is

adsorbed on complex organic compounds.

Attempts have been made to overcome this

problem by using a slow release Cu source.

For example, ‘mud balls’ can be prepared from

a 1:1 or 1:5 mixture of copper sulfate and clay

soil (Fairhurst et al., 1998). A 0.5 kg mud ball

is then placed adjacent to each seedling at

planting. Another approach is to insert lengths

of Cu rod adjacent to palms planted in acid

peat soils.

Optimum leaf Cu concentration

The critical leaf Cu content of frond #17 is 5–8

mg kg-1. Severe deficiency is indicated when

leaf Cu concentration is <3 mg Cu kg-1.

Zinc (Zn)

Physiological roles of Zn

The Zn concentration in above-ground

biomass of oil palm is 18–31 mg kg-1 (Ng et

al., 1968). Zinc concentration is largest in the

cabbage, and smallest in the rachis. Zinc is

either a constituent or an activator of a number

of enzymes (e.g. carbonic anhydrase,

dehydrogenase) and is required for protein

synthesis, carbohydrate and hormone

metabolism, as well as the maintenance of cell

membrane integrity.

Zinc deficiency

Zinc deficiency occurs on highly weathered

acid soils and calcareous soils, but many

studies have shown that Zn deficiency may

be induced by applying large amounts of P

fertilizer. Zinc-deficient palms are stunted, and

root growth may be enhanced at the expense

of shoot growth. Copper deficiency was

thought to be involved in ‘peat yellows’

(Turner, 1981), but more recent work suggests

that Zn is the primary factor causing this

disorder (Gurmit Singh et al., 1987).

Deficiency symptoms start with the

appearance of yellowish-orange discoloration

of the lower fronds. Later, young leaves also

become pale and chlorotic, while older leaves

become desiccated. In a sandy muck soil in

Sumatra, palms became severely stunted due

to Zn deficiency induced by the application of

soluble P fertilizer (e.g. TSP).

Application rates for Zn

Two applications of zinc sulfate (1 g Zn L-1) as

a foliar spray is effective for the treatment for

Zn deficiency in peat soils, and has been

shown to increase fruit bunch production by

12–78% when applied to affected palms

(Figure 10) (Gurmit Singh et al., 1987).

Sources of Zn

The characteristics of common Zn fertilizers

used in oil palm are shown in Annex 1. The

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:25 PM213


main sources of Zn for oil palm are various

forms of hydrated zinc sulfate. Zinc chelate (Zn-

EDTA) is sometimes used in palms grown on

peat soils.

Placement of Zn fertilizers

Young palms should be soaked with a zinc

sulfate solution. An application of 4.5 L palm-1

is recommended. Soil application and trunk

injection, however, were both found to be

ineffective (Gurmit Singh, 1988). In palms

treated with Zn, the K uptake is usually

increased. Leaf N, P and Cu status improved

in deficient palms treated with Zn.

Optimum leaf Zn concentration

The critical range for Zn in frond #17 is 12–18

mg kg-1.

Manganese (Mn)

Physiological roles of Mn

The aerial parts of oil palm contain between

64–166 mg kg-1

Mn (Ng et al., 1968). The

concentration of Mn is large in pinnae, and

small in the inner part of the trunk. The distri-

bution within the palms may reflect the

importance of Mn in various physiological

processes.

The most important role of Mn is in

photosynthesis, particularly in photosynthetic

O2 evolution (Marschner, 1995). Manganese

is also involved as a constituent or an activator

of enzymes that catalyze the synthesis of

proteins, carbohydrates and lipids. Manganese

is essential for cell division and extension,

particularly in the roots.

Manganese deficiency symptoms

Manganese deficiency sometimes occurs in oil

palms grown on highly leached tropical soils,

deep peat soils, or where large amounts of

limestone have been applied to sandy soils

(<10% clay). Manganese deficiency results in

reduced photosynthetic activity, inhibition of

root growth, reduced tissue lignification, and

thus increased susceptibility of roots to

pathogenic attack.

