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Chapter 3: CultureChapter 3: Culture

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What is culture?What is culture?

CultureCulture refers to the way of life of a refers to the way of life of a people.people. Specifically, culture consists of the Specifically, culture consists of the

material and nonmaterial things that material and nonmaterial things that people create and share with each other.people create and share with each other.

Material cultureMaterial culture The tangible products humans create, like The tangible products humans create, like

houses, roads, clothes, technologies, etc.houses, roads, clothes, technologies, etc. Nonmaterial cultureNonmaterial culture

The intangible products that humans create, The intangible products that humans create, like beliefs, values, ideas and norms. like beliefs, values, ideas and norms.

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Importance of cultureImportance of culture 1. 1. adaptation to the environmentadaptation to the environment

Our cultures reflect our efforts to adapt to Our cultures reflect our efforts to adapt to the environment.the environment.

2. 2. blueprint for livingblueprint for living Culture provides a ready-made blueprint for Culture provides a ready-made blueprint for

living.living. 3. 3. symbiotic relationshipsymbiotic relationship

We create culture, and it creates us.We create culture, and it creates us. 4. 4. it is learnedit is learned

Culture is learned, not biologically Culture is learned, not biologically transmitted.transmitted.

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Significance of learned Significance of learned cultureculture

Most species rely on biologically transmitted Most species rely on biologically transmitted instincts to survive. Humans have few complex instincts to survive. Humans have few complex instincts and rely instead on learned information. instincts and rely instead on learned information.

Is there such a thing as “human nature” – with Is there such a thing as “human nature” – with fixed characteristics?fixed characteristics? While there While there areare biological influences and there are a biological influences and there are a

few universal human patterns, humans are whatever few universal human patterns, humans are whatever they they create create themselves to be. They are a remarkably themselves to be. They are a remarkably flexible, diverse, and adaptive species. flexible, diverse, and adaptive species.

There are roughly 7000 cultures across the globe There are roughly 7000 cultures across the globe and there is great diversity among them. and there is great diversity among them. However, this number is in decline due to However, this number is in decline due to globalization forces.globalization forces.

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Components of cultureComponents of culture

A. Nonmaterial componentsA. Nonmaterial components 1. symbols1. symbols 2. language2. language 3. values and beliefs3. values and beliefs 4. norms4. norms 5. statuses and roles5. statuses and roles

B. Material componentsB. Material components The importance of technologyThe importance of technology

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1. symbols1. symbols A symbol is anything that carries a particular A symbol is anything that carries a particular

meaning recognized by members of a culture.meaning recognized by members of a culture. Symbols are the basis of culture and provide the Symbols are the basis of culture and provide the

foundation of everyday reality.foundation of everyday reality. Sharing common symbols builds social integration.Sharing common symbols builds social integration.

Culture shock: the inability to read the meanings Culture shock: the inability to read the meanings of symbols due to being in a foreign culture.of symbols due to being in a foreign culture. The psychological sensation of culture shock is The psychological sensation of culture shock is

anxiety or fear. anxiety or fear. Symbolic meanings differ across societies (or Symbolic meanings differ across societies (or

even across subcultures in the U.S.)even across subcultures in the U.S.) A dog is a pet in the U.S., but could be dinner in other A dog is a pet in the U.S., but could be dinner in other

cultures.cultures. Symbols and meanings change over time. Symbols and meanings change over time.

How do marketers influence the meaning of a pair of How do marketers influence the meaning of a pair of jeans?jeans?

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2. language2. language LanguageLanguage: a system of symbols with standard : a system of symbols with standard

meanings that allows members of a culture to meanings that allows members of a culture to communicate.communicate.

Language allows cultural transmission.Language allows cultural transmission. Cultural transmissionCultural transmission: the process by which : the process by which

culture is passed on across generations.culture is passed on across generations. Is language uniquely human? Is language uniquely human?

Some animals have a rudimentary ability to use Some animals have a rudimentary ability to use symbols, but their skills are limited.symbols, but their skills are limited.

Does language shape subjective reality?Does language shape subjective reality? The Sapir-Whorf hypothesisThe Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: we know the world : we know the world

essentially in terms of our language and what it essentially in terms of our language and what it points out about the world.points out about the world.

Research suggests that language helps Research suggests that language helps shape shape subjective reality, but it does not determine it.subjective reality, but it does not determine it.

