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Bailey, BeekeDevelopmental Theories and Instructional Strategies:A Summary Paper. SIDRU Research Report No. 5.Regina Univ. (Saskatchewan). Faculty of Education.Saskatchewan Dept. of Education, Regina.ISBN-0-7731-0111-XJun 87

131p.; Prepared for the Saskatchewan InstructionalDevelopment and Research Unit (SIDRU).Saskatchewan Instructional Development and ResearchUnit, Faculty of Education, University of Pegina,Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada S4S 0A2 ($15.00 Canadianplus $1.50 for mailing and handling. 10% discount on5 or more copies).Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055)

MFO1 Plus Postaae. PC Not Available from EDRS.Age Differences; Cognitive Development; EducationalPractices; *Educational Strategies; EmotionalDevelopment; *Individual Development; SocialDevelopment; Teaching Methods; *Theories; TheoryPractice Relationship

This paper provides cur:iculum makers with anoverview of developmental theory and relates the theory toinstructional strategies. The section on socioemotional developmentaddresses Erikson's eight ages of man, Kohlberg's stages of moraldevelopment, motivation and Maslow's hierarchy of needs, Taylor'sstage model of creative development, and Loevinger's stages of egodevelopment. Cognitive development is approached through overviews ofSkinner's operant conditioning, Gagne's behavioristic-eclectictheory, :andura's social learning theory, cognitive gestalt-fieldtheories, Lewin's cognitive field theory, Bruner's learning ascategorizing theory, Piaget's cognitive-descriptive theory ofintellectual development, the information-processing approach, andCase's comprehensive framework of intellectual growth. Personal- andsocial-oriented instructional strategies discussed include Gordon'ssynectics, Schutz's awareness training model, the classroom meetingand laboratory training (T-Group) models, the Shaftels' role-playingmodel, and cooperative models of instruction. Behavioral strategiesinclude mastery learning, individually prescribed and directinstruction, and contingency management. Information-processingstrategies include concept attainment, inductive thinking, inquirytechniques, the advance organizer and memory models, and the processof Piagetian clinical interviewing. A total of 66 references arecited. (RH)

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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educational Research and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

0 This document has been reproduced asreceived from tne person or OfgabilatiOnoriginating it.

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Points of view of opinions stated in RI:adopt,. L DEVELOPMENT & RESEARCH UNITment do not necessarily represent officialOERI position or policy.

DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

AND INSTRUCTIONAL

STRATEGIES: A Summary Paper

Researcher/Writer.

Beeke Bailey, M.Ed.

Project Advisor.

Cyril Kesten, Ph.D.

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

SIDRU Research Report No. 5June 1987

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THISMATERIAL IN MICROFICHE ONLYHAS BEEN GRANTED BY.

,1-TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

2Faculty of Education, University of Regina, Regina, Sask. S4S 0A2

DEVELOPIONTAL THEORIES AND INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES:A SUMMARY PAPER

Prepared for theSaskatchewan Instructional Development

andResearch Unit

With Funding from theSaskatchewan Department of Education

byBeeke Bailey, M.Ed.

March 1987

Published 1987 by the Saskatchewan Instructional Developmentand Research Unit with funding assistance from SaskatchewanDepartment of Education. Publication does not constituteendorsement of the findings or opinions by eitber of theseagencies.

Permission to reproduce or transmit any part of this reportmust be obtained in advance in writing from the SaskatchewanInstructional Development and Research Unit, University ofRegina, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada S4S 0A2.

ISBN: 0-7731-0111-X

SIDRU Research Report No. 5

Purpose

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1

Organization 1

PART I DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES 2

Introduction

1 SOCIAL EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT 3

1.1 ERIKSON'S EIGHT AGES OF MAN 3

1.2 MORAL DEVELOPMENT

1.3 MOTIVATION AND MASLOW'S HIERARCHYOF NEEDS

2

6

9

1.4 CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT 12

1.5 STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT 16

1.6 SUMMARY OF SOCIAL EMOTIONAL THEORIES 21

1.7 SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS 24

2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 25

2.1 BEHAVIORISTIC THEORIES 25

2.1.1 Skinner's Operant Conditioning 25

2.1.2 Gagne's Behavioristic-EclecticTheory 30

2.1.3 Bandura's Social LearningTheory 34

2.2 COGNITIVE GESTALT-FIELD THEORIES 38

2.2.1 Classical Gestalt Theory 38

2.2.2 Lewin's Cognitive Field Theory 43

2.2.3 Bruner's "Learning asCategorizing" 47

2.3 PIAGET'S COGNITIVE-DESCRIPTIVE THEORYOF INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT 52

2.4 INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH 57

2.5 TOWARD A CONSOLIDATION OF THEORIES(R. CASE) 61

2.6 SUMMARY OF COGNITIVE THEORIES 68

2.7 SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS 70

PART II INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES 71

Introduction 71

3 PERSONAL AND SOCIAL ORIENTED STRATEGIES 72

3.1 SYNECTICS 72

3.2 AWARENESS TRAINING MODEL 77

3.3 CLASSROOM MEETING MODEL AND LABORATORYTRAINING 79

3.4 ROLE PLAYING 82

3.5 CO-OPERATIVE MODELS OF INSTRUCTION 85

3.6 SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS (Personal andSocial Strategies) 87

4 BEHAVIORAL ORIENTED STRATEGIES 89

4.1 MASTERY LEARNING, INDIVIDUALLYPRESCRIBED INSTRUCTION AND DIRECTINSTRUCTION 89

4.2 CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT 93

4.3 SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS (BehavioralStrategies) 95

5 INFORMATION PROCESSING STRATEGIES 96

5.1 CONCEPT ATTAINMENT 96

5.2 INDUCTIVE THINKING 100

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5.3 INQUIRY TECHNIQUES 103

5.4 ADVANCE ORGANIZER MODEL 107

5.5 MEMORY MODEL 111

5.6 COGNITIVE GROWTH 114

5.7 SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS (InformationProcessing Strategies) 116

5.8 SUMMARY OF INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES 118

FINAL NOTE 124

iv

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^111.M11.1.

Purpose:It is generally acknowledged that four basic areasof knowledge form the foundations of curriculum. These are:1) Philosophy, 2) Society and Culture, 3) The Individual,and 4) Learning Theories. The mandate of the present paperis twofold: First, it is to provide the curriculum makerwith brief sketches of theoretical positions relating to thetwo last categories. Second, it is to relate these theore-tical foundations to instructional strategies. It is re-alized that most of the information contained in this raperwill be familiar to the reader, at the same time, it is be-lieved that a condensed summation of this information mightbe helpful.

In line with the stated purpose of a brief summary, both thechoice of material covered, and the individual treatment oftheories are not intended to provide the reader with a).1 im-portant aspects of the subject matter, but rather point tosome particularly pertinent theoretical viewpoints and theirpossible implications for the curriculum.

Organization:In Part I of this paper the reader is provided with a "quicksketch" of some theories of human development dealing withthe social-emotional and the cognitive domain. Charts atthe end of this section give an overview of relationships ofvarious theories to each other and to broad age groups.

In Part II the reader is reminded of some useful "hands oninstructional strategies. Each strategy is described andput into theoretical, practical and, where applicable, agecontext. Finally, a summary provides an overview ofrelationships between teaching strategier, and theoreticalviews.

Introduction:Professionals and laymen alike are aware of the factthat children at different age levels have ever-changing patterns of abilities, behaviors, needs,and styles of understanding their environment.Developmental theories have tried to describeand understand these changing patterns.

It is sometimes (falsely) assumed that the descrip-tion of these processes is based on neutral andobjective observation which therefore will result inthe accumulation of facts that will lead to onevalid and true interpretaton of development. It hasto be realized, though, that even direct observationis guided by some selection processes on the part ofthe observer; a selection based on previous explicitor implicit assumptions. Depending on these assump-tions some facts are chosen for recording and othersare ignored. Based on the same assumptions theselected facts are then interpreted.. Thus, based onthe same set of "facts", a child may be viewed asseething with sexual energy, as a human being filledwith the drive to fulfill his/her urge to actualizethe self, or as a bundle of conditioned responses.

This example illustrates that different theoreticalassumptions about human nature in general and devel-opmental processes in particular may have wide rang-ing implications for educators and curriculummakers. Theoretical understanding of developmentalprocesses will influence instructional design,curriculum content, as well as teaching methods.

The following selection of theoretical viewpoints isnot presented here with the assumption that readersshould choose one theory or the other as "their"theory, rather, it is believed that all viewpoints,both older and more current, might be utilized ec-lectically to facilitate "best fit" between variousgoals of education, student characteristics, teachercharacteristics, and content requirements.

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1 SOCIAL EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Definitions of the concept of "emotion" are vague andvaried. Different theories, therefore, often addressdifferent central issues which are not necessarily in-consistent with one another but rather complement eachother. While some theorists view emotional developmentas being mainly internally determined, others focuz onsocial factors when explaining psychological development.The present chapter looks at some representative theoriesdealing with life-stages, moral development, creativedevelopment and motivation.

1.1 ERIKSON'S EIGHT AGES OF MAN

Erik Erikson, building on Freud's theory of psycho-sexual personality development, developed his psy-chosocial theory of life-stages. His theory, incontrast to Freuds', which emphasized pathology,focuses on healthy personality development. Thisdevelopments again, in contrast to Freud's theory,is greatly affected by social influences.

But despite these social influences, the basic sequenceand general make-up of the psychosocial stages arepostulated as being largely innately determined. Thechild and later tne adult ideally pass through each ofthese stages at certain predictable times in the life-span.

Erikson's theory centres around the acquisition ofidentity which is seen as the self in relationship toone's society. He sees this identity as being rede-fined in each s 'age - with each successive stage beinginfluenced by earlier stages.

The movement from one stage to the next is conceptual-ized as "crisis" during which fundamental issues haveto be resolved by the child and later by the maturingindividual. It is postulated that a good measure ofsuccess at each level is a prerequisite for success ateach subsequent stage. Despite this strict requirementErikson's theory represents an optimistic view of humandevelopment since it is assumed that it is never toolate to resolve any crisis.

Each crisis is described in terms of a dimension withboth positive and negative possible results. In theprocess of healthy development the positive outcomesshould outweigh the negative ones. For example,

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though children have to learn to mistrust in certainsituations, generally a trusting attitude should beestablished.