Discontinuous interveinal chlorotic streaks

first appear on younger fronds. These

longitudinal streaks eventually become

chlorotic with a striped appearance. Newly

emerged fronds become progressively smaller

and chlorotic, and the palm canopy appears

unthrifty and retarded. In severe cases,

chlorosis and necrosis affect the newly

emerged spear before frond pinnae have

expanded (Kee et al., 1995b).

Application rates for Mn

About 4.5 kg Mn ha-1 yr

-1 accumulates in

mature oil palm stands (Ng et al., 1968), while

removal in FFB is about 0.4–0.5 kg ha-1.

Fertilizer Mn is thus rarely required in oil palm

plantations except where Mn deficiency

symptoms are identif ied. Manganese

deficiency can be treated effectively with a

foliar application of MnSO4 (1–2%). In mature

oil palms, an application of 50 g palm-1 Mn as

manganese sulfate or a foliar spray (50 g Mn

L-1) is sufficient to overcome Mn deficiency

(Kee et al., 1995b).

Sources of Mn

The primary source of Mn for oil palm is Mn

sulfate. Mn-EDTA (13% Mn) may be used for

foliar and soil applications.

Figure 10. Effect of a foliar application of

zinc sulphate in different fields (F1–F3) on

yield in palms affected by peat yellows

(Gurmit Singh, 1987).

1982 1983 1984 1985

5

7

9

11

13

15

17

19

21

23

25

Yield (t ha-1

)

Year

F1 F2 F3

Zn spray

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:25 PM214


Placement of Mn fertilizers

Manganese sulfate should be applied over the

weeded circle but full recovery of canopy size

and vigor may only occur two years after

corrective applications of Mn fertilizer have

been applied.

Optimum leaf Mn concentration

The optimum leaf Mn concentration is 50–200

mg kg-1. Oil palms exhibit Mn deficiency

symptoms when the leaf Mn concentration in

frond #17 is <25 mg kg

-1.

Iron (Fe)

Physiological roles of Fe

The above-ground biomass of oil palm contains

107–221 mg kg-1 Fe (Ng et al., 1968). Fruit

bunches contain 25 g Fe t-1, equivalent to a

removal of about 0.75 kg ha-1.

Iron is required in all enzymes that catalyze

redox processes (e.g. cytochrome and

ferredoxin) in plants. Thus Fe plays an

important role in photosynthesis, energy

metabolism, and N2-fixation. Iron is also a

constituent of iron-sulfur proteins.

Iron deficiency symptoms

Iron deficiency in oil palm is rarely recorded

because tropical soils are usually well supplied

with Fe (Zakaria and Jamaludin, 1992). Iron

deficiency was reported recently in 9-year-old

palms on a Histic Tropaquept in northern Riau,

Sumatra (Setyobudi et al., 1998). Iron

deficiency may also occur:

� On calcareous soils;

� On or near former termite mounds;

� In soils overlying coral;

� On poorly drained soils in the presence of

Cu, Zn, and Mn; and

� Where large amounts of P fertilizers have

been applied.

Interveinal chlorosis appears on the

youngest fronds but leaf veins remain green.

The youngest fronds later turn white but older

fronds are yellow. Growth ceases and death

may occur after one year in severely Fe-

deficient palms.

Application rates for Fe

Soil application of 20 g Fe palm-1 as iron sulfate

(FeSO4

.7H

2O) is ineffective in overcoming Fe

deficiency (Setyobudi et al., 1998). Affected

palms can be treated with three foliar

applications of FeSO4

.7H

2O (0.5%) at 1-week

intervals.

Alternatively, root infusion with four

applications of FeSO4

.7H

2O (10 g L

-1) and citric

acid (0.6 g L-1

), or five applications of

FeSO4

.7H

2O (15 g L

-1) are effective for the

treatment of Fe deficiency.

Sources of Fe

Iron sulfate, Fe-EDDHA and Fe-EDTA are

effective sources of Fe fertilizer for oil palm.

Placement of Fe fertilizers

Root infusion to actively growing root tips has

been found to be more effective than foliar

application (Setyobudi et al., 1998).

