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Document 1

The geographers in Islam made much use of the Geography of

[Greek geographer and astronomer] Ptolemy, which became the

foundation stone of this science among Muslims. The first noted

Muslim figure in this field was Hisham al-Kalbi, who flourished

early in the . . . ninth century, who is particularly known for his

study of Arabia. He was followed, during the period, which marks

the real beginning of scientific activity among the Muslims, by

several well-known geographers, of whom the earliest is

Muhammad ibn Musa al-Kwarazmi, the famed mathematician and

astronomer . . . In geography, al-Kwarazmi helped lay the

foundation of this science among Muslims with his Shape of the

Earth, which was an improvement upon Ptolemy’s work, in its

tests as well as the maps which it provided.

―Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Science and Civilization in Islam, 1968

Directions

Read the source with your group members. You may have to read more than once for clarity. Then perform the following tasks:

1. Who created this source and for what purpose? What is the writer trying to express?2. Annotate the text using the symbols in the table.

M Main Idea! Something you find interesting or connect wit? A question you have about part of the passage

_______ Important detailsYou can also annotate the text by adding comments on the document or chart paper.

3. What sources helped Muslim geographers?

4. How did Muslim scholars improve the study of geography?

5. How does this document contribute to your understanding of the Islamic Golden Age?

Document 2

Arabic science was probably the most advanced science in the

world, greatly surpassing the West and China. In virtually every

field of endeavor―in astronomy, alchemy, mathematics,

medicine, optics, and so forth―Arabic scientists (that is Middle

Eastern individuals primarily using the Arabic language, but

including Arabs, Iranians, Christians, Jews, and others) were in the

forefront of scientific advance . . .

. . . While the Greek scientific heritage was lost to the

Western world for the centuries between the collapse of the

Roman Empire in the fifth century and the great translation

movement of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the Arabs had

virtually full access to that heritage from the eighth century

onward. This occurred because of a momentous translation effort

whereby the great works of Greece and other cultures were

translated into Arabic. While the transmission of these ancient

sciences into Arabic-Islamic civilization was selective, it was

thoroughly representative of Greek scientific and philosophic

thought as a whole. Moreover the Arabic borrowing of the Hindu

numeral system must be accorded high recognition.

―Toby E. Huff, The Rise of Early Modern Science, Islam, China, and the

West, 1993

Directions





3. In what scientific fields did the Arabs excel?

4. According to the author, what led to the development of advance Arab science?


Document 3

When the Byzantine emperors conquered Syria, the scientific

works of the Greeks were still in existence. Then God brought

Islam, and the Muslims won their remarkable victories,

conquering the Byzantines as well as all other nations. At first, the

Muslims were simple, and did not cultivate learning, but as time

went on and the Muslim dynasty flourished, the Muslims

developed an urban culture which surpassed that of any other

nation.

They began to wish to study the various branches of

philosophy, of whose existence they knew from their contact

with bishops and priests among their Christian subjects. In any

case, man has always had a penchant for intellectual speculation.

The caliph al-Mansur therefore sent an embassy to the Byzantine

emperor, asking him to send him translations of books on

mathematics. The emperor sent him Euclid’s Elements and some

works on physics.

Muslim scholars studied these books, and their desire to

obtain others was whetted. When al-Ma’mun, who had some

scientific knowledge, assumed the caliphate, he wished to do

something to further the progress of science. For that purpose,

he sent ambassadors and translators to the Byzantine empire, in

order to search our works on the Greek sciences and have them

translated into Arabic. As a result of these efforts, a great deal of

material was gathered and preserved

―Muslim historian Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah, An Introduction to

History, 1377

Directions





3. How did Muslim scholars acquire ancient knowledge of philosophy and mathematics?

4. According to this document, who is credited with beginning the move for ancient scientific knowledge?


Document 4

Abu Abdullah Mohammad Ibn Musa al-Khawarizmi . . . was a

mathematician, astronomer, and geographer. He was perhaps on

of the greatest mathematicians who ever lives, as, in fact, he was

the founder of several branches and basic concepts of

mathematics . . .His work on algebra was outstanding, as he not

only initiated the subject in a systematic form but he also

developed it to the extent of giving analytical solutions of linear

and quadratic equations, which established him as the founder of

Algebra. The very name algebra has been derived from his famous

book Al-Jabr wa-al-Muqabilah. His arithmetic synthesized Greek

and Hindu knowledge and also contained his own contributions of

fundamental importance to mathematics and science . . . In

addition to introducing the Indian system of numerals (now

generally known as Arabic numeral), developed at length several

arithmetical procedures, including operations on fractions. It was

through his work that the system of numeral was first introduced

to Arabs and later to Europe, through its translations in European

languages.