Successful resolving of childhood "crises" is impor-tant, for if they are not accomplished satisfactorily,these issues will have to continue to be "battled out"in later life, thus hindering successful achievementof later stages of identity.

Since it is assumed that the reader is familiar withErikson's theory, Table I showing a brief summation ofthe "Eight Ages of Man" and their main characteristics,is provided to recapitulate the main points of thetheory.

According to Erikson, then, if development is proceed-ing at a healthy pace, the first three stages providethe psychological foundation for the child's identitywhen he/she enters school. During most of the elemen-tary years, stage four is being accomplished by mostchildren. During,the late elementary years most child-ren are beginning to move into stage five which gener-ally characterizes students' social emotional concernsduring the remainder of their school years. The educa-tional system, therefore, should provide both the af-fective climate and the content to facilitate success-ful movement through these developmental crises. Ithas to be kept in mind though, that due to unfavorablehome and other environmental influences, many childrenin the early years of elementary' school and even be-yond, are still struggling with some important issuesof earlier crises.

Generally, though, as children begin school they arestarting to enter the "industrious age" meaning thatthey come with a desire to explore the larger world ofknowledge and work. If the child is supplied with manyopportunities to exercise this urge to do and learn,the sense of industry, a feeling of mastery and compet-ence, which is gained in that period ideally willresult in a healthy self image. This positive selfconcept will help to reduce the stress of the subse-quent stage of "identity crisis," a term Erikson coinedto describe the period of adolescent struggle with thequestion of "Who Am nn

Despite its many useful aspects, Erikson's theory ht3not been without its critics. For example, the theoryhas been accused of being "sexist" in its discussion of(or lack of) women's development.

11

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5

Table I: Erikson's Eight Ages of Man

Approxi Name of PsychosJcialrate Age, Crisis

071 I Trust versus. infant Mistrust

Events FacilitatingDevelopment

Virtues GainedProm Each Crisis

quality of earlynurturing experience

2-3Toddler

II Autonomy versusShame and Doubt

start of the abilityto walkdegree of appropriatbalance between firm-nese and permissive-ness

- Hope -the belief thatwiztes can be

- Will -ttye determina-tion to exer-cise both, freechoice and selfrestraint

3-6Preschooler

III Initiative ver-sus Guilt

widening social cir-clefeedback from out-siders about abili-ties

- Purpose -The courage toenvisage andpursue goals

7-12Elemen-tarySchoolAge

12-18Adoles-cent

IV Industry versusInferiority

schooY -start of for-mal preparations forad.:-.1t life

increasingresponsittilities

- Competence -The free use ofskill andintelligence

V Identity versusIdentityDiffusion

The 20sYoungAdult

VI Intimacy ver-sus Isolation

rapid physicalgrowth and newsexual desirespeer relationships4hallenging of adultauthority.

teginning to find aplace in adult worldevents centeringaround love and work

- Fidelity -sustainingfreely pledgedloyalties

- Love -mutuality ofdevotion

20s to50s/60sMiddleAge

60s andbeyond

VII Generativityversus Self-Absorption

years of productivityraising of childrencontribution tosociety

- Care -concern forobligations

VIII IntegritversusDespair

increasing dependenceon othersdecreasing produc-tivityapproaching life'send

- Wisdom -detachedconcern withlife itself

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1.2 MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Anothez area of social-emotional development, whichimpacts on education, is moral development. Questionsrevolving around moral reasoning have been central tophilosophical thought since antiquity. Two moderntheorists have dealt with this issue in developmentaland educational terms. The first was Piaget, who des-cribed three levels of moral reasoning; the Preconven-tional, Conventional, and Postconventional levels. Thesecond theorist, Lawrence Eohlberg based his own theoryon Piaget's general assumptions and method but advancedit to propose his stage theory of moral reasoning.

Kohlberg defined moral reasoning in terms of judgementabout justice, viewing the child as a philosopher inthe process of constructing meaning around universalquestions of fairness. This reasoning, according toKohlberg, progresses through an invariant sequence ofsix stages of increasing cognitive complexity. Boththe stages and the sequence are seen as cultural uni-versals. This is possible, despite the fact that dif-ferent cultures foster different values, becauseKohlberg's stages are not based on specific values,but rather on the underlying modes of reasoning.These modes of reasoning in turn also are believed toapply cross-situational. In other words, children instage two, for example, will apply the "look out fornumber one" reasoning to most of their "moraldilemmas."

Movement from Stage to Stage:According to Kohlberg, the movement to higher stages isadvanced through interactions which challenge child-ren's assumptions about their sense of right and wrong.These interactions are what provokes the child to de-velop more comprehensive positions on questions ofmoral reasoning. Although these interactions may arisespontaneously, some research has shown that moraldevelopment can be advanced if the school providesopportunities for thinking about and for discussingmoral issues.

Table II provides brief summations of Kohlberg's threeprincipal levels and his six stages of moral develop-ment. The reader must be cautioned with regard to the"typical age levels" which are provided in the table.These age levels are by no means universal. In fact, amajority of people in our culture do not reach postcon-ventional moral reasoning and only a few indeed everfully reach stage six. Nevertheless, the age levels

1°

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p,lvided may serve as a guide for potential transition...15es from one to the next level.

Implications for Education:- Moral reasoning may be advanced through classroomdiscussion of *moral dilemmas* (better than through*preaching* or punishment).

- Since generally individuals cannot comprehend moralreasoning which is more than one stage above theirown, instruction has to be geared to the student'slevel of moral development.

Programs can be designed specifically to stimulatemoral growth by providing opportunities for appropri-ate social interaction.

- High level moral reasoning cannot be expected fromvery young children.

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Table Its Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Typical AgeLevel Level of Moral Development

2 - 9years

Level I: PRECONVENTIONALyORALITY

- responsiveness to cul-tural values of good/bad, right/wrong

- reasoning and actionsare directed by fearof punishment or desirefor rewards

- submission to power

Level II: CONVENTIONALMORALITY

- moral reasoning guidedby expectations of fam-ily, group or nation

- concern for conformingto and maintaining ex-isting order

9 - 15years

Stages of Moral Development

Stage Is PUNISHMENT & OBE,RIZE4SINIENTATION

Moral decisions are basedon avoiding punishment.

Stage 2: RELATIVISTIC21201214

Right is what satisfiesone's own needs, 'lookout for number one"attitude.

Stage 3: GOOD BCT/GOOD GIRLORIENT6TION

Moral decisions are basedon conforming to socialnorms.

'Existing norms are ac-cepted unthinkingly.

Stage 4: LAW= ORDERORIENTATION

Moral behavior is dictatedby one's duty' to obey lawand order.

Socirel order is seen asworth maintaining for itsown sake.

16 years& above

Level III: mums-TIONALSORALITY

- defining of personalprinciples in terms ofuniversal validity

- these personal princi-ples may be placedabove existing socialorder and/or laws

Stage 5: ,SOCIAL - CONTRACTORIENTATION

Beyond what is constitu-tionally agreed upon,right or wrong is a matterof personal values.

Stage 6: UNIVERSAL PRINCI-WaSEMMNA

What is right is definedaccording to the indivi-dual's conscience. Selfchosen universal princi-ples are seen as more im-portant than existinglaws.

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1,3 MOTIVATION AND MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS

The subject of motivation, namely of what compelledpeople to behave in a certain way, hag been studied bymany theorists. Conclusions about the origin of moti-vation fall into two major orientations; one seeing mo-tivation as resulting from extrinsic forces, the otherviewing motivation as an intrinsic process originatingwithin the individual.

The extrinsic orientation i3 typical of behavioristicpsychology. In this view motivation (e.g. to learn)is mainly achieved by externally provided rewards. Theintrinsic orientation, on the other hand, sees behavioras motivated from within the individual. JeromeBruner, for example, described four major intrinsicmotives: curiosity, desire for competence, aspira-tion to emulate a model, and a commitment to socialreciprocity. Bruner felt that although external re-wards may be helpful in initiating some behaviors,only through intrinsic motivation is the will tolearn sustained.

Educators views about motivation have importantimplications for instruction. If we believe thatextrinsic motivation is the. major force underlyingbehavior, we have to plan instruction in such a waythat appropriate external rewards are incorporatedinto our instructional design. If, on the other hand,we believe that learning is mainly based on intrinsicmotives, we need to provide a learning environmentwhich gives students enough freedom so that their owncuriosity and desire for competence is not stifled.

From observation it seems that most learning involvesboth intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. This motiva-tional interplay was recognized, among others, byAbraham Maslow in his "Hierarchy of Needs Theory."

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:Maslow's theory of motivation views individuals aspassing through different phases of needs on theirjourney toward self-actualization. Human motivations,according to Maslow, are hierarchically organized intoa sequence of five qualitatively different needs. Eachof these needs, in turn, dominates the individual's mo-tives until satisfied and then fades in importance togive way to the next need on the hierarchy. In otherwords, higher order needs are generally not attended tountil lower order needs are satisfied, at least to somereasonable level.

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According to Maslow, then, the most basic human needsare physiological; needs which, if not fulfilled willseriously threaten survival. Until these needs areadequately satisfied, they will be the main force moti-vating behavior. Then follow needs for a secure, pre-dictable enviro:unent or safety needs. Only after thesefirst two have been gratified to a reasonable extent,needs for love and belongingness will emergeas the main motivators. Once relationships whichprovide this sense of love and belongingness havebeen established, needs for self-respect and respectof others, esteem needs, will provide the main motiva-tional impetus. Finally, only after all other needsare basically satisfied, zelf7:actualizina needs willemerge. These needs propel people to strive to liveup to their full potential. Self-actualizing needs maymanifest themselves in the desire to learn for its ownsake, to seek understanding, and to create. In fact,Maslow felt that self-actualization and creativity wereinseparable.

It is important to realize that all levels of needs arepresent in everyone simultaneously in a latent state,with the sequence of needs arising from the strength ofeach need as it dominates the conscious mind in turn.It is further important to realize that an individual'scurrent stage of needs should not be used to place anyvalue judgement on *appropriate* development, sinceadvancement, especially through the lower motivationallevels, depends heavily on socio-economic and othercircumstances related to the environment the child isgrowing up in.

Implications for Education:- A continuous process of needs diagnosis is implr-

tant in order to best match students motivationalstages and learning experiences.

- One goal of instruction should be to take studentsfrom their current motivational level and move themtoward self-actualization.

- Students whose lower needs are not fulfilled willrequire more extrinsic reinforcement for learning.