Optimum leaf Fe concentration

There is very little information on critical Fe

levels for oil palm. Based on experience with

other crops, a minimum leaf Fe concentration

may be >70 mg Fe kg-1. Eschbach (1980)

proposed an optimum leaf Fe concentration of

50–250 mg kg-1 and deficiency where Fe is <50

mg kg-1, but these values have yet to be

confirmed by field experimentation.

Molybdenum (Mo)

Physiological roles of Mo

Molybdenum is the nutrient element required in

the smallest amount by plants (Marschner,

1995). It is an essential constituent in the N-

metabolism of plants, and a component of some

enzymes (e.g. nitrate reductase) due to its

multiple oxidation states. In oil palm, as in other

plants, the enzyme nitrate reductase is required

for the incorporation of nitrate. Molybdenum is

also a constituent of nitrogenase, which is

contained in all microorganisms with the

capacity for biological N2-fixation. It therefore

has an indirect effect on oil palm growth and

production through its effect on LCP growth and

development, and N2-fixation.

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:26 PM215


Molybdenum deficiency symptoms

Molybdenum deficiency occurs on very acid

soils (pH<4) due to adsorption on soil

sesquioxides (Fe and Al oxides). Molybdenum

deficiency has not yet been reported in oil palm.

Sources of Mo

Sodium molybdate, ammonium molybdate,

soluble Mo trioxide and molybdenized

superphosphate are suitable sources of Mo

fertilizer.

Placement of Mo fertilizers

Foliar application with a solution of 500 mg Mo

L-1 is sufficient to correct Mo deficiency in LCP.

Optimum leaf Mo concentration

The optimum leaf Mo concentration in oil palm

leaf tissues is 0.5–0.8 mg kg-1. Deficiency

symptoms may occur when leaf Mo

concentration is <0.1 mg kg-1.

NUTRIENT INTERACTIONS

Nutrients do not act in isolation, and a full

response to each nutrient is only achieved

when all nutrients are supplied according to

the physiological needs of the palm (see also

Foster, this volume).

Interactions occur when the application of

one nutrient influences the supply, uptake or

incorporation of another one. This explains

why it is necessary to carry out factorial

experiments in which each nutrient is applied

at more than one level to determine optimal

rates for N, P, K and Mg (Verdooren, this

volume).

Interactions may be expected between all

essential elements but under field conditions,

only the interactions among the macronutrients

(N, P, K and Mg) are of interest. Interactions

between N and P, N and K, K and Mg, as well

as K and B, are the most significant in

commercially grown oil palms. On P-deficient

soils, there may be no response to N and K

unless P deficiency is first corrected (Figure

11).

Bunch yield and vegetative growth

Without P, a large application of N may result

in a decrease in leaf N status and fruit bunch

yield, whilst increasing the amount of P

fertilizer reduces the amount of N required to

obtain the same yield. There are a number of

reports of N-K interactions for both inland and

coastal soils in Malaysia (Goh et al., 1994b).

For example, in the absence of N, an increase

in the amount of K applied resulted in a

Figure 11. Effect of N and P fertilizers on leaf N concentration and yield in a fertilizer

experiment in Indonesia (Ollagnier and Ochs, 1981).

N0 N1 N2

2

2.1

2.2

2.3

2.4

2.5

Leaf N (% dry matter)

N application rate

P0 P1 P2

N0 N1 N2

50

70

90

110

130

150

170

190

Yield (t ha-1

)

N application rate

a) b)

Goh & Hardter 4/6/03, 10:57 AM216


decrease in yield but had no effect on palm

vegetative growth (Chan, 1982c). When N

was applied, however, K fertilizer increased

both yield and vegetative dry matter

production significantly (Figure 12).

The optimum rate of one fertilizer often

depends on the rate of the other fertilizers

applied. For example, K must be supplied in

addition to N and P to correct Cu deficiency in

oil palm (Table 8).

Figure 12. Effect of N and K fertilizers on vegetative growth and yield in oil palms on a

Rengam Series (Typic Paleudult) soil in Malaysia (Chan, 1982a).

