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PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY
Definitions:Definitions:Taken from the classical Greek words:
psyche = soul or mind
logos = study of(Hernandez, et. Al.,2004).
The science of behavior and mental processes.
As a science, it is a focus of research through
which investigators collect, quantify, analyze,
and interpret data describing animal and
human behavior, thus shedding light on the
causes and dynamics of behavior patterns.
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PsychologyPsychology
is an academic and applied field involvingthe study of behavior and its relationship
to the mind and brain.
Psychology also refers to the applicationof such knowledge to various spheres of
human activity, including problems of
individuals' daily lives and the treatment ofmental illness.
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Psychology,Psychology,
is largely concerned with humans,although the behavior and mental
processes of animals is also be part of
psychological research, either as asubject in its own right (e.g. animal
cognition and ethnology), or as a
way of gaining an insight into humanpsychologyby means of comparison
(including comparative psychology).
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THEHISTORICAL BACKGROUNDTHEHISTORICAL BACKGROUND
OFPSYCHOLOGYOF
PSYCHOLOGY
A. Traditionally, psychology is said tohave began with mans earliestspeculations regarding humannature.
B. The Greek Influence
Democritus (c. 460-370 BC)
believed that the human mind iscomposed of atoms which couldcirculate freely and which enabledit to penetrate the whole body.
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According to Plato (c427-347BC) the mind orsoul is distinct in its own right and is God-given. It enters the body with its reflected
perfection of God and rules the body whichit inhabits as knower, thinker anddeterminer of action.
Aristotle (c 384-322 BC), a student of Plato,
distinguished three functions of the soul-thevegetative,concerned with basicmaintenance of life; theappetitive,concerned with motives anddesires; and the rational, the governingfunction located in the heart. The brainmerely performs minor mechanicalprocesses as a gland.
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Galen (AD c 130-200) contributed histheory of the dependence of humantemperament on physiologicalfactors. Differences in behavior isattributable to the humors or vitaljuices of the body: blood, phlegm,
black bile and yellow bile. Hence, hecorrespondingly namedtemperaments sanguine (cheerful),phlegmatic (sluggish), melancholic
(sad) and choleric (irascible).For about fifteen centuries the
philosophy and science of the Greeksheld sway and dominated
psychological thinking.
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C.The Medieval PeriodC.The Medieval Period
St. Agustine (354-430) He introducedand used the method of introspection
(the description of ones own
conscious processes) and manifestedhis interest in distinguishing several
faculties of the soul as will,
memory,imagination and others,producing the first definite
development of what later was called
faculty psychology.
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About nine centuries later, St. Thomas
Aquinas (1226-1274) combined
aristotelian notions (mind is the form
of living matter) to the theologically
imperative idea of immortality.
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D. PreD. Pre-- Modern PeriodModern Period
Rene Decartes (1596-1650) formulated atheory of mind-body interaction: JohnLocke (1632-1704) in his An EssayConcerning Human Understandingintroduced the ideas (which in theirown sum constitute mind) become theonly reality. David Hume (1711-1776)like Berkeley, wrestled with theproblem between impression andideas, between images and directsensations.
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PsychologyPsychologydiffers from sociology, anthropology,
economics, andpolitical science, inpart, because it involves studying thebehavior of individuals (alone or ingroups) rather than the behavior of the
groups or aggregates themselves.
Psychology differs frombiology andneuroscience in that it is primarily
concerned with the overall behavior ofa system, and not simply the pattern ofneural responses produced by thesystem.
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Although psychological questions
were asked in antiquity (see Aristotle'sDe Memoria et Reminiscentia or"OnMemory and Recollection"),psychology emerged as a separate
discipline only recently. The firstperson to call himself a"psychologist", Wilhelm Wundt, aGerman opened the first psychological
laboratory in 1879 at Leipzig,Germany, which earned for Wundt thetitle ofFather ofScientificPsychology.
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F. Psychology in AmericaF. Psychology in America
William James, an American philosopher whoplayed an active part in bringing the newexperimental psychology to the U.S.
Granville Stanley Hall with James and in 1881,
established the first psychological researchlaboratory at Johns Hopskins University, aleading center of psychological research. Hepioneered in child study and wrote on child,adolescent and senescent psychology. Hefounded the first psychological journal TheAmerican Journal of Psychology in 1887. He wasthe first president of the American PsychologicalAssociation in 1892.