- Students at the higher motivational levels can func-tion more independently and require more freedom toself-direct their learning experiences. Their pri-mary intrinsic motivators are: curiosity, a desirefor competence, and the drive for self-actualization.

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- In most classrooms learning experiences need to beprovided for students in, both, the lower and higherlevels of the motivational hierarchy.

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1.4 CREATIVE DEVELOPMENT

The fostering of creativity has for quite some timebeen one of the objectives of our schools (even if,at times, more in the form of "lip-service" than inactual fact). Recently, though, the advancement ofcreative thinking has gained renewed importance throughits status as one of the "Common Essential Learnings"in the 1986 programs Policy Proposals of the CoreCurriculum Advisory Committee.

The term creativity has been ased to describe suchthings as specific cognitive abilities, creativeproduction, as well as personality traits. As we sawin the previous section, Maslow linked creativity toself-actualization. He contrasted this type of cre-ativity to, what h- called, special-talent creativity.In his view, therefore, creativity is essentially acombination of personality characteristics. Special-talent creativity, on the other hand, is the kind ofcreativity which leads to the creation of artistic orscientific products. The third aspect of the termcreativity is related to special abilities which arebelieved to be essential for creative thinking. Herecreativity is viewed as a cluster of specific cognitiveabilities. The most prominent among theorists in thisapproach is J.P. Guilford. In his three-dimensionalmodel of the Structure-of-Intellect he isolated the"Divergent Production" abilities as those most impor-tant for creative thinking.

This chapter will briefly outline some characteristicsof creativity related to the three aspects of creativi-ty. It further will point to some more recent attemptsto see creativity as a phenomenon which undergoes de-velopmental changes during the life span.

Creative Personality Characteristics:The view of creativity as a personality disposition,has been strongly associated with the humanistic schoolof psychology, and in particular with Maslow. Duringthe course of his study of self-actualized people, hecame to realize that the concepts of self-actualizationand creativity are intimately related, if not indeedthe same thing. He compiled a list cf personalitycharacteristics which described self-actualizingpeople. These characteristics will be provided heresince they are also typical of the creative personal-ity. The reader will realize that commonly used in-structional practices foster some of these traits butoften neglect many others.

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Maslow's Characteristics of Self-actualizingIndividuals:- accurate perception of comfort with reality- acceptance of self, others, and nature- spontaneity- problem centering- need for privacy: quality of detachment- autonomy: relative independence of culture and

environment- freshness of appreciation- peak-experiences- a feeling of community and brotherhood- deep interpersonal relationships- democratic character structure- unhostile sense of humor

Many of these characteristics correspond to Kohlberg'shighest levels of moral reasoning, others are relatedto a sense of cooperativeness and fairness, and againothers relate to spontaneity and freshness of thought.These three clusters of creative personality will beaddressed in Part II by specific instructionalstrategies.

Although the first part of this section dealt with theemotional side of creativity, creative development doesnot fit "neatly" into either social-emotional or cogni-tive theory since it covers both aspects ofdevelopment.

Creativity as Cognitive Traits:J.P. Guilford's work spanning over two decades, pro-vides valuable insights into the cognitive abilitieswhich are believed to be essential for creative func-tioning. His three-dimensional model of the Structure-of-Intellect originally conceptualized the mind as acube with 5 x 4 x 6 = 120 cells. It was recentlyupdated to include 150 cells. The three dimensions ofthis model are labelled as "Operations," "Contents,"and "Products" with each of these dimensions dividedinto several subcategories. Within the operationsdimension (operations being processes the mind performswith given information) the subcategory of "DivergentProduction" proved to be the typical mode of processingin creative thought. Divergent production refers tothe ability to generate a large variety of informationfrom any given stimulus. In other words, it is theability to respond not just with "the one convergentlycorrect" answer, but to dream up many different alter-native solutions. In order to be able to produce di-vergent responses, the individual must possess fluency

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and flexibility of thought so that elaboration canoccur. Guilford's studies further pointed to "Trans-formation Abilities" (a subcategory of the "Product"dimension) as being essential for creative thinking.These abilities allow the individual to redefine ormake other kinds of changes to given information - akind of freedom from fixedness.

Creativity Throughout the Life Span:More recently research began to look at creativity as aphenomenon which undergoes transformations and metamor-phosis during the lifetime. Earlier research, whichhad focused on measurable creative products of promin-ent individuals had generally concluded that creativeproduction peaks around age 30 and then invariablydeclines. The newer, developmental approach to cre-ativity focuses on the process of creative behaviorrather than on the final product. It seeks to shedlight on the different sources of motivation forcreativity as well as on the different forms whichcreativity might take during the life span. Taylor(1974), for example, devised a five stage model ofcreativity development which is provided in Table 3.

These stages, then, point to qualitatively differentstages of creativity with differing goals and typicalactivities. These stages ought to be considered byteachers and curriculum developers to gear creativeactivities to the appropriate stage of creativedevelopment of students.

Implications for Education:- Although research has shown that creative personalitycharacteristics in students are not always appreci-ated by teachers, enough variety in instructionalapproaches should provide opportunities for suchcharacteristics to blossom.

- Creativity in the cognitive domain (e.g. divergence,flexibility, fluency, and idea generation) need to befostered, both, via curriculum content andinstructional strategies.

- Awareness of developmental stages in creative growthshould guide both content of instruction and teacherexpectations.

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Table /II: Taylor's Stage Model of Creativity

Stage Approx. Age Typical Type of Activity

I ExpressiveSpontaneity

until aboutage 6

children's spontaneousart, dance, expressivegames, impromptulanguage .

/I Technical 1

Proficiency7 - 12

-interest in refinement:e.g. detailed drawingsreplicating intricatemovements, skilldevelopment

III InventiveIngenuity

13 - 20s.......

isolated skills are com-'Dined creatively, vari-ous areas of interestare associatedinventively

IV InnovativeFlexibility

late 20s -late 30s

basic ideas are modifiedcreatively for one's onpurpose

V EmergentiveOriginality

40s andbeyond

synthesizing of al'- pre-viously acquired skillsand insights to createnew and original break-throughs

* Adapted from: Baldwin, Coli.ngelo and Dettmann (1984)

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1.5 STAGES OF EGO DEVELOPMENT

Jane Loevinger's (1976) work synthesized ideas frommany different sources and theories into her compre-hensive stage theory of "Ego-Development." Both theword "ego" and "stage" need defining in this context.

Ego:Loevinger understands ego not in the psychoanalyticsense but uses the word to describe the sum total ofcharacter structure which includes: moral development,socialization components, and cognitive development.Loevinger's 'ego" is comparable in inclusiveness toAdler's "style of life" in that it refers to such com-plex phenomena as: the individual's unique method ofapproaching problems, opinions about self and others,and attitudes toward the whole of life.

Stages:Loevinger's stages of ego development are not concep-tualized as beiag age specific, although she concedesthat there might be earliest, latest and optimal agesfor the transition from one to the next stage. Never-theless, she makes a point of not referring to agelevels in discussing individual stages.

Description: of Stages:The first two stages, the Presocial Stage t.nd the fiym-hiPtic Stagg, occur before lanauage development. Theessential task of both these stages is the differentia-tion of the self from the environment. If the childdoes not advance beyond the Presocial stage at an ap-propriate age, the child is referred to as autistic.

During the Impulsive Stage, the child is aided by hisown impulses and the emerging language develop= t(e.g., "No," "Do it by myself") to affirm a separateidentity. Children in this stage have intense emotionsand are entirely present oriented. Their cognitivestyle is one of "conceptual confusion." if a childremains inappropriately long in this stage it may belabelled as "uncontrollable." Such a child will seethe cause of his problems as related to place ratherthan to the situation or his own behavior (e.g., runaway from home, school, etc.).

During the Zelf-Protective _fitAse children make thefirst step toward controlling their impulses by learn-ing to anticipate immediate, short-term rewards or pun-ishments. At this time children are very vulnerableand guarded. They are aware of the existence of rules,but the main rule guiding their behavior is "Don't get

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caught." Blame, at this stage, is externalized toother people and circumstances. If ego develcpment hasnot proceeded beyond this stage, we see the older childor adult who is opportunistic, deceptive, and preoccu-pied with the control of others.

Entering the Conformist _adat represents a major devel-opmental step. Here the child starts to realize thathis/her own welfare is intertwined with the welfare ofthe group (family, peer group, etc.). Rules, now, areobeyed not out of fear, but simply because they repre-sent group standards. Consequently, group disapprovalis one of the most potent sanctions at this stage. TheConformist likes and trusts people in his own group,but "outsiders" are generally mistrusted and rejected.Stereotyping by sex, age, nationality, etc. is charac-teristic of this stage. Right and wrong are seen asabsolutes; the same thing is always right for allpeople. Inner life is seen in rather simplistic termsof happy and sad, good and bad, joy and sorrow, etc.Obviously, when this stage persists into adulthood wesee individuals who are given to moral cliches, who maybe faithful members of extremist groups, and who tendto be inclined toward racism.

The Self-Aware Level is the transition from the Con-formist Stage to the Conscientious Stage. Transitionhere is referred to in a theoretical sense since theSelf-aware level seems to be rather stable and probablydescribes the majority of adults in our society.

The Self-aware person is different from the Conformistin two essential ways: an increase in self-awareness,and an ability to appreciate multiple possibi24.ties.These two main differences, then, allow for t'.-e gradualreplacement of rigid group standards with self-evalu-ated ones. Although allowances for individual differ-ences are made at this stage, these are still in termsof stereotypic, demographic categories (age, sex, mari-tal status, race, etc.).

At the Conscientious Stage "adult conscience," essen-tially, is characterized by long-term self-evaluatedgoals and ideals, differentiated self-criticism, anda sense of responsibility. A few persons as young asthirteen or fourteen may reach this stage. Furthercharacteristics of this stage include: internalizationof rules, aspiration to achieve as best as one can,conceptual complexity, rich differentiated inner life,understanding of alternative points of view, deeperinterpersonal connections, and the viewing of events intheir broader social context.

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The Conscientious Stage is followed by the Individual-istic Level which represents the transition to theAutonomous Staqe. The Individualistic Level is charac-terized by a heightened sense of individuality and aconcern for emotional dependence. In other words, in-tensive interpersonal relations are now seen as partlyantagonistic to the striving for achievement andindependence.