K0 K1 K2

50

60

70

80

90

100

Vegetative growth (kg palm-1

yr-1

)

K application rate

N0 N1 N2

K0 K1 K2

50

70

90

110

130

150

Yield (t ha-1

)

K application rate

a) b)

Table 8. Effect of N, P, and K on the incidence of Cu deficiency and leaf Cu concentration

(Wanasuria and Gales, 1990).

tnemtaertllA

snoitanibmoc

ycneicifeduCfoecnedicnI

)%(

dnorFninoitartnecnocuCfaeL#1

gkgm(1-)

gMdnaPfosetarynata:NfotceffE

N0K

00 3.7

N1K

05 6.4

N2K

012 1.3

Nta:PfostceffE1

Ndna2

gMfosetarynatadna

P0K

09 5.4

P1K

042 1.4

P2K

043 9.2

gMdnaPfosetarynata:KfostceffE

N0K

012 1.3

N1K

10 5.4

N2K

20 7.4

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:26 PM217


In a long-term experiment on an Ultisol and

Oxisol, the best combination for a Rengam

Series soil (Typic Paleudult) was 0.83 kg N

palm-1 and 1.8 kg K palm

-1 whilst on a Kuantan

Series soil (Haplic Acrorthox), the optimum

combination was 0.6 kg N palm-1 and 2.0 kg K

palm-1 (Table 9) (Foong and Sofi, 1988).

The interaction between the effect of N and

Mg on frond length is shown in Table 10. In the

fourth year after application, frond length

decreased when only Mg was applied, but

there was an increase in frond length when

both N and Mg were applied (Chan, 1982a).

In a similar experiment to investigate

interactions between K and Mg, the addition

of Mg caused a decrease in yield in the

absence of K. This may be explained by the

displacement of K+ from exchange sites by the

Mg2+

contained in the Mg fertilizer. Fertilizer K

thus entered the soil solution and was leached

from the root zone. Yield was increased

significantly, however, when both Mg and K

were applied (Chan and Rajaratnam, 1977)

(Table 11). Thus, the application of Mg to low

K status soils with a small CEC may aggravate

K deficiency resulting in a decrease in yield,

and vice versa.

Oil yield

There has been increased interest to

investigate the factors that affect oil yield (t oil

ha-1) because of the present low oil extraction

rates in Malaysia, since nutrient interactions

have been shown to affect oil synthesis.

In a fertilizer experiment in the Ivory Coast,

oil:bunch ratio decreased when the K

Table 9. Effect of N and K on bunch yield on Rengam Series and Kuantan Series soils

(average of 6 years) (Foong and Sofi, 1988).

lioS levelrezilitreF

mlapgk(dleiyBFF1-

ry1-)

N1

N2

N3

N4

seireSmagneR

)tluduelaPcipyT(

K1

6.141 3.451 2.651 9.751

K2

4.041 6.951 1.951 2.851

K3

6.851 1.361 1.761 8.761

K4

9.341 3.861 2.471 9.361

:)50.0<P(DSL 1.51

seireSnatnauK

cilpaH(

)xorhtrorcA

K1

2.061 4.871 1.381 8.971

K2

3.471 3.791 9.881 1.591

K3

8.991 5.602 2.591 1.002

K4

2.681 7.191 9.091 3.191

:)50.0<P(DSL 6.61

Table 10. Effect of N and Mg on frond

length measured for four years after

application (Chan, 1982a).

stnemtaerT

gM0

gM1

ES

)mc(htgneldnorF

N0

0.183 8.263

40.3

N1

0.483 0.983

Table 11. Effect of K and Mg on yield in low

Mg plots in Trial 18 on 24-year-old palms on

ex-jungle soils (Chan and Rajaratnam, 1977).

levelgM

mlapgk(dleiyBFF1-

ry1-)

K0

K1

K2

gM0

2.17 0.88 2.99

gM1

6.76 7.79 9.301

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:26 PM218


application rate was increased, but when K

was applied together with Mg fertilizer, oil

extraction rate was increased significantly and

the largest K fertilizer level resulted in the

highest extraction rate (Figure 13) (Ochs,

1977). In another experiment on muck soils,

K and K/Ca treatments resulted in an increase

in the oil:bunch ratio, but the ratio was

decreased when Mg fertilizer was applied

(Table 12).