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G.Psychology in FranceG.Psychology in France
Phillippe Pinel and others began as early inthe nineteenth century the enlightenedpsychological interpretation of insanity.
Anton Mesmer in 1779 developed hypnosis
or animal magnetism. Seguin (1848) made use of testing in the
teaching of mentally-retarded children.
Alfred Binet (1875-1911), the Father ofIntelligence Tests, started the firstintelligence tests.
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H. Psychology in EnglandH. Psychology in England
Charles Darwin published Origin ofthe Species in 1859.
Sir Francis Galton studied individualdifferences and evolved hisingenious technique of measurement.Other leaders include Karl Pearson(1857-1936) and Spearman (1863-1945), giving England a leadershipin the development ofStatisticalmethods.
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Other important early contributorsOther important early contributors
to the field include Hermann Ebbinghaus (apioneer in studies on memory), the RussianIvan Pavlov (who discovered the learningprocess ofclassical conditioning), and the
AustrianS
igmund Freud. Freud's influencehas been enormous, though more as culturalicon than a force in (scientific) psychology.Freud's basic theories postulated the
existence in humans of various unconsciousand instinctive "drives", and that the "self"existed as a perpetual battle between thedesires and demands of the internal id, ego,
and superego
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The mid-20th century saw a rejection
of Freud's theories among manypsychologists as being too unscientific,
as well as a reaction against Edward
Titchener's abstract approach to themind. This led to the formulation of
behaviorismby John B. Watson, which
was popularized by B.F.S
kinner.
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BehaviorismproposedBehaviorismproposed
epistemologically limiting psychologicalstudy to overt behavior, since that could be
quantified and easily measured. Scientific
knowledge of the "mind" was considered
too metaphysical, hence impossible to
achieve. The final decades of the 20th
century have seen the rise of a new
interdisciplinary approach to studyinghuman psychology, known collectively as
cognitive science.
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Cognitive scienceCognitive science
again considers the "mind" as a subject for
investigation, using the tools ofevolutionary
psychology, linguistics, computer science,philosophy, and neurobiology. This new form of
investigation has proposed that a wide
understanding of the human mind is possible, and
that such an understanding may be applied to
other research domains, such as artificial
intelligence.
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GOALSOF PSYCHOLOGYGOALSOF PSYCHOLOGY
1. To describe behavior2. To identify the factors that help predict
behavior
3. To understand or explain behavior byidentifying causes that bring about certain
effects
4. To control or change behavior
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THE BEGINNINGOFSCIENTIFICTHE BEGINNINGOFSCIENTIFIC
PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY Various schools of thought have argued for a
particular model to be used as a guiding theory by
which all, or the majority, of human behavior can
be explained. The popularity of these has waxed
and waned over time. Some psychologists maythink of themselves as adherents to a particular
school of thought and reject the others, although
most consider each as an approach to
understanding the mind, and not necessarily asmutually exclusive theories.
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Schools and Movements inSchools and Movements in
PsychologyPsychology
1. STRUCTURALISM/Structural School ofPsychology - the leader of this group was Edward
Bradford Titchener (1867-1927).
-Psychology was the study of conscious experience which
he broke down into its three basic elements:a.)physical
sensations, affections or feelings and images.
-The role of psychology was to reduce conscious processes
to their simplest and most basic components anddetermine how they are combined & their laws of
combination.
-used introspection as their method of investigation.
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2. FUNCTIONALISM led by William
James.
- concerned with the utility of how consciousprocesses function in the adjustment of man to
his environment.
- It relied on experimentation for its method of
investigation.
- James believed psychology should focus on
true to life everyday experience.
..
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3. GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY
-Founded by Max Werheimer in1912,together with his associates: WolfgangKohler and Kurt Koffka.
- They maintained that an understanding
of behavior depended on the perceptionof the configuration (gestalt),organization, or pattern of experience.They believed that the whole is greater
than the sum of its parts.- In understanding behavior we need to
look at the totality of the organizedexperience.
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4. BEHAVIORISM (John B. Watson)
- He stressed the empirical approach, theuse of objective facts gathered through
actual observation of what an organism
does, not what he thinks.
- According to Watson, psychology should
study observable and measurable
behavior, not consciousness.