The Autonomous Stage brings the ability to successfullycope with conflicting roles, conflicting needs, andconflicting duties. This stage is characterized by ahigh tolerance of ambiguity, and the recognition of theautonomy of others. Autonomous individuals furtherrealize emotional interdependence is inevitable. Ab-stract, broad social ideals are held and self-fulfill-ment becomes an important goal.

Rare individuals, finally, reach the Intesrated_atzga.In this stage the consolidation of a mature sense ofidentity is achieved, similar as it is described 3r3Maslow's self-actualizing person.

Table IV summarizes the main characteristics ofLoevinger's stages.

Educational Implications:Although Loevinger does not directly refer to ages, itis apparent that certain stages are more typical ofschool aged children than others. For example: kinder-garten might well be a time when the majority of child-ren move from the Self-protective to the Conformiststage. The Conformist stage then seems to be typicalfor the majority of students at least through the ele-mentary years. During the high school year more andmore students advance into the Self-aware level andinto the Conscientious Stage. Few students in the fi-nal high school years enter into the IndividualisticLevel. Only extremely rarely will we encounter stu-dents in the secondary level who have reached an evenmore advanced state of ego development.

The characteristic features typical of these stages,then, and the explicit effects of inappropriate ad-vancement through the early levels, can serve as aguide for curriculum content, affective education andeven shed light on some problems which require specialeducation considerations (e.g., Autism and somebehavioral problems).

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Table IV: Loevingees Stnes of Ego DAvelopment

StageCharact.Develop.

InterpersonalStyle

ConsciousPreoccupation

CognitiveStyle

Presocial Autistic

Symbiotic Symbiotic Self versus nonself

ConceptualConfusion

Impulsive Impulsive,fear of re-taliatiori

Receiving,dependentexploita-tive

Godly feelings

Self-Pro-tective

Fear of be-ing caughtexternaliz-i-g, blame,opportunis-tic

guarded, man-ipulativeexploitative

Self- protection,things, advantage,control

Conform-ist

Conformityshame,guilt

Belonging,superficialniceness

Appearance, so-cial acceptabil-ity, banal feel-ings

Conceptualsimplicitystereotypes,cliches

Self-Aware

Differen-tiationof normsand goals

Self-awarenessin relationto group,helping

Adjustments,problems, rea-sons, opportuni-ties

Multiplicity

Conscien-tious

Self-eval-uated stan-dards, selfcriticism,long-termgoals

Responsible,mutual concern

Differentiatedfeelings, self-respect, achieve-went

Conceptualcomplexity

StageCharact.Develop.

.

InterpersonalStyle

ConsciousPreoccupation

_CognitiveStyle

Indivi- +respect +Dependence +Development, so- +Distinctiondualistic for in-dividual-

as an emo-tional prob-

c2.al problems,differentiating

of processfrom out-

ity lam inner from outerlife

came

Autono- +coping +Respect for Abstract social Increasedmous withconflict

autonomy,interdepen-dance

ideals, integre-tion of physio-logical and pay-chological roleconception, self-fulfillment

conceptualcomplexity,tolerancefor ambigu-ity, broadscope ob-jectivity

In- +Reconcil- Cherishing +Identitytegrated ing inner

conflictsof indivi-duality

+ means in addition to content of previous level

Adapted from: Loevinger, J. (1976) Ego Development: Conceptionsand Theories (pp: 24/25)

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1.6 SUMMARY OF SOCIAL EMOTIONAL THEORIES

The theories of development, which were discussed inthis section, represent only some of the many theoret-ical viewpoints and descriptions of social emotionalgrowth. Nevertheless, the reader will notice, espe-cially when looking at the overview provided in TableV, that distinct, composite 'portraits' of childrenin each of the developmental periods, across theories,emerge. Before highlighting some of these portraits,it must be cautioned again, that these typical picturesrepresent broad generalizations only, and that largevariations in the pace of individual development arecommon.

Keeping this caution in mind, generally, as childrenenter Kindergarten, many of the characteristics whichare typical of the preschool years, may be still eitherfully present or just beginning to change. The lengthand timing of this transition period varies individual-ly, but for the majority of students it should be basi-cally accomplished by about the end of grade one.

This transition, then, leads to the "pre-adolescent"(Table V) characteristics which are typical for themajority of children during most of their elementaryschool years. During this time, we see children withstrong needs and desires to acquire technical masteryskills, and to be given increasingly more responsibil-ity to try out and display these new skills. Emotion-ally, these children require to feel a sense of beingloved and of belonging. In their interpersonal inter-actions, they are generally guided by a desire to con-form to group norms. This conformism also directstheir sense of fairness, with moral decisions aboutright and wrong being based, initially, on the goodgirl/good boy principle and later strictly on one'sduty to obey existing law and order. The same generalconformist attitude also translates to a preoccupation,with outward appearance (everybody has to look likeeverybody else in the "group"), which often leads tothe adoption of stereotypes and at times to prejudicialbehavior and attitudes toward members of other groups(minorities, opposite sex members, the aged, etc.). Atthe same time, the need to conform and to belong, andthe unquestioning acceptance of existing "law," maylead to a desire to act "nice." Therefore, disciplineproblems, at this stage, are generally not as severe asthey might be in the next stage.

The characteristics of the final years of elementaryschool and of the high school years are listed in Table

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V under "Adolescent." The "typical" adolescent, then;is emerged in the "identity crisis" struggling with thequestion of "Who Am I.* This young person is motivatedby esteem needs, the needs to prove his/her own worthand to be recognized by others, especially the peergroup. Moral decisions are-now not any longer alwaysguided by straight forward rules of law and order butmay be based on personal, individual values. Theseindividual values are formed, based ou the newly gainedinsights of the multiplicity and complexity of life.Overall, this period is a time of intense emotionaland cognitive changes, a time of questioning of self,society and values, with the ultimate goal of coningto "grips" with a personal identity. This time ofemotional upheaval and restructuring may be fertileground for new forms of inventive creativity and in-genuity. On the other hand, this time of change fromthe simplistic adopting of group norms to the complexdefining of the self, also leads to much emotionalvulnerability and, at times, to 'discipline problems.*

Overall, then, an awareness of the different facets ofthese changing stages with their typical patterns ofsocial emotional growth, allows classroom teachers andcurriculum developers alike, to gear curriculum contentand instructional strategies toward these developmentalmilestones. It further should provide educators withenough oversight to see many possible *difficulties" ina developmental context as healthy, normal, and tempor-ary phenomena, rather than as permanent "character"flaws.

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Table 6% Summary of Theories of Children's Social EmotionalDevelopment

TheoryInfant &Toddler Preschool

Pre-Adolescent Adolescent

OverallGoal ofDevelopment

Erikson Trust/Mistrust

Autonomy/Shame

Initiative/Guilt

Industry/Inferiority

Identity/IdentityDiffusion

Toward -IdentityFormationEight Ages

of Man

Kohlberg Obedience/Punishment

Relativ-isticHedonism

Good BoyGood Girl

Good BoyGood Girl

Law and,Order

Law andOrder

SocialContract

Toward -UniversalPrincipledMorality

MoralDevelop-ment

Maslow Physio-logicalNeeds

SafetyNeeds

Love andBelonging-ness Needs

Esteem'Needs

Toward -Self-Actualize-tion

Hierarchyof Needs

Taylor ExpressiveSponta-neity

ExpressiveSpontaneity

TechnicalProficiency

InventiveIngenuity

Toward-EmergentiveOriginality

CreativeDevelop-ment

Loevinger Presocial

Symbiotic

Impulsive

Self-Protective

Conformist

Self-Aware

Self-Aware

Conscien-tious

Indivi-dualistic

! Toward -i Integrated'CharacterStructure

Stages ofEgoDevelop-ment

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1.7 SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS

Baldwin, C.B., Colangelo, M., & Dettmann (1984).Perspectives of creativity throughout the life span.

v 2, 9-17.- f 4 -

Crain, W.C. (1985). Theories of deve3oppent: Conceptsand applications. Englewood Cliffs, N.Y.:Prentice-Hall.

Erikson, E.H.(2nd ed.).

Gage, N.L., &psychology

(1950). Childhood and societyNew York: W.W. Norton and Co.

Berliner, D.C. (1979). Educational(2nd el.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Gagne, R.M. (1985). The conditions of learning(4th ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Guilford, J.P. (1968). Intelligence, creativity andtheir educational ippllcations. San Diego, CA.:Robert K. Knapp.

Guilford, J.P. (1967). The nature of humanintelligence. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Hampden-Turner, C. (1981). Naps of the mind: Chartsand concepts of the mind and its labyrinths.New York: Collier Books.

Regan, R. (1982). The evolving self. Cambrige, MA:Harvard University Press.

Kohlberg, L. (1984). The psychology of moralt I 111' f- UStages. San Francisco: Harper and Row.

Kohlberg, L. (1975). The cognitive developmentalapproach to moral education. Thi Delta Kappan,670-677.

Komulainen, JS P (1985) Creative abilities as alife-span phenomenon, a crosscut survey in Finland.The Creative Child and Adult Quarterly, 10, 170-181.

Loevinger, J. (1976). Ego development: Conceptionsand theories. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Inc.

Maslow, A.H. (1968).(2nd ed.). Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrad.

IS I

Thomas, R.M. (1985). Comparing theories of childdevelopment. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth PublishingCompany.

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2 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

This chapter explores the process of intellectual growthfrom a variety of theoretical perspectives. Although itis not easy to define learning in one all encompassingstatement, differences in these theories do not stem fromdisagreement over the definition of learning, but ratherfrom differences in the interpretation of the learningprocess. Three central questions are at the core of thisdivision among theories:

- Does learning involve merely the acquisition of newhabits, or does it involve the acquisition of newcognitive structures?

- Does learning happen by trial and error, or byinsight?

- Is learning facilitated through forces internal tothe learner, or are external factors the drivingforce behind the acquisition of knowledge?

The answers to these and other essential questions dividelearning theorists into two conceptually and philosophi-cally incompatible camps: the one guided by behavior-ism, of which three theorists will be discussed here(Skinner, Gagne, and Bandura), and the one guided bycognitivism, which includes the Gestalt-field theories,Piaget's theory, and the Information-processing approach.The theories based on behaviorism focus strictly on ob-servable and objective components of learning behavior,whereas those based on cognitivism are essentiallyconcerned with the organization and processing ofinformation and. with questions of problem solving.

2.1 BEHAVIORISTIC THEORIES

The behavioristic view of learning suggests that allbehavior, regardless of complexity, is made up of verybasic parts, and that even the most complex whole issimply no more than the sum of these parts. Further,the assumption is made, that all behavior occurs as aresult of stimuli, and that learning simply is theprocess of making the appropriate connections betweenstimuli and responses.