―M. M. Qurashi and S. S. H. Rizvi, History and Philosophy of Muslim

Contributions to Science and Technology, 1996

Directions





3. What contributions did al-Kawarizmi make to mathematics, and what sources helped him make those contributions?

4. How did mathematics evolve thanks to al-Kawarizmi?


Document 5

The institution of the hospital was inherited by Muslims from

both the Persians and the Byzantines. Already, before the rise of

Islam, the hospital at Jundishapur, near the present Persian city of

Ahvaz, was a major medical institution in which, in addition to the

care of patients, medical instruction was carried out on an

extensive basis . . .

Benefiting from the existence of these institutions, the

Muslims soon created their own hospitals. Although al-Walid I is

said to have created the first hospital in Islam in the . . . 7 th

century, the first real hospital with all the required facilities of

that day was established by Harun al-Rashid in Baghdad, during

the . . . 8th century, and the Christian physician Jibra’il ibn

Bukhtishu’ was called from Jundishapur to head it.

―Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study, 1976

Directions





3. How might hospitals have been an important advance for Islamic society?

4. From what source did the Muslims adopt the institution of the hospital?


Document 6

The astrolabe was a Greek Invention. Essentially it is a two-

dimensional model of the sky, an analog computer for solving the

problems of spherical astronomy. A typical astrolabe consists of a

series of brass plates nested in a brass matrix known in Arabic as

the umm (meaning “womb”). The uppermost plate, called the

‘ankabut (meaning “spider”) or in Latin the rete, is an open

network of two or three dozen pointers indicating the position of

specific stars. Under the rete are one or two more solid plates,

each engraved with a celestial coordinate system appropriate for

observations at a particular latitude: circles of equal altitude

above the horizon (equivalent to terrestrial latitude lines) and

circles of equal azimuth around the horizon (equivalent to

longitude lines). By rotating the rete about a central pin, which

represents the north celestial pole, the daily motions of the stars

on the celestial sphere can be reproduced.

astronomers, ‘Ali ibn ‘Isa. Later members of the Baghdad school,

notably al-Farghani, also wrote on the astrolabe. Al-Farghani’s

treatise was impressive for the mathematical way he applied the

instrument to problems in astrology, astronomy, and

timekeeping.

―Owen Gingerich, “Islamic Astronomy” in Scientific American, 1986

Directions





3. What are the origins of the astrolabe?

4. Why was the astrolabe a significant development?


Document 7

Paper was invented by the Chinese who prepared it from the

cocoon of the silk-worm. Some specimens of Chinese paper date

back to the second century [CE]. The first manufacture of the

paper outside China occurred in Samarqyand (757). When

Samarqand was captured by the Muslims, the manufacture of

paper spread over the whole Muslim world including the Maghrib

(Tunis, Morocco, Algiers). By the end of the 12th century there

were four hundred paper mills in Fez alone. In Spain the main

center of manufacture of paper was Shatiba, which remained a

Muslim city until 1239. Cordova was the center of the business of

paper in Spain. The Muslims developed this art. They prepared

paper not only from silk but also from cotton, rags and wood . . .

The manufacture of writing-paper in Spain is one of the most

beneficial cpntributions of Muslims to Europe. Without paper, the

scale on which popular education in Europe developed would not

have been possible. The preparation of paper from silk would

have been impossible in Europe due to the lack of silk production

there. The Muslim method of producing paper from cotton cloth

could only be useful for the Europeans. After Spain the art of

paper-making was established in Italy (1268-76). France owed its

first paper mills to Muslim Spain. From these countries the

industry spread throughout Europe.

―M. M. Qurashi and S. S. H. Rizvi, History and Philosophy of Muslim

Contributions to Science and Technology, 1996

Directions





3. How did Muslims learn the art of making paper?

4. What improvements did Muslims make to paper-making, and why were those improvements significant?


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