Breure (1982) investigated the effect of the

chloride contained in KCl and MgCl2 fertilizers

on oil extraction rates. Both these Cl-containing

fertilizers reduced the oil:wet mesocarp ratio,

but increased oil yields and fertilizer efficiency

due to increased bunch yields (Table 13). In

fertilizer experiments carried out on Bungor and

Rengam Series soils in Malaysia, K fertilizer

resulted in a decrease in the oil:bunch ratio at

low N fertilizer rates, but when N and K

fertilizers were both applied, the oil yield was

increased (Table 14) (Foster et al., 1988).

Results from more recent experiments

carried out in Indonesia confirm that

interactions between fertilizers affect oil yield

and yield components significantly (Table 15)

(Prabowo and Foster, 1998). Nitrogen

generally had no effect on oil yield components,

but the application of P decreased fruit:bunch

ratio and increased mesocarp:fruit ratio (Table

15a). Potassium fertilizer tended to reduce the

mesocarp:fruit ratio, whereas Mg increased the

oil:bunch ratio (Table 15b). There was a

significant positive correlation between the

mesocarp:fruit ratio and leaf Mg content.

MULTIPLE NUTRIENT

DEFICIENCIES, EXCESSES AND

IMBALANCES

There are often cases where one or more

nutrients are deficient, and others are present

in excess, resulting in leaf symptoms that differ

considerably from standard nutrient deficiency

symptoms. ‘White stripe’ is caused by an

Table 13. Effect of Cl-containing fertilizers (KCl and MgCl2) on oil:wet mesocarp (O:WM)

ratios (Breure, 1982).

tnemtaerT retemaraP K0

K1

K2

K3

gM0

pracosemtew:liO 7.05 9.84 3.84 4.84

)%(lCfaeL 91.0 64.0 25.0 35.0

gM1

pracosemtew:liO 5.84 6.84 7.74 8.74

)%(lCfaeL 94.0 55.0 85.0 85.0

Figure 13. Effect of K and Mg on oil:bunch

ratio in the Ivory Coast (Ochs and Ollagnier,

1977).

K1 K2 K3 K4

22

24

26

28

30

Oil:bunch ratio

K rate

Mg0 Mg1

O:WM = oil to wet mesocarp; O:B = oil to bunch ratio.

Table 12. Effect of nutrient additions on oil

content in wet mesocarp of fruit and oil to

bunch ratio in oil palms planted on a muck

soil in Malaysia (Ng, 1974).

stnemtaerT.oN

selpmas

MW:O

)%(

B:O

)%(

lortnoC 72 15 32

N 31 25 22

P 12 55 12

K 42 45 42

gM 9 75 22

aC 72 55 32

aC+K 22 75 62

Goh & Hardter 4/6/03, 10:58 AM219


imbalance between N, B and K where the N

supply is excessive and K and B are deficient.

‘Peat yellows’ may involve K, Cu, and Zn

deficiencies and excessive Mg and P,

particularly when they occur during dry periods.

In poorly managed fields on low fertility

status sedentary soils, oil palms commonly

express multiple nutrient deficiencies (N, K, Mg

and B). Under such instances, corrective action

should follow a step-wise approach. General

field maintenance should first be improved, and

N and K deficiencies corrected before

correcting Mg and B deficiencies to avoid

inducing antagonistic effects between the

nutrients applied.

Potassium deficiency often occurs on ultra-

basic soils and soils derived from limestone,

due to the very wide ratio between

exchangeable Mg+Ca:K in the soil. Control

measures include large applications of KCl (>3

kg K palm-1) and mulching with EFB (60 t ha

-1

yr-1).