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3. Values and beliefs3. Values and beliefs ValuesValues: standards by which we define what is : standards by which we define what is

good or bad, or right or wrong.good or bad, or right or wrong. Values serve as guidelines for social behavior and Values serve as guidelines for social behavior and

differ across cultures.differ across cultures. BeliefsBeliefs are specific statements that people hold are specific statements that people hold

to be true.to be true. When members of a culture share common When members of a culture share common

values and beliefs, social integration is promoted.values and beliefs, social integration is promoted. Example: what does Rambo (the Hollywood movie) say Example: what does Rambo (the Hollywood movie) say

about what Americans value and believe?about what Americans value and believe? While small, homogeneous cultures have a lot of While small, homogeneous cultures have a lot of

value consensus, large heterogeneous cultures value consensus, large heterogeneous cultures have a lot of value diversity and value conflicts.have a lot of value diversity and value conflicts.

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American core valuesAmerican core values

Individualism: a sense of personal Individualism: a sense of personal autonomy autonomy Myth of the Myth of the rugged individualrugged individual The The masculine mystiquemasculine mystique (male gender (male gender

identity reflects high levels of individualism) identity reflects high levels of individualism) Affective individualismAffective individualism: passionate bonding : passionate bonding

of two individuals at the expense of the of two individuals at the expense of the influence of extended kinfolk and the larger influence of extended kinfolk and the larger community in which they are embedded. community in which they are embedded.

Romantic love emphasizes affective Romantic love emphasizes affective individualism.individualism.

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American core valuesAmerican core values

Liberty and freedom Liberty and freedom Personal freedom (individualism) Personal freedom (individualism) Collective freedom (sovereignty) Collective freedom (sovereignty) Free market capitalism Free market capitalism

Equality of opportunity, not outcome Equality of opportunity, not outcome Competition Competition Meritocracy Meritocracy Hard work and achievement Hard work and achievement Materialism or material successMaterialism or material success

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American core valuesAmerican core values

Capitalism Capitalism Competition Competition Private profit or self-interest Private profit or self-interest Free market Free market

Rationality, efficiency, practicality, Rationality, efficiency, practicality, pragmatism pragmatism

Faith in science, technology, and Faith in science, technology, and progress progress

EducationEducation

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American core valuesAmerican core values

Democracy Democracy Tolerance and compromise Tolerance and compromise Pluralism and humanitarianism Pluralism and humanitarianism Rule of law (no person, King, or Rule of law (no person, King, or

President is above the law) President is above the law) Due process of law (fair procedures in Due process of law (fair procedures in

court in which the government court in which the government respects a person’s legal rights)respects a person’s legal rights) Example: habeas corpus, or the Example: habeas corpus, or the

requirement that the prosecution must requirement that the prosecution must present evidence of guilt.present evidence of guilt.

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American core valuesAmerican core values

Christian conservative moralism Christian conservative moralism Promotion of conformity to the Bible as the Promotion of conformity to the Bible as the

last word last word Law and order emphasis, strict punishment Law and order emphasis, strict punishment Myth of polarity: good v. evil worldview Myth of polarity: good v. evil worldview Promotion of hierarchical social order Promotion of hierarchical social order

God (above all else) God (above all else) King/President/Country King/President/Country Father Father Mother Mother Child Child OtherOther

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American core valuesAmerican core values Group superiority values (emphasis on Group superiority values (emphasis on

hierarchical social order such that one hierarchical social order such that one category is defined as “superior” to category is defined as “superior” to another category) another category) Racism (both racial and ethnic) Racism (both racial and ethnic) Sexism Sexism Classism Classism HomophobiaHomophobia Regionalism (geographic regions) Regionalism (geographic regions) Religious bigotry Religious bigotry Ageism (its form has shifted to anti-elderly) Ageism (its form has shifted to anti-elderly) Species’ism (humans above other life forms) Species’ism (humans above other life forms)

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American core valuesAmerican core values

Militarism Militarism Imperialism and manifest destiny Imperialism and manifest destiny Nationalism/patriotism Nationalism/patriotism

Conservative version has emphasis on Conservative version has emphasis on conformity and blind faith in leadership conformity and blind faith in leadership (who are our shepherds) (who are our shepherds)

Liberal version emphasizes patriotism Liberal version emphasizes patriotism to principles, not necessarily the to principles, not necessarily the leaders themselves (who are fallible)leaders themselves (who are fallible)