- Behaviorism stressed the
- importance of learning and the
environment.
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5. PSYCHOANALYTIC
SCHOOL OF
PSYCHOLOGY
- Founded by Sigmund Freud,
based on the theory of
unconscious motivation andits effects on human behavior.
- According to Freuds theory,
much of our behavior isgoverned by hidden motives
and unconscious desires.
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The FIVE mentioned schools ofpsychology were most influential in
shaping the course of contemporary
psychology which is eclectic in itsapproach.
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NEWSCHOOLSOF PSYCHOLOGYNEWSCHOOLSOF PSYCHOLOGY
1. COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGYisa combination ofS-Rand Gestalt
approaches. It is a study of how
perception. Jean Piaget was one of
the leading cognitive psychologists.
The study of how we process, store,
retrieve, and use information and
how cognitive processes influence
what we attend to, perceive, learn,
remember, believe feel and do.
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2. EXISTENTIAL PSYCHOLOGYis
concerned with the individuals discoveryof self-identity so that he can commit
himself, and care and love. It emphasizes
that existence takes precedence over
essence, that freedom of choice isparamount over determination.
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3. HUMANISTIC PSYCHOLOGYis a
protest movement against thebehavioristic emphasis on the study of
only overt behavior.
-They would like psychology to studyman as a distinct human being,
unique individual case instead of the
average performance of groups. It
should focus on mans subjectiveinternal experiences, not on overt
behavior.
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THENATUREOF MODERNTHENATUREOF MODERN
PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY
1. Objectivity freedom from bias and
prejudice. The investigator does not allowhis/her wishes or desires to influence hisfindings or his/her interpretation of hisfindings.
2. Explicit procedures - An investigatordescribes in details, the procedure hefollowed in his investigation so that other
investigator who wish to verify his findingswill find it easy to duplicate his study ormake a similar one.
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3. Report contains a description of the methods
used by the investigator, the results of the
investigation, the interpretation of the results,and the conclusions.
4. Experimental method- this is the most
scientific of all. It employs the comparison oftwo groups of subjects. To rule out the
influence of variables that might significantly
influence the outcome of the experiment, he
equates these two groups
in these factors.
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- The variable whose outcome the
experimenter is interested in investigating is
called the independent variable, while its
outcome is called the dependent variable, so
called because it depends on the
independent variable. To isolate the effectsof the factor under investigation it is applied
on one of the group (the experimental
group) but not on the other (control group)
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Experimental psychology Controlled
experiments. The majority ofpsychological research is conducted in
the laboratory under controlled
conditions. This method of research relies
completely on the scientific method todetermine the basis of behavor.
Where an area of interest is considered toneed specific training and specialist
knowledge (especially in applied areas),
psychological associations will typically set
up a governing body to manage training
requirements.
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5. Naturalistic Observation Observes behavior
in its natural setting, attempt to avoidinfluencing or controlling it
Advantage: Good way to collect normative
data.Disadvantage: Must wait for the behavior to
occur naturally
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6. Case histories are scientifically written
biographies done sometimes for the purpose of
(a) testing some theories, or (b)getting thebackground of an individual as a basis for making
recommendations about him.
7. Survey This method is used when the
investigator wants to investigate a larger groupwithin a shorter time through the use of
questionnaire or interview, or both.
8. Clinical method studies human behavior by
reconstructing the life history of the individual on
the basis of all the information gathered.
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FIELDSOFCONTEMPORARYFIELDSOFCONTEMPORARY
PSYCHOLOGYPSYCHOLOGY
1. Experimental psychology-borders on pure
research. It refers to the scientific methodology
by which behavioral processes are studied.
2. Comparative psychology investigates the
behavioral differences among different
organisms and species to discover similarities
and differences between animals and humans torelate animal behavior with human behavior.
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3. Physiological psychology studies human
being from a neurobiological viewpoint.
4. Social psychology is concerned with social
influences on the behavior of the individual.
5. Developmental psychology focuses on the
various stages of development from theprenatal period to old age.
6. Educational psychology deals with
psychological problems in the field ofeducation.
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7. Psychology of personality
investigates the processes by
which a person becomes uniqueindividual.
8. Psychometrics is highly
specialized field of psychology. Itis concerned with the procedures
for measuring and evaluating the
many psychological variables
which underlie and affect
behavior.