Table 15a. Effect of N and P fertilizer on oil extraction rate and its components (after

Prabowo and Foster, 1998). Significant differences are denoted with * (P<0.05).

retemaraP N0

N1

N2

P0

P1

P2

)%(hcnub:liO 7.72 7.72 5.72 6.72 6.72 6.72

)%(hcnub:tiurF 7.66 2.76 6.66 2.76 *4.66 9.66

)%(tiurf:pracoseM 0.87 4.87 5.87 8.77 1.87 0.97

)%(pracosemtew:liO 2.35 5.25 5.25 8.25 2.35 3.25

Table 14. Effect of N and K on oil:bunch ratio (%) on Bungor Series and Rengam Series

soils in Malaysia (Foster et al., 1988).

* LSD denotes least significant difference at alpha = 0.05.

lioS

ymonoxatseireslioS levelK

levelN

*DSL

N0

N1

N2

cipyT

tluduelaP

rognuB

K0

1.72 4.32 0.42

0.3K1

0.52 8.42 2.42

K2

5.32 6.42 4.52

magneR

K0

9.62 6.52 8.42

0.3K1

7.32 6.42 3.12

K2

8.22 5.32 1.42

Table 15b. Effect of K and Mg fertilizers on oil extraction rate and its components (after

Prabowo and Foster, 1998). Significant differences are denoted with * (P<0.05).

retemaraP K0

K1

K2

gM0

gM1

gM2

)%(hcnub:liO 2.82 *5.72 *1.72 9.62 *0.82 *0.82

)%(hcnub:tiurF 8.66 0.76 7.66 8.66 8.66 0.76

)%(tiurf:pracoseM 4.97 *2.87 *3.77 3.77 *2.97 4.87

)%(pracosemtew:liO 3.35 5.25 5.25 1.25 9.25 *3.35

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:26 PM220


It is also common to observe severe P

deficiency in acid, upland soils in Sumatra and

Borneo such that young palms show a

pronounced pyramid shape and bunch yields

are very small. Clearly, P deficiency must first

be corrected before a response is obtained to

N and K fertilizers.

TOXICITIES

Aluminum toxicity is widespread in the humid

tropics where soils are acid and highly

weathered. Low pH results in the accumulation

of soluble Al in the soil that reduces root growth

and impairs root function. Aluminum toxicity is

thus manifested in the appearance of Mg and

K deficiency, particularly in young palms but

can be corrected by applying rock phosphate

or dolomite at planting to ameliorate soil pH.

Magnesium fertilizers have also been shown

to reduce the effect of Al toxicity on plant growth

for a variety of crops (Grimme and Härdter,

1991).

Nickel toxicity can be a difficult problem in

soils derived from ultrabasic or ‘serpentine’

rocks. Palms affected by Ni toxicity exhibit

narrow, fish-net like chlorotic patterns on

younger leaves, and growth can be severely

retarded. Nickel toxicity is difficult to correct

and, whilst mulching with EFB (where

available), liming, and additional K fertilizer

may help to alleviate the symptoms, it is not

recommended to plant oil palm on ultrabasic

soils. Some sources of poor quality rock

phosphate are also known to contain a large

concentration of Ni, and these fertilizer

materials should not be used.

Micronutrient toxicities are rare under humid

tropical conditions and are usually only found

after excessive application of micronutrient

fertilizers. Great care must be taken when

choosing the application rate for micronutrient

fertilizers since the difference between

deficiency and toxicity is often quite small.

Copper toxicities may develop as a result

of excessive and careless fertilizer application,

the latter especially from excessive use of Cu-

containing fungicides. Copper toxicity

symptoms first appear as small, oval or round,

light brown spots on the leaf surface. The spots

have depressed centers and may coalesce into

extensive necrotic areas with yellow margins

on the leaf surface.

Boron toxicity symptoms start on the

younger leaves where interveinal chlorotic

streaks appear on leaf tips. Chlorosis is

rapidly followed by necrosis, developing from

the distal to proximal end of leaves. Boron

toxicity may be corrected by the application

of N fertilizers, which precipitate B and

improve palm growth by diluting the

concentration of B in palm tissue.