2.1.1 Skinner's Operant Conditioning

According to Skinner, theories might be a source ofenlightenment to their creators, but are in fact oflittle practical value. Therefore, in his work hemade no effort to fulfill all the requirements for a

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'proper* theory, but simply described his observa-tions. He was concerned strictly with observablebehavior and insisted that terms such as willpower,sensation, drive, instinct or attitude should be ofno interest to science, insisting that psychology isa science of overt behavior only. Skinner, then,sees the human being as a neutral, passive creaturewhich learns solely by reacting to the environment.

Operant Conditioning:In contrast to classical conditioning, where thestimulus (e.g., sight of food) precedes the response(e.g., salivation), in operant conditioning the or-ganism first behaves and then some external event maystrengthen or reinforce that behavior. Skinner re-ferred to these initial bits of behavior as operants.He was not interested in the cause of these operants,but solely in the question of which environmentalconditions will weaken or strengthen a given operant.The strengthening of operants happens through condi-tioning which is based on reinforcement.

Like earlier behaviorists, Skinner provided a speci-fic *language* for discussing certain events in thelearning process. The present review of Skinner's*theory" will be restricted to the definition ofthese terms, since it is believed that this willprovide the reader with enough background informa-tion to appreciate the instructional strategies,which are based on this theory.

Reinforcers:Any stimulus which increases the probability of aresponse is called a reinforcer. Reinforcement canbe of three kinds: primary, secondary andgeneralized.

grim reinforcers. are inherent in the organismitself, therefore, no external intervention is re-quired. Primary reinforcers (e.g., food, water, sex)satisfy basic physiological needs. Once these needsare satisfied primary reinforcers are not functionalas reinforcers.

Bgcondary reinforcers are not inherently reinforcingbut become so by being paired with a primaryreinforcer.

General$zed reinforcers are often culturally deter-mined and may be, for example, external symbols ofsuch attributes as power, status, wealth, fame, pres-tige, etc.

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Reinforcement can be positive or negative.

A positive reinforcer is a stimulus which, byfollowing an operant response, strengthens theprobability of that response reoccurring (e.g.,praise after good work).

A nraatigereinfarogz, on the other band, is astimulus which strengthens an operant response whenit is removed. In other words, an unpleasant stimu-lus (e.g., bright light, loud noise) is removed eachtime the desired operant behavior occurs. Negativereinforcers are also called averse stimuli. In thecase of the negative reinforcer, the organism learnsin order to escape the averse stimulus. Negative re-inforcement is primarily of experimental interest.It should not be confused with punishment, which isnot a negative reinforcer, since punishment is usedto suppress inappropriate behavior but not to teachnew behaviors.

Schedules of Reinforcement:Essential for the :effectiveness of the learningprocess is the timing with which reinforcement isprovided.

Two major choices exist here:

- goltimalLeimElulemeat, where a behavior isreinforced every time it occurs, and

- Intermittent reinforcement, where reinforcement isprovided only part of the time.

Intermittent reinforcement, in turn, can followeither of two schedules. These are reinforcementschedules based on:

- a ratio of reinforcements to trials, or

- an interval of time passed between reinforcements.

Reinforcement further can be offered in fixed orrandom fashion.

Although in experimental settings, these schedules ofreinforcement are used in a much more precise mannerthan they ever can be used in the classroom, theeffectiveness of different scheduling methods appears

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to hold true also in classroom settings. Effective-ness has been studied with regard to the acquisitionof knowledge, the xate of extinction (the degree ofpermanence of a behavior after withdrawal of rein-forcement), and the rate of responding.

Initial knowledge acquisition seems to occur mostquickly when continual reinforcement is used, butthis type of reinforcement schedule also leads torather quick extinction of the behavior. Intermit-tent reinforcement, on the other hand, results inslower initial knowledge acquisition but also inslower extinction. With regard to the rate of res-ponding, variable schedules, namely those wheretiming of rewards can rot be predicted, producethe highest rate of response.

Shaping:To this point, we have discussed operant condition-ing, where the operant behavior had been availablefrom the onset and then could be strengthened throughreinforcement-, Shaping, in contrast, is used whenthe desired behavior does not occur spontaneously.This procedure is also called the method of success-ive approximations. Here behaviors which resemblemore and more the desired send behavior" are rein-forced successively. Many complex human behaviorsare successfully learned by this method.

Some Criticisms Which have been Leveled AgainstSkinner's Model:- Skinner's description of learning does not considerdevelopment. It is assumed that if a particularprocess is observed at one age, it is valid acrossages.

- The child, and man in general, is seen as nothingmore than a "cluster of interrelated responses,"entirely shaped by its environment. Any explana-tion of cognitive development which originatesfrom within the individual is rejected.

- Since savior is explained in a reductionistframework, which asserts that complex behaviorsare nothing more than the sum of very simplebehaviors, no allowance is made for the separatestudy of higher mental processes.

- Since only observable behavior is considered, amechanistic vied of cognitive growth is taken,which ignores factors like motivation, affect, orindividual differences.

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Some Major Contributions of the Model:- One of Skinner's most important contributions to

the understanding of human behavior was big studyanculescriptioncdkatt effects of reinforcement,which, in turn, provided insights of great prac-tical value to the field of education.

- The much criticized Teductionism_also led to valu-able insight., which are particularly useful in theeducational Context. This reductionism led, forexample, to the development of methods of teachingcomplex behaviors by dividing them into their sim-plest components.

- Skinner's work has been of ausltanfjawnrenyother the9Miala and has provided the theoreticalunderpinnings for tangible, "real life" applica-tions such as programmed instruction.

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2.1.2 Gagne's Behavioristic-Eclectic Theory

Robert M. Gagne has drawn from many learning theoriesin his description of the conditions of learning.His work is often used to serve as underpinning forinstructional technology related to behavior modifi-cation as well as performance and competency-basededucation. Although his work is mainly grounded inthe behavioristic tradition, he has borrowed ideasfrom cognitive-field theories and explains the learn-ing process in an information-processing conceptualframework.

In contrast to Skinner, Gagne recognizes that notonly stimulus-response and conditioning factors con-tribute to the learning process. For example, herecognizes that both, teachers' and students' motiva-tions, attitudes, and values influence learning. He,therefore, acknowledges explicitly the contributionof internal conditions as being essential for learn-ing. Perhaps his most significant contributionthough, is his recognition of the importance of thestudent's current state of knowledge for any subse-quent learning. He developed a hierarchical taxonomyof learning tasks describing eight levels of tasks ofincreasing complexity, with each level being seen asprerequisite for the next higher level.

The Taxonomy of Learning Tasks:If we assume that certain kinds of learning areprerequisite for others, it becomes imperative foreffective instruction to establish the hierarchicalorder of such tasks. According to Gagne, then, thetasks or skills of learning can be described, fromsimple to complex, as follows:

1) Signal learning_ refers to the classical condi-tioning response, where the organism makes ageneralized response to a given stimulus (e.g.,Pavlov's dog salivating at the sound of thebuzzer, students feeling anxious at the sightof examination booklets).

2) atimultuLtcukonaelearning refers to making aspecific response to a specific stimulus (e.g.,the child says "mama" at the sight of themother).

3) ah is the combining of several, previouslylearned, stimulus-response connections.

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4) Verbal association learning follows the samepattern as chaining but applies to cases where,both, stimulus and response are words (e.g.,learning the English equivalent for a foreignword).

5) Discrimination learning refers to the processwhereby one learns to differentiate among a setof stimuli (e.g., at the sight of variousflowers calling one a rose, the next a tulip,etc.).

6) Concept learning is, in a sense, the opposite ofdiscrimination learning. Here we are dealingwith the ability to generalize to a unifyingconcept from a list of specifics (e.g., roses,tulips, etc. pare all flowers).

7) Rule learning is demonstrated when the indivi-dual can relate a class of stimulus situationsto a class of relawid performances. Rules, inthis case, are appl :Led as general principles.These rules, in turn, are composed of concepts.

8) Problem solving, according to Gagne, is an ex-tension of rule learning in that the learnerdiscovers that previously learned rules can beapplied to solve problems.

These learning tasks are seen as being, both, heir-archical and cummulative in nature. The scope ofthis paper allowed only for brief definitions ofthese learning tasks, Gagne (1970), though, discussesboth the unique internal conditions of the learner,and the external conditions of the learning envir-onment which are required for each task.

The Eight Phases of Learning:Regardless of the learning task, each act of learningis characterized by a series of typical phases. Thephases of learning, then, are as follows:

The act of learning is initiated by motivation. Ifmotivation is not present internally, it must be pro-moted by the environment. Next, before knowledge canbe acquired, a phase of apprehendinct must take place.Here the stimulus is actually perceived. Once thestimulus is apprehended, the learner moves to the allimportant .acquisition phase where knowledge is codedand entered into either short term or long term stor-age which leads to the next phase of retention ormemory. In order for any information to be useful,

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Recall or retrieval hrs to be possible. Not onlysimple recall is imp-rtant, though, but also theability to generalize the information to related butdifferent situations. This generalization is alsocalled transfer of learning. Transfer may be /at-gmal, in which case the information is applied atroughly the original level of complexity, or transfermay be vertical, here previously learned capabilitiesimpact on the integration of higher levels of learn-ing. Ultimately, learning should lead to the actualperformance of observable behaviors. Finally, feed-back occurs through the reinforcement process.

The Five Learning Outcomes:For Gagne, learning outcomes can be classified intofive distinct categories:

1) Verbal information involves merely the statingof the information in question.

2) Intellectual skills involve the student knowingbow, to perform an act as opposed to simply know-ing that certain conditions exist.

3) Cognitive strategies refer to special intellec-tual skills which pertain to the behavior of thelearner while he/she is engaged in the act oflearning.

4) Attitudes are defined as acquired internalstates which influence the actions of theindividual toward things, persons, or events.

5) mptar_akills, finally, are involqed when activi-ties such as walking, dancing, driving a car,etc. are carried out.