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American core valuesAmerican core values The shift from early industrial capitalist The shift from early industrial capitalist

values to 20th century post-industrial values to 20th century post-industrial capitalist values brought a rising capitalist values brought a rising emphasis on emphasis on ConsumerismConsumerism and credit purchases and credit purchases HedonismHedonism and instant gratification and instant gratification Status consciousnessStatus consciousness and keep up with and keep up with

the Jones’ the Jones’ Youth orientationYouth orientation – to stay young “at all – to stay young “at all

costs”costs”

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American Values vs. American Values vs. Traditional CulturesTraditional Cultures

U.S. ValuesU.S. Values Control over environmentControl over environment Change orientedChange oriented Time and its control Time and its control

prioritizedprioritized EqualityEquality IndividualismIndividualism Self helpSelf help CompetitionCompetition Future orientationFuture orientation Action orientationAction orientation InformalityInformality Directness, opennessDirectness, openness PragmatismPragmatism MaterialismMaterialism

Traditional culturesTraditional cultures FateFate Tradition orientedTradition oriented Human interaction Human interaction

prioritizedprioritized Hierarchy/rank/statusHierarchy/rank/status Group’s welfare Group’s welfare

(collectivism)(collectivism) Birthright inheritanceBirthright inheritance CooperationCooperation Past orientationPast orientation Being orientationBeing orientation FormalityFormality Indirectness, ritual, “face”Indirectness, ritual, “face” Idealism - philosophically Idealism - philosophically

orientedoriented SpiritualismSpiritualism

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Values in ActionValues in Action Some core values are incompatible with Some core values are incompatible with

others. others. This partly reflects our This partly reflects our diversitydiversity, as well as the , as well as the

rapid rate of changerapid rate of change in American values. in American values. Example: equality and racism are contradictory Example: equality and racism are contradictory

or incompatible values. Whereas most white or incompatible values. Whereas most white Americans were racist 100 years ago, today most Americans were racist 100 years ago, today most are not racist and lean toward racial equality.are not racist and lean toward racial equality.

American games and sports socialize American games and sports socialize members into specific values: competition, members into specific values: competition, winning, fair play, meritocracy, hard work, winning, fair play, meritocracy, hard work, achievement, etc.achievement, etc.

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4. Norms4. Norms NormsNorms: prescriptions for behavior under specific : prescriptions for behavior under specific

social situations. Norms are behavioral social situations. Norms are behavioral guidelines and typically reflect our core values.guidelines and typically reflect our core values.

Norms have functions. One manifest function is Norms have functions. One manifest function is social controlsocial control – to promote orderly social – to promote orderly social interaction.interaction. Norms, like values, are internalized into our Norms, like values, are internalized into our

personalities. We learn to “police” ourselves to personalities. We learn to “police” ourselves to conform with societal expectations. conform with societal expectations. GuiltGuilt and and pride pride are influenced by norms.are influenced by norms.

Social control is also maintained by Social control is also maintained by sanctionssanctions.. Sanctions may be positive (reward) or negative Sanctions may be positive (reward) or negative

(punishment)(punishment) Sanctions may be formal (backed by institutional authority Sanctions may be formal (backed by institutional authority

and laws) or informal (backed by everyday social interaction and laws) or informal (backed by everyday social interaction cues)cues)

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Types of NormsTypes of Norms FolkwaysFolkways

Everyday guidelines that have little moral significance, Everyday guidelines that have little moral significance, like the expectation that one be reasonably well-groomed.like the expectation that one be reasonably well-groomed.

MoresMores Morally significant guidelines, like the expectation that Morally significant guidelines, like the expectation that

one will play fair in sports competition.one will play fair in sports competition. LawsLaws

Norms that are codified and backed by formal Norms that are codified and backed by formal institutional authority.institutional authority.

TaboosTaboos Powerful restrictive mores. The violation of a taboo Powerful restrictive mores. The violation of a taboo

produces intense repulsion or disgust by other members produces intense repulsion or disgust by other members of society.of society.

Examples: incest, human flesh eating, necrophilia, etc.Examples: incest, human flesh eating, necrophilia, etc.