The application of molybdenum to palms

as foliar spray resulted in a decrease in yield

in young palms on an acid sand soil in Nigeria

(Ataga et al., 1982). Bunch yield was also

reduced when palms were treated with a foliar

spray of manganese. In both cases, however,

no leaf symptoms were reported.

The hyperacidity disorder can be found on

palms planted on excessively drained acid

sulfate and peat soils. Typical symptoms

include the gradual necrosis and desiccation

of leaflets on lower fronds, but the spear and

young leaves are not affected. Liming with

dolomite or BA is not very effective and

hyperacidity can be better prevented by

maintaining the water-table just above the

jarosite layer or 30 cm from the surface,

whichever is lower.

HERBICIDE DAMAGE

Herbicide use has increased very dramatically

in recent years because very cost-effective

products are available on the market, while

labor has become more costly, or may not be

available, as in some parts of Malaysia. This

has resulted in excessively bare ground

conditions in many plantations, particularly in

Peninsular Malaysia where workers have not

been trained properly in selective weed control

methods. Furthermore, some plantation groups

appear to advocate clean weeding as a policy.

This results in increased soil erosion and

surface water runoff, and ultimately the loss of

costly fertilizer nutrients.

Young palms are particularly sensitive to

herbicide damage, which may result in

temporary or even permanent damage in terms

of palm growth and productivity. Herbicide

damage may resemble nutrient deficiency

symptoms caused by severe nutrient

imbalance or by wind (Turner, 1981).

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:26 PM221


Systemic herbicides are not recommended

for use in young immature stands of oil palm.

Other alternative methods of weed control (e.g.

biodegradable black plastic sheet mulch)

should be considered (Gillbanks, this volume).

CONCLUSIONS

It has been shown that mineral nutrition plays

a crucial role in the production of palm oil.

Nutrients are required in different amounts and

partitioned within the palm to the various plant

parts (roots, trunk, fronds, fruit bunches). The

particular demand for each nutrient is explained

by its function in the whole metabolism of the

plant, and it was shown that whilst all nutrients

are equally important for biomass and oil

formation, the quantity of nutrients required

increases in the order P<Mg<Ca<N<K. An

adequate supply of nutrients is particularly

important during the phase of rapid vegetative

growth (i.e. the first 3–5 years after planting) if

potential productivity over the duration of the

crop cycle (25–30 years) is to be attained.

Nutrient deficiencies, even for short periods,

can lead to a substantial yield reduction which

may not be evident in terms of leaf nutrient

deficiency symptoms or even low leaf nutrient

status. Thus deficiency symptoms are

inefficient indicators of nutrient need since their

occurrence implies that future production is

already affected, and there is a time lag

between the correction of deficiencies and

recovery of yield. Regular monitoring of the

nutrient status of the palms by plant analysis

is therefore required (Foster, this volume).

Nutrients also do not act independently and

there are strong interactions between all

mineral nutrients, but particularly with N and

K. We have shown that a decrease or increase

in the supply of a single nutrient also affects

the uptake, incorporation and efficiency of other

nutrients. Agronomists should attempt to

provide a continuous and balanced supply of

nutrients in the form of mineral fertilizers and

crop residues so that crop demand and nutrient

supply is closely matched.

Emphasis must therefore be given to

matching the availability of all nutrients with

crop demand over time and space. Efficient

nutrient use requires that application

techniques (timing, placement) are designed

to accommodate the contrasting nutrient

release dynamics of the different nutrient

sources (fertilizers, crop residues).

Important points for practical planters

1 There are 16 essential nutrients with equal importance for the production of vegetative

biomass and fruit bunches. Omission of only one of these nutrients can lead to reduced

yield and sometimes crop failure.

2 Nutrient demand is determined by the production potential of oil palm which varies

according to genotype, soil and environmental factors.

3 Like other plants, the oil palm distinguishes between macronutrients (elements required

at amounts of several kilograms per hectare) and micronutrients (elements required

at amounts of several grams per hectare).