The Role of the Teacher:The teacher, for Gagne, is the engineer of thelearning environment. After desired learning out-comes have been established, and the internal learn-ing conditions of the student have been considered,the teacher's role is to provide the appropriate ex-ternal learning conditions. Gagne saw the processinvolved in providing these external learning condi-tions as following a logical series of steps. Thesesteps are seen as applying across learning tasks andsubject areas. The order of these steps is asfollows:

- informing the learner of the objectives- presenting the stimuli

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increasing the attention of the learner- helping the learner recall what was previouslylearned

- providing conditions that will evoke performance- determining tue sequence of learning- promoting and guiding the learning

In review, Gagne synthesized aspects of many theore-tical positions into a series of classificationsystems with regard to important aspects of thelearning process. These aspects include: the in-ternal and external conditions affecting the learner,outcomes of the learning process, and functions ofteachers. This chapter couId only provide a glimpseal the extensive and very practice-oriented work ofGagne which has proven of enormous value for, both,the understanding of cognitive processes and for in-structional design.

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2.1.3 Bandura's Social Learning Theory

Bandura's (1969) theory of social learning blendsbehavioristic reinforcement theory and cognitivepsychology. It deals mainly with learning processeswhich lead to socialization. For Bandura, peopleare, neither exclusively motivated by proactiveprocesses, as some humanists see it, nor are theyhelplessly at the mercy of the environment, asorthodox behaviorists view them, instead, people areperceived as being eanaged in a continuous reciprocalinteraction with their environment. Bandura seespeople not as products of their environment, butregards them as information-processing creatureswho base their behavior on insightful expectations.Behavioral change, therefore, is social learningtheory, i3 facilitated by the awareness of itsprobable consequences. In Bandura's view peopleas much influence and shape their environment asthe environment influences and changes them.

According to Bandura's theory, the socializationprocess is primarily achieved through observation-al_learnina. Observational learning involves thelearner observing a model, interpreting the be-havior of the model, and finally imitating theobserved behavior.

In the context of the eeneral principle of observa-tional learning, Bandura introduced several new con-cepts into the behavioristic framework of learning.Some of these concepts, which distinguish Bandura'stheory as a rather positive, proactively oriented oneamong the behavioristic theories, will now be brieflydiscussed.

Observational Learning:Simply put, observational learning occurs whenever aperson is watching the behavior of a model, forms anopinion about the consequences of this behavior, andthen uses this opinion to guide his/her own futurebehavior. Observational learning has been usedacross time and cultures ever since humans havelived together in groups. Currently, in our west-ern culture with its emphasis on originality, theconcept of learring by imitating others, has attimes been viewed with some ambivalence. In thepast, though, our culture has based the educationof their youth mainly On observational learning.Some subcultures, within North American society,

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made particularly strong use of observational learn-ing and still feel more ,- ease with the concept.For example, young Canadian Ojibway boys wouldaccompany their fathers to learn the intricaciesof trapping and hunting, similarly, young girlswould spend their days around their mothers learningto prepare game, make clothing, etc. Despite thefact tL t in highly technological, fast-changingcultures such learning is not as obvious, observa-tional learning, even here, is the main mode ofsocialization.

Modeling:In observational learning, then, several variablesare essential. First, there is the model. Modelscan either be real persons or they can be symbolicmodels (e.g., books, television programs, or evenanimals). But just observing a model's behaviordoes not, by itself, constitute learning. Forlearning to take place, the behavior has to beinterpreted with regard to its possible positiveor negative consequences.

Outcomes of Modeling:Modeling can result in three types of outcomes:

- It can facilitate the acquisition of novel be-havior. In this case modeled behavior is ob-served, the positive consequences of the behaviorare imitated, and expectancies on the part of thelearner are formed with regard to consequences inthe event that he/she would engage in similarbehavior.

- Modeling can further inhibit or disinhibit existingbehavior. In this case negative or positive con-sequences of deviant behavior might be observedand interpreted in a model and in turn eitherinhibit or disinhibit similar behavior.

- Finally, modeling can elicit behaviors that arerelated, but not identical, to the modeled behav-ior. In this case the positive consequences ofone, modeled behavior may lead to another behav-ior in the learner (e.g., one student tries to ex-cel in one area because someone else excels inanother area).

Vicarious Reuiforcement:In all three types of observational learning whichwere described above, reinforcement was not providedin the Skinnerian sense, directly to the learner.

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Instead reinforcement was experienced vicariously byobserving both the actions of others and the result-ing consequences. If the observer perceived that theconsequences would also apply to his/her own futurebehavior, observational learning took place throughthe mechanism of vicarious reinforcement.

Thus, although observational learning is based onreinforcement principles, it is not a mechanisticprocess of more or less automatic stimulus-responseconnections, but mainly a cognitive process, in whichthe learner's behaviors are contingent on his/her_interpretation of the environment.

In addition to the concept of observational learningand various insights related to this concept, Banduraintroduced the idea of self-regulation of behaviorinto the behavioristic framework of learning.

Self-regulation of Behavior:Social learning theory recognizes that individualsare capable and, in fact, do regulate their ownbehavior. Three essential steps are involved inthis self-regulatory process:

- Individuals have to observe their own actions.

- Then, they have to judge their performance againstsome internalized standard.

- Finally, based on this judgement, they may providereinforcement or punishment for themselves.

The first step, self-observation, has to involveformal or informal record keeping of our own actions.In the second ste9 we judge the appropriateness ofoir own actions against standards which we have de-veloped through observing the behavior of models.This fact has important implications for educationsince it implies that, both, unrealistically lowand unrealistically high individual performancestandards, are based on models in the environment(e.g., teachers, parents, peers). The third stepin the self-regulation process is one of self-reinforcement. A large body of evidence showsthat individuals who regularly reward themselvesfor appropriate behavior, perform significantlyhigher than, both, those individuals who do notreward themselves, and those who perform the same

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task under instruction from someone else and areexternally reinforced. The concept of self-regula-tion of behavior and the related issue of self-reinforcement are important since they allow for in-dependent learning (without third party reinforce-ment). The ability to self-regulate one's behavior,is also prerequisite for learning in a life-spancontext.

Summary:Bandura's social learning theory, then, states thatmuch of human learning is facilitated through expo-sure to models. In order for learning to take place,the observations the learner makes of the model'sbehavior, have to be cognitively processed. Rein-forcement can be provided direct, experienced vicari-ously, or may be self-generated. In addition, cogni-tive processing of our own behavior allows us toeffectively self-regulate it.

Bandura, therefore, views the process of sociallearning as one of continuous, reciprocal inter-action with the environment.

Educational Implications:- In the light of Bandura's emphasis on observational

learning, a major function of the teacher is tomodel behavior.

- Since reinforcement in Bandura's theory is largelybased on how observations are cognitively processedby the learner, a general emphasis on internalawareness is suggested by the theory.

- The principle of reciprocal consequences of be-havior implies that both students and teachersfunction as personal, behavioral, and environmentaldeterminants for each other, in other words, bothinfluence each other's behavior.

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2.2 COGNITIVE GESTALT-FIELD THEORIES

The Gestalt-Field view of learning is diametricallyopposed to the behavioristic viewpoint in that thebasic assumption of Gestalt theories is that the wholedoes not equal the sum of its parts. Learning is seenas depending crucially on perception, and as involvingthe reorganization of the perceptual field. Genuinelearning, from a Gestaltist point of view, involves in-sight not rote memorization or stimulus-response con-nections. Finally, insightful learning is seen as be-ing inherently satisfying and therefore not contingenton external reinforcement.

2.2.1 Classical Gestalt Theory

Gestalt theory is one of several schools of psycho-logical thought that arose during the first decadesof the 20th century. Gestaltists saw the structureand organization of the perceptual field rather thansimple stimulus-response mechanisms as being themain shapers of thought processes and behavior.

Classical Gestalt theory centres around two basicconcepts, namely the conceptS of Gestalt and In-Bight. All other key concepts in this family oftheories are conceptually related to either ofthese two basic concepts.

Gestalt:'Gestalt* is a German word which is generally trans-lated as "whole* or "configuration." Implied in theterm Gestalt is a whole, though, which is conceptual-ized as a system within which all parts are in dy-namic interrelation. A Gestalt, then, is an inte-grated totality where each part is in the role orfunction required for it by the nature on: the whole.The term is not restricted to visual units, but ap-plies equally to configurations of movement (e.g.,body language, dance sequence), sound (e.g., melody),or units of thought (e.g., an intricate sentence, aparagraph, a speech or a proof of a mathematicalproblem).

Any Gestalt is determined by a number of typicalprinciples and characteristics:

- Dynamic self-distribution determines where andin which function each part of the whole occurs.

- Relational determination regulates the natureof each part and its function in the whole.

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- The structure of the whole is derived, in part,from these two principles. No part of a struc-ture can be changed without creating a fundamen-tally different Gestalt (e.g., card house).

- The organization of any Gestalt is closely con-nected to its structure since structure is deter-mined by its specific and unique organization.

Laws of Organization:Gestaltists hold that having insight into a Gestaltmeans understanding its structure and organizationand that the principles of Gestalt organization arefundamental to, both, learning and perception. In1923 Max Wertheimer formulated his famous "Laws ofOrganization" which addressed the questions of:

- How are the various portions of the environ-ment segregated into separate units and wholes?

- What makes various parts of the phenomenologicalfield hang together?

The five Laws of Organization are:

The Law of Pragnanz is the most general of theselaws and refers to the fact that the whole will beperceived as a unit, if it is at an equilibrium andtherefore resists transformation.

The Law of Similarity refers to the tendency ofthe observer to perceive similar items as forminga group.

The Law of Proximity states that items which areclose together will be perceived as forming a unit.

The Law of Closure means that items whicih togetherwill form an integrated pattern, will be seen asbelonging together.

The Law of Common Fate states that objects whichexperience the same change are seen as a unit andthereby are differentiated from elements in thefield which do not share the same fate.

These laws, then, attempt to explain how we segregatethe multitude of sensory imput into meaningful units.They explain why certain parts of our environmentalfield "hang together" while others do not.

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Insight:Gestaltists hold that genuine learning requires thelearner to have gained insightful understanding ofthe matter at hand. Insight involves an understand-ing of the inherent structure of the problem situa-tion and results in the finding of a solution to theproblem. From a Gestaltist point of view, therefore,learning has typically not occurred if a solution toa problem haA simply been found by "blindly" follow-ing a set of rules.