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5. Statuses and Roles5. Statuses and Roles

Statuses are social identities, like Statuses are social identities, like teacher, student, mother, father, teacher, student, mother, father, athlete, friend, etc.athlete, friend, etc. In complex heterogeneous cultures, In complex heterogeneous cultures,

people have many different statuses.people have many different statuses. Roles are the behavioral expectations Roles are the behavioral expectations

(norms) attached to specific statuses.(norms) attached to specific statuses. Once one acquires a status, they acquire a Once one acquires a status, they acquire a

set of role expectations and are socially set of role expectations and are socially evaluated for the quality of their role evaluated for the quality of their role performances.performances.

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B. Material CultureB. Material Culture Generally, the materials we construct Generally, the materials we construct

reflect our cultural core values.reflect our cultural core values. What value(s) does a fast, big car symbolize?What value(s) does a fast, big car symbolize? Why do Americans prefer suburban homes Why do Americans prefer suburban homes

with lots of privacy?with lots of privacy? Technology: the application of cultural Technology: the application of cultural

knowledge to the task of survival and knowledge to the task of survival and living in a physical environment.living in a physical environment. The more complex the technology, the more The more complex the technology, the more

the physical environment may be re-shaped.the physical environment may be re-shaped. Western cultures emphasize technological Western cultures emphasize technological

growth and “progress” as a means to growth and “progress” as a means to happiness.happiness.

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Does technological growth make Does technological growth make us happy?us happy?

While we may live longer, we’re not necessarily While we may live longer, we’re not necessarily happier. happier.

Sociology of happiness research reveals numerous Sociology of happiness research reveals numerous factors associated with happinessfactors associated with happiness Personal autonomy and feeling in control of one’s lifePersonal autonomy and feeling in control of one’s life High self esteemHigh self esteem Loving relationships (esp. the quality of family and Loving relationships (esp. the quality of family and

friends)friends) Feeling socially productive or helpful to othersFeeling socially productive or helpful to others Relaxed leisure timeRelaxed leisure time Feeling healthyFeeling healthy Wealth and level of technology are only moderately Wealth and level of technology are only moderately

linked – to the extent that they help one get the goals linked – to the extent that they help one get the goals listed above.listed above.

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Terms and issuesTerms and issues High culture (the culture of elites) versus High culture (the culture of elites) versus

popular culture (the culture of the masses)popular culture (the culture of the masses) Differences between high and pop culture reveal Differences between high and pop culture reveal

social class tensions. social class tensions. Ideal culture (societal principles) versus real Ideal culture (societal principles) versus real

culture (societal practices)culture (societal practices) The greater the discrepancy between the ideal The greater the discrepancy between the ideal

and the real culture, the greater the perceived and the real culture, the greater the perceived hypocrisy.hypocrisy.

Subcultures (generally aligned with Subcultures (generally aligned with mainstream core values) versus mainstream core values) versus countercultures (generally against countercultures (generally against mainstream core values)mainstream core values)

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Analysis of a 1960s Analysis of a 1960s counterculture: hippiescounterculture: hippies

Material cultureMaterial culture: hippies reject materialism, so : hippies reject materialism, so they like to live with simple technologies and a they like to live with simple technologies and a simple material culture. Dress is very colorful simple material culture. Dress is very colorful and free. They often prefer tribal living and free. They often prefer tribal living arrangements and share their material arrangements and share their material possessions to a large degree.possessions to a large degree.

Nonmaterial cultureNonmaterial culture 1. 1. SymbolsSymbols: peace symbols, colorful clothing, long hair : peace symbols, colorful clothing, long hair 2. 2. LanguageLanguage: hippies developed their own terms for : hippies developed their own terms for

drugs (i.e. acid) and have their own expressions (far drugs (i.e. acid) and have their own expressions (far out, groovy, etc)out, groovy, etc)

3. 3. Beliefs and valuesBeliefs and values: equality, peace and love, live : equality, peace and love, live life to the fullest, be yourself, be happy, the worship of life to the fullest, be yourself, be happy, the worship of money and power is bad, reject institutional authority money and power is bad, reject institutional authority and be freeand be free

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Hippie valuesHippie valuesMainstream Mainstream

HippiesHippies Conform to rulesConform to rules MaterialismMaterialism MilitarismMilitarism Strict disciplineStrict discipline Repress sexualityRepress sexuality Obey authorityObey authority Social hierarchySocial hierarchy Property developmentProperty development Future orientationFuture orientation Drugs are badDrugs are bad