4 The planters’ role is to identify the site-specific demand for nutrients in each soil type.

Mineral fertilizers are used to supplement the indigenous soil nutrient supply and

nutrients recycled in crop residues so that the site-specific genetic yield potential,

limited only by climatic factors, is achieved.

5 Strong interactions occur between the various nutrients required and imply the need

for a management strategy that avoids nutrient imbalances throughout the whole growth

cycle of a plant. A monitoring system needs to be implemented to optimize nutrient

supply at each stage of this cycle (Foster, this volume; Goh et al., this volume).

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:26 PM222


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Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:27 PM228


Annex 1. List of common fertilizers used for oil palm.

emaN alumroF tnetnoC stnemmoC

negortiN

etartinmuinommA HN4

ON3

N%43-33 gniyfidica-noN

edirolhcmuinommA HN4

lC N%82 gniyfidicA

etaflusmuinommA HN(4)

2OS

4S%42,N%12 gniyfidicA

aerU HN(OC2)

2N%64 gniyfidicA

surohpsohP

-repuselgniS

)PSS(etahpsohp

H(aC2

OP4)

2

.H

2+O

OSaC4

.H2

2O

P%12-612O

5-81,

S%21,OaC%82

gniyfidica-non,elbuloS

-repuselpirT

)PST(etahpsohp

H(aC2

OP4)

.H2

2O P%05-14

2O

5,

S%4.1,OaC%02-21

ylthgils,elbuloS

gniyfidica

muinommaonoM

)PAM(etahpsohp

HN4H

2OP

4P%15

2O

5N%11, ylthgils,elbuloS

gniyfidica

muinommaiD

)PAD(etahpsohp

HN(4)

2OPH

4P%35-64

2O

5,

N%12-81

ylthgils,elbuloS

gniyfidica

detaludicayltraP

etahpsohpkcor

aC3

OP(4)

2P%62-32

2O

5

OaC%05-64

elbulos-retaw%03>

,etahpsohpkcoR

deredwopylenif

aC3

OP(4)

2P%93-52

2O

5,

OaC%05-64

gnitcawolsyreV

muissatoP

edirolhcmuissatoP lCK K%062O hsatopfoetairuM

)POM(

etaflusmuissatoP K2

OS4

K%052

S%81,O

muisengaM

etireseiK OSgM4

.H

20 S%22,OgM%72 gnitca-kciuq,elbuloS

etimoloD OCgM3

OCaC+3

,OaC%74-03

OgM%81-2

fotnetnoc,gnitca-wolS

gniyravgMdnaaC

muiclaC

muspyG OSaC4

.H2

2O S%81,OaC%23 -wols,elbulosylthgilS

gnitca

emiL OCaC3

OaC%65 gnitca-wolS

noroB

etarobrezilitreF aN2B

4O

2

.H5

2O B%41 gnitca-kciuq,elbuloS

xaroB aN2B

4O

2

.H01

2O B%11 gnitca-kciuq,elbuloS

reppoC

etaflusreppoC OSuC4

.H

2O uC%53 gnitca-kciuq,elbuloS

OSuC4

.H5

2O uC%52

ruhpluS

SlatnemelE S S%79 gniyfidica,gnitca-wolS

cniZ

etafluscniZ OSnZ4

.H

2O 63 gnitca-kciuq,elbuloS

etalehccniZ aN2

ATDE-nZ 41 gnitca-kciuQ

Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:27 PM229


Annex 2

. N

utr

ient convers

ions, critical soil a

nd leaf concentr

ations, nutr

ient upta

ke in o

il p

alm

, and r

ecom

mended f

ert

iliz

er

pla

cem

ent

meth

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ne

go

rti

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ur

oh

ps

oh

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uis

sat

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mui

se

ng

aM

mui

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plu

Se

nir

olh

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or

oB

re

pp

oC

es

en

ag

na

Mn

orI

cni

Z

tn

em

elE

NP

Kg

Ma

CS

lC

Bu

Cn

Me

Fn

Z

edi

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-P

2O

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2O

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aC

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63

4.

03

8.

03

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Goh & Hardter 3/6/03, 12:27 PM230

Documents

10 Goh and Härdter