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NEW AREASOFPSYCHOLOGYNEW AREASOFPSYCHOLOGY
1. Clinical psychology involves the
application of clinical methods
(diagnosis and treatment) to
persons with emotional or mentalproblems.
2. Counseling psychology concerned
with normal problems ofeveryday living and helps
individuals in their normal
development.
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3. School psychology deals with similar probles
in school situation. It is concerned with
enhancing effectiveness of educationalinstitutions.
4. Industrial psychology applies the methods
and findings of psychology in the solution ofproblems related to the selecting and training
personnel.
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5. Neuropsychology is the branch of
psychology that aims to understand
how the structure and function of the
brain relate to specific psychological
processes.
6. Engineering psychology is highlyspecialized area which is concerned
with the development of man-machine
systems, that is, fitting man andmachine together such that both can
function most efficiently.
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7. Consumer psychology is interested in
the study of psychological factors that
determine an individuals behavior as a
consumer.
8. Legal psychology involves the detection
of guilt, the determination of thereliability of testimony in the court
room.
9. Parapsychology investigates allpsychological phenomenon that
apparently cannot be explained in terms
of natural scientific laws or principles.
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7.Forensic psychology refers to any
application of psychological principles,methods or understanding to legal
questions or issues. In addition to the
applied practices, it also includesacademic or empirical research on
topics involving law and human
behavior.
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History & RootsHistory & Roots
Edward Titchener:
Chief proponent of structuralism. Used introspection to
tap human consciousness. Had troubles with
verification of data and replicability.
William James:
Founder ofAmerican Functionalism. Viewed behavior
in terms of its adaptive value for the organism. Focusedon the flow of consciousness rather than its structure.
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John Watson - Founder ofBehaviorism. Confined psychology to
the study of observable stimuli &behavior.
B. F. Skinner -Extended behaviorism,
examined the effects of reinforcementon behavior.
Sigmund Freud -Founded
psychoanalysis, focused onunconscious thoughts in determiningbehavior.
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Humanistic perspective
Emphasizes an individuals phenomenal worldand inherent capacity for making rational
choices and developing to maximum potential
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Research methodsResearch methods
Naturalistic Observation
Laboratory Observation
Case Studies
Surveys
Experiment
Experiments of Nature
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Laboratory ObservationLaboratory Observation
Observe behavior in a laboratory whereextraneous variables can be controlled and
specialized equipment can be used
Advantage: Better control of outsidefactors. More precise equipment
can be used
Disadvantage: Surroundings may affect results
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Case StudiesCase Studies
Observe one or a very few subjects in greatdepth, usually over a long period of
time
Advantage: The only method appropriate
for very unusual cases
Disadvantage: Problems with generalizing
the results
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SurveysSurveys
Collect data from groups of people usingquestionnaires or interviews. Data
is useless unless sample is
representative.
Advantage: Can collect information such as
attitudes and beliefs
Disadvantage: Subjects may lie or mislead
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ExperimentsExperiments
Involve random assignment and controlled
manipulation
Causal claims possible Independent variables manipulated by E
Dependent variables supposedly affected by
independent variables
Experimental groups get the different values of the
independent variables. Control groups do not.
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Experiments ofNatureExperiments ofNature
Collect data on the presence ofY insituations where X may be going to happen.
Wait forX to happen, and see ifY isaffected.
Advantages: Not artificial. Allows generalcause-effect judgments
Disadvantage: Specific causes can't bedetermined
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Developmental MethodsDevelopmental Methods
Longitudinal Studies:
Follow the same group across time to
determine age-related changes in thought
and behavior
Cross-sectional Studies:
Assess groups of differing ages, usually at
the same time
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Ethical IssuesEthical Issues
Informed Consent:
Human subjects must be told of all.
foreseeable risks.Animals can't give informed consent, and must beprotected from unnecessary suffering
Deception:
Some psychologists oppose all deception.Others tolerate deception as long as it poses noforeseeable risks and debriefing occurs.
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Ethical IssuesEthical Issues
Risk:
In psychology, the standards for acceptable risk
must be very stringent, because potential benefitsfor the participating subject are very low
Children:
Young children may have difficulty giving
informed consent, due to a desire to obey andplease adults, plus a lack of understanding ofpossible risks