FreedomFreedom SpiritualismSpiritualism Peaceful passivismPeaceful passivism Go with the flow hedonismGo with the flow hedonism Celebrate sexualityCelebrate sexuality Question authorityQuestion authority Equality of all peopleEquality of all people EnvironmentalismEnvironmentalism Be in the nowBe in the now Sex, drugs, and Sex, drugs, and

rock’n’rollrock’n’roll

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4. Hippie norms4. Hippie norms DistinguishingDistinguishing FolkwaysFolkways::

long hair for men; shop at Salvation Army type long hair for men; shop at Salvation Army type stores; smoke pot; listen to cool groove musicstores; smoke pot; listen to cool groove music

Distinguishing MoresDistinguishing Mores: : importance of being authentic, peaceful, and importance of being authentic, peaceful, and

lovingloving Laws: Laws:

Hippies reject formal institutions and the legal Hippies reject formal institutions and the legal system – they reject lawssystem – they reject laws

Taboos: Taboos: it is taboo among hippies to worship money and it is taboo among hippies to worship money and

the corporate capitalist lifestyle the corporate capitalist lifestyle

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5. Hippie statuses and 5. Hippie statuses and rolesroles

Hippies reject the formal statuses given them by Hippies reject the formal statuses given them by mainstream institutions, preferring to create their mainstream institutions, preferring to create their own social identities, complete with nicknames own social identities, complete with nicknames that are symbolic of their humanitarian value that are symbolic of their humanitarian value system. system.

Hippies are egalitarian, so their leaders tend to Hippies are egalitarian, so their leaders tend to practice laissez faire leadership. The hippie practice laissez faire leadership. The hippie identity is a direct rejection of “uptight” identity is a direct rejection of “uptight” mainstream statuses. In many ways, their social mainstream statuses. In many ways, their social identities are the opposite of mainstream statuses.identities are the opposite of mainstream statuses.

The status of being a hippie implies certain role The status of being a hippie implies certain role behaviors: respect for all living things, passivism, behaviors: respect for all living things, passivism, practicing peace and love, rejecting mainstream practicing peace and love, rejecting mainstream culture, rejecting racism, being authentic, etc.culture, rejecting racism, being authentic, etc.

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Multiculturalism: a new Multiculturalism: a new paradigmparadigm

Education and other programs that Education and other programs that recognize cultural diversity as a good recognize cultural diversity as a good thing while promoting the equality of thing while promoting the equality of all cultural traditions. all cultural traditions. The prior paradigm was The prior paradigm was

EurocentrismEurocentrism (dominance of (dominance of European cultural patterns and European cultural patterns and standards as the ideal)standards as the ideal)

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The issue of cultural The issue of cultural diversitydiversity

Is the U.S. a “melting pot”? Or is it better Is the U.S. a “melting pot”? Or is it better seen as a “patchwork quilt”?seen as a “patchwork quilt”? Melting pot implies integration and blending in.Melting pot implies integration and blending in.

U.S. history reveals a pattern of U.S. history reveals a pattern of Eurocentrism and racism, in which racial Eurocentrism and racism, in which racial minority groups were not welcome in any minority groups were not welcome in any “melting pot”until after 1964. “melting pot”until after 1964. Minority groups experienced Minority groups experienced internal internal

colonizationcolonization: segregation with racism in a caste : segregation with racism in a caste system that made them second class people.system that made them second class people.

White immigrants were generally able to integrate White immigrants were generally able to integrate over a few generations; hence the melting pot over a few generations; hence the melting pot imagery. But overall, U.S. history appears to reveal imagery. But overall, U.S. history appears to reveal a “patchwork quilt” experience. a “patchwork quilt” experience.

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Cultural ChangeCultural Change All cultures change. All cultures change. Industrial cultures are in perpetual rapid Industrial cultures are in perpetual rapid

change.change. Sometimes one part of the cultural system Sometimes one part of the cultural system

may change more quickly than another, may change more quickly than another, which lags behind. which lags behind. This is called This is called cultural lag:cultural lag: inconsistencies inconsistencies

within a cultural system resulting from unequal within a cultural system resulting from unequal rates of change by the elements of the system.rates of change by the elements of the system.

Example: Technology has made it possible to Example: Technology has made it possible to keep a brain dead person technically alive, but keep a brain dead person technically alive, but our legal system has not yet caught up with the our legal system has not yet caught up with the rights of the patient.rights of the patient.

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End of Chapter 3End of Chapter 3