Wolfgang ahler (1925) studied insightful learning inhis famous experiments with apes. Be found that whenprimates try to solve problems their behavior oftenshows that they are aware of important relationsamong aspects of the problem situation, and thatin their solution they make use of these *insights."A sequence of behavioral criteria for insight werecrystalized from Kohler's experiments:

1) examination of the problem situation

2) hesitation, pause, an attitude of concentratedattention

3) a trial of a more or less adequate mode ofresponse

4) if this trial proves inadequate, a trial of someother mode follows

5) appearance of a critical point - the organismsuddenly, directly and definitely performs therequired adaptive act

6) ready repetition and transfer of adaptive act

7) overall ability to discover and attend to theessential aspects of the problem situation

8) disinterest to the non-essential aspects of theproblem situation

The moment of insight is seen as being accompaniedby a sudden, joyful feeling of enlightenment whichprovides the intrinsic reward to genuine learning.Extrinsic reinforcement, therefore, is viewed asunnecessary or even counterproductive.

During the process of insightful learning, typically,a situation changes from a state where things make no

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sense because they seem to be arranged in an arbit-rary fashion, to a situation where there is order,logic and meaning.

True understanding has been achieved when an insightthat was gained in one situation can be transferredto another situation. Gestalt theory holds thatlearning which has been achieved merely by mechanis-tic processes, without insight, is rarely transfer-rable, whereas insightful learning is readily trans-ferrable to new situations.

Summary:Classical Gestalt theory views the learning processin a frame of reference which is drastically differ-ent from that of Behavior theory. The central be-liefs fo Gestaltists are: that the whole is great-er than the sum of its parts, and that insight is acrucial factor in problem solving. From the firstbelief follows the view that the analysis of a sub-ject into its parts will not advance the knowledgeabout the subject. The second belief leads to therejection of the trial and error approach to problemsolving.

Gestalt theory may be viewed as a conceptual rootfor cognitivism in that it focused its attention on:understanding, decision making, information process-ing, and problem solving. Although classical Gestalttheory has not been directly translated into a theoryof instruction, its general principles have greatlyinfluenced later theories of learning andinstruction.

Implications for Education:Michael Wertheimer (1980) formulated some proposi-tions for learning which can be derived from classi-cal Gestalt theory and may be summarized as follows:

- Laaining_dgp2ndaonpexctptipn. Since learningis the process of the discoyery of the environment,bow we perceive what is crucial about a particularsituation is of prime importance.

- Learning involves reorganization. Since learnersare not generally able to instantly and correctlyunderstand every situation, a need for a conceptualreorganization of most problem situations exists.Instruction has to aid this reorganization by aid-ing the student in recognizing the structure andessential components of a problem.

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Learning does justice to what is learned. Gestalttheory implies that material should be presented insuch a way that its inherent laws are madetransparent.

Learning is about_what leads to what. Sincemuch of learning is concerned with consequences,instruction should be aimed at having the studentdiscover the laws of cause and effect in the"real world."

insiSiat_as-.wrmus. The Gestalt focuson insight suggests that instruction should be em-phasizing understanding rather than rotememorization.

Gestalt theory further suggests that insightfullearning a) is transferrable to new situations,b) does not extinguish, and c) is its own re-ward and therefore needs no external reinforcement.

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2.2.2 Lewin's Cognitive Field Theory

Kurt Lewin was one of the men who worked with MaxWertheimer and was strongly influenced by Gestal-tist thought. His own theory, although it is basedon Gestalt principles, represents a clear departurefrom classical Gestalt theory in that it emphasizespersonality, motivation, and social interactionrather than perception. His theory not only providedimportant foundations for later learning theorists,but also strongly influenced the field of socialpsychology.

Lewin's theory is complex and multifaceted. Evena very brief discussion of all important espects ofthis theory far exceeds the scope and mandate of thispaper. Since it is believed that his construct of"Life Space" is the most relevant aspect to learningand Instruction this chapter will briefly describewhat Lewin means by life space and some of the con-cepts which are related to it.

Life Space:Life space is a central construct in Lewin's theory.The term refers to the individual's world as he/sheperceives it to exist at any given moment. It is acomposite of all that is of immediate relevance fora person's behavior. It includes: motives, goals,means and perceived obstacles to those goals, thephysical environment, and the person him/herself.Lewin represented life spaces in topographical dia-grams containing at the centre of the space theperson surrounded by his asycholosical environment.

The "person" is seen as being composed of a core orinngx_epexsenal stLatm, which represents the needs ofthe person, and a surroundina parggalaglemolgcstrat-nm, which represents abilities.

The "psychological environment," as Lewin sees it, isquite different from the environment as behavioristssee it. Whereas, for behaviorists the physical andpsychological environments are identical, for Lewinthe psychological environment is what a person makesof his/her physical Nnvi7oament. In other wordsr itis the kind of meaning el interpretation a personattaches to the physical realities around him/herself.

The psychological environment is surrounded by theouter layer of the life space which Lewin called theforeign hull representing the more remote physical

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environment. Whereas:, the psychological environmentincludes everything which is perceived by the personand which affects his/her behavior, the foreign hullcontains those aspects which are observable by out-siders, but which, at the moment, have no signifi-cance for the behavior of the person.

Several concepts, which are related to dynamicsof change within the life space are essential forunderstanding behavior and development in theLewinian framework. These will be briefly dis-cussed now

Region:A region is an element or fact within a person's lifespace. Two regions may be closely connected or theymay be distant from each other. If they are adjacentto each other, their relationship is determined bythe nature of the boundary between them.

Boundary:Boundaries separate the foreign hull from the psycho-logical environment and it from the core of the per-son. They further separate various regions withineach of these areas. These boundaries are postulatedby Lewin as representing more or less permeable divi-sions between regions of the life space with somebeing stronger than others. The degree of strengthof a boundary is not permanent but may change situa-tionally or developmentally.

Boundaries may serve as "1.rotectors" of aspects ofthe self or, if they are very strong may representbarriers to the achievement of a particular goal.If boundaries between regions are weak, on the otherhand, those regions will easily influence each other.In Lewin's topographical maps of life spaces bound-daries are represented as lines of varying thicknessaccording to the degree of their permeability.

Valance:The term valance, in Lewin's theory, refers to theattractiveness of specific areas in a life space.In Lewin's "topographical" maps positive valancesare indicated by single or multiple plus signs,negative valance by minus signs.

Vector:Lewin borrowed the concept of vectors from physics.In his framework vectors are used to express thedirection toward which a behavior is aimed and the

strength which is exerted by it. In his "maps" theyare represented as arrows of varying length.

Conflicts:Lewin used the concepts of valance and vectors todiscuss different patterns of behavior conflicts:

First, the approach-approach conflict occurs when aperson is drawn, simultaneously, to two incompatiblegoals (e.g,, an offer of two equally attractivejobs).

Second, an approach-avoidance conflict is presentwhen tin. same event generates feelings which simul-taneous1:: pull a person away and toward it (e.g., thedesire for cheese cake conflicts with the desire tostay slim).

Third, an avoidance-avoidance conflict exists whenthe only choice seems to involve two equally dis-tasteful options (e.g., keep suffering from atoothache or go the the dentist - the classical"damned-if-you-do, damned-if-you-don't" situation).

Summary:A life space can be described.in terms of a numberof characteristics:

First, it is relativistic because it is defined ex-clusively in terms of how the environment is per-ceived by the person whose life space is discussed.For example, if Johnny believes that a ghost livesin his house, the ghost is definitely part of hislife space.

Second, any life space constantly changes as aperson's circumstances, goals and alternativeschange. Therefore, something which was part of theforeign hull may at any time enter the psychologicalenvironment and therefore affect a person's behav-ior; elements of the psychological environment maybecome irrelevant and become part of the foreignhull, and finally, even the inner core changesthrough experience.

Third, the life space undergoes developmentalmetamorphosis with the following typical changesoccurring: 1) permeable boundaries between areas ofthe life space become stronger, 2) the life spaceincreases in size and scope, 3) it becomes morerealistic, 4) increasing differentiation between

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the layers of the life space occurs, and 5) theincreasing variety of content in the life apaceundergoes integration and organization.

finally, a life space can be represented as a top-ographical map of an individual's temporal reality.Topographical, here, implies that these "maps" en-compass concepts such as boundary, inside, outside,but do not deal with size, shape, distance or thelike. Lewin's maps of life spaces, then, point torelative positions of psychological "facts," theirrelationships to :one another, and the degree ofseparation between them. Thus, according to Lewin,these representations of life spaces 1) clarify aperson's current psychological environment, 2) allowto tailor psychological intervention at instructionalapproaches to the client's/student's current needs,and 3) allows to anticipate probable behavior.

Educational Implications:- Learning, as seen by cognitive-field theory, is theprocess whereby the learner differentiates, gener-alizes and restructures both his inner core and hispsychological environment. This process leads tonew insights and understanding.

- Both, teachers and student, in the cognitive-field approach, are considered vital parts ofeach other's psychological environment, imply-ing that both have impact on each other'sbehavior,

- The role of the teacher, in this framework, isto promote the development of insights.

- A major goal of instruction is the development ofmore adequate, open and harmonious personalities.This healthy personality is seen as essential forintelligent functioning.

- Field theorists hold that in order to accomplishthis, teachers need to understand the life spacesof their students.

- Teaching strategies which encourage exploration,and reflection and aim at students gaining struct-ural and conceptual understanding of the materialare preferred over strategies which encouragesimple memorization.

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2.2.3 Bruner's "Learning as Categorizing"

Jerome Bruner's theory is not, strictly speaking,a "Gestalt Theory," since it eclectically combinesideas from many theories. Nevertheless, it is philo-scphically grounded in basic Gestaltist assumptions.It heavily emphasizes the understanding of the inher-ent structure, both, of the subject at hand and ofknowledge itself. Two central unifying themes runthrough all of Bruner's writing:

- the acquisition of knowledge as an active process,

- the constructing of knowledge through relating newinformation to previously acquired frames ofreference.

Bruner sees the process of learning as a strivingto reduce the complexity of the environment with thegoal of making it cognitively manageable. Accordingto Bruner this goal is achieved through the processof categorization; therefore, the term category playsa crucial role in his theory.

Categories:A category may be understood as a collection of rulesfor classifying things which are in some way equiva-lent. In Bruner's words: "...to categorize is torender discriminably different things equivalent."

Categories specify four dimensions about objects:

- They define specific characteristics as criticalattributes.

- They specify the way in which these attributes areto be combined.

- They assign weights to various properties of theobjects in that category.

- They set acceptable limits on these attributes.

Bruner describes two kinds of categories: identityand equivalence categories. The first applies ifthe category includes only different forms of thesame thing. The second applies to categories wheredifferent things are addressed as if they were thesame thing. These equivalence categories, in turn,may be based on affective, functional or formalcriteria.

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Categorization, then, allows us to treat differentobjects or events as if they were the same. Thegoal of this activity is to enable us to make pre-dictions about probable events related to stimuliand thus to aid the decision-making process.

The Process of Categorization:Categorization progresses in four sequential steps:

- Primitive categorization involves the isolation andsubsequent attendance to a particular stimulus.

- Cue search involves the looking for those attri-butes that might be useful in identifying theobject.

- A confirmation check follows after which theperson, if necessary, may look for more cues,

- Finally, the confirmation completion occurs. Afterthis, additional cues are no longer sought out orreacted to.

Before the process of categorization can be initiateda state of perceptual readiness has to exist. Per-ceptual readiness influences the accessibility ofcategories. The accessibility of a category, inturn, depends on the individual's needs and expec-tancies. (Levin, see 2.2.2, would say that it de-pends on the current life space of the learner).Finally, perceptual readiness also depends onneurological factors.

The more accessible a category is, the less infor-mation input is required for categorization. Fur-ther, for highly accessible categories, a widerrange of input will be accepted, by the same token,it is more likely that other categories, includIngbetter ones, will be less available.

Coding Systems:Since the placing of sensory input into categoriesdoes not lead much beyond simple recognition ofobjects or events, something more is needed. In-ferences have to be made on the basis of relation-EhiRALOween categories. Bruner refers to relatedcategories as coding systems. Coding systems arehierarchical arrangements of related categories.In other words, categories are ordered according totheir degree of generalness. Therefore, the mostgeneral category represents the top of the hierarchywith successively less general categories toward the

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'bottom of the hierarchy. Bruner holds that the non-specificity of the coding system is an essentialfactor in retention and transfer of information.

According to Bruner, four conditions affect theacquisition of these generic codes:

- Set, refers to the predisposition of the learner toreact in a specific way. Through previous learningoz instructional strategy the learner can be madeto approach new material as if it were familiar andcould therefore be organized in terms of an equallyfamiliar underlying structure.

- Eked state, in Bruner's theory, refers to thelevel of arousal which is optimal for learning.Moderate levels of arousal are seen as providingthe ideal state for the acquisition of codes andtherefore for learning and problem-solving.

- Plastery of specifics is seen as advancing the for-mation of generic codes. In other words, previousknowledge about a specific event, object, or sub-ject, will greatly facilitate the formation of newcodes.

- Diversity of training is closely related to themastery of specifics. It refers to the idea thatif something has been experienced in a wide rangeof settings, it will be easier to relate the samething to other events, than if it was only experi-enced in one setting.

Concept Attainment:Bruner distinguishes between concept formation andconcept attainment. Whereas the former refers tothe realization that some objects or events belongtogether while others don't, the latter refers tothe gaining of an understanding of which attributesmay be useful for distinguishing members and non-members of a class.

Bruner describes three types of concepts. What typeof concept we are dealing with is determined by therelationship between the critical attributes whichdefine that concept.

- Conjunctive concepts are defined by the merepresence of two or more of those criticalattributes.

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- Disjunctive concepts are defined either by theabove criteria or by the existence of only onerelevant attribute.

- Relational concepts are defined by the specificrelationship between their critical attributes.

Teaching and learning, then, fo,ses not only on theproCess of the formation of conuapts (which is seenas basically accomplished around age fifteen), butalso strives to facilitate the attainment of con-cepts. Bruner carried out extensive experiments withadults to determine what tvves of strategies typical-ly are used during concept attainment. He found thateach type of concept (conjunctive, disjunctive, andrelational) calls for a variety of specific strate-gies. Although his experimental findings are notdirectly transferrable to schc'1 situations, someaspects of this research are h_ihly significant (seepart 2, chapter 7.1) to school E.4ttings.

Summary:The underlying assumption of Bruner's theory is thathumans organize the otherwise overwhelming stimulusinput in terms of categories which are based onsimilarities and differences. These categories areessentially classifications in terms of criticalattributes which determine the membership or non-memberships of objects and events. Categories, inturn, are organized according to coding systems -hierarchical arrangements of related categories withthe higher levels being progressively more general.Learning, according to Bruner, involves the formationand attainment of concepts. Categories, concepts,and coding systems, are seen as facilitating theacquisition and retention of knowledge as well asdecision making.

Educational implications:Since chapter 5.1 in part II of this paper willdiscuss instructional strategies based directlyon Bruner's theory, only a few points shall bemade here:

- Bruner's theoretical work lead him to advocatediscovery-oriented techniques of instruction.This position follows logically from the ideathat the formation of coding systems is basedon the discovery of relationships among vari-ous categories.

- Further, process oriented teaching is emphasized

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which is aimed at teaching students to think,question, and discover, rather than to memorize.

- Bruner's idea of "perceptual readiness" leads tothe importance of considering all factors thatready the student for learning, including: envi-ronmental factors, previous learning (both for-mal and informal), and the student's own needsand expectancies.

- Finally, like other field theorists, Brunersees learning as intrinsically motivating andtherefore does not advocate the use of externalreinforcement.

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2.3 PIAGET'S COGNITIVE-DESCRIPTIVE THEORY OF INTELLECTUALDEVELOPMENT

Piaget's theory does not "neatly fit" into any of thebroad schools of cognitive psychology but rather is aschool onto itself. It is multidisciplinary since itnot only borrows from other areas of psychology butalso from disciplines other than psychology. Piaget'swritings deal with many facets of human conceptualfunctioning including: moral development, play, drama,perception of reality, and the drivelopment of thought.This paper will only deal with the development ofthought.

For Piaget the development of thought processes isintimately tied to action. Therefore his method ofinquiry centered around the observation of childrenwho were actively involved in the solving of carefullydesigned experimental problem situations. Thisobservational data was supplemented by interviewingchildren from infancy to about 15 years of age.

Learning, in the Piagetian sense, results in theincreasing ability of the individual to make sense ofthe environment. As this growth takes place, the childbecomes more and more independent of the *distortions'to reality which are caused by the exclusive dependenceon sensory input. In Piaget's view, this exclusivedependence on the senses to comprehend the environment,which is typical of young children, hinders logicalthought. It is the developmental progression towardlogical thought whicil is the central issue in Piaget'sstage theory of cognitive growth.

Since it is assumed that most, if not all, of thereaders are familiar with Piagetts work, this chapterwill only provide a brief sketch of his theory.

Mechanisms Involved in Cognitive Development:Piaget's theory states that the development ofautonomous thought progresses through four distinctstages. The force behind the movement through thesesuccessive stages is a need for a state of equilibriumbetween perception and understanding. If what ispresently perceived can be cognitively processedin a way which satisfies the individual, a stateof equilibrium exists. If, on the other hand, theincoming information can not be processed to thesatisfaction of the individual, some work is requiredto restore the equilibrium. This re-establishment ofequilibrium may be achieved in two ways: by assimila-tion or by accommodation. Assimilation is the process

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of changing what is perceived so that it will fitcurrently existing cognitive structures. Accommoda-tion, on the other hand, involves the changing ofexisting cognitive structures to fit what is perceived.

The Sensorimotor Stage:This stage extends from birth to approximately agetwo. Children in this stage display four maincharacteristics:

- Adaptation to the environment is achieved, asindicated by the name of the stage, directlythrough overt behavior and the senses.

- The small repertoire of schemata, with which thechild was born, is perfected and elaborated, againthrough overt behavior.

- The notion of object permanence has not been devel-oped: from the child's point of view objects onlyexist as long as they can be perceived.

- The child's world is perceived exclusively from enegocentric viewpoint.

Toward the end of the sensorimotor stage severaldevelopmental tasks generally have been achievedwhich mark the readiness for the transition to thenext stage. These include:

- Beginning language skills and initiative actionssignal the onset of "representation."

- Object permanence will have developed. The childnow realizes that an object still exists even whenhe/she can no longer see or feel it.

Preoperational Period:This period extends to about the age of seven or eightand therefore is typical of children during their firstfew years of school. During this period a progressive-ly more accurate understanding of the relationshipsbetween actions and their consequences is achieved.

Specific accomplishments of this period are:

- Children begin to recognize "qualitative identity"meaning that they realize that if an object changesits shape it still is the same object.

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- Children also achieve *functional dependency" meaningthat they begin to understand the connection betweena goal and the actions needed to achieve it.

- The egocentric stance becomes, gradually, less com-pelling making children more flexible and able toassume different points of view.

- Toward the latter part of the period children beginto organize the knowledge of their environment in amore and more systematic manner.

- Around age seven, therefore, the child becomescapable of: forming categories, understanding morecomplex logical relationships, working with the ideaof number, and has acquired the principle of "conser-vation" (the idea that the amount of something isunaffected by changes in shape or number).

Concrete Operations:The acquisition of the principle of conservationrepresents the hallmark of transition to the stageof concrete operations. This stage generally extendsfrom age seven or eight to about age eleven or twelve.At this time thought processes start to become moreand more systematic in nature.

These more logical thought patterns, initially, do notpenetrate all areas of the child's thinking.

As indicated by the name of the stage, the child atthis stage needs prior or current concrete experiencesas reference for his problem solving. This should notbe interpreted, however, that all school learning,during this stage, has to be facilitated by directmanipulation of tangible objects.

Some key achievements during the period of concreteobservations are:

- The child acquires operational thought.

- The ideas of "associativity" and "reversibility" areacquirer'. The former of these refers to the factthat the sum is independent of the order in whichthings are added (e.g., 3 + 4= 7 and 4 + 3= 7), whilethe latter refers, for example, to the idea that wenot only man combine "nonautos" with autos to achievemeans of transportation, but that we also can sub-tract nonautos from means of transportation to obtainautos.

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Formal Operations:This stage covers the time from approximately eleven ortwelve years to fourteen or fifteen years of age. Itis not reached by all adults and many of those who arecapable of formal thought will not utilize this type ofthinking in many problem situations. During this stagethe student learns to reason without concrete refer-ences and becomes capable of logical, abstract, andscientific thought.

Typical accomplishments of this period include:

- the ability to think !n hypothetic-deductive terms,

- the ability to conducc combinational analyses ofpossibilities, and

- the ability to utilize propositional thinking.

Summary:Piaget described the progressive unfolding of child-ren's thought processes in a developmental framework.Be isolated typical milestones in the child's under-standing and processing of reality and related theseto typical age levels. It needs to be kept in mind,though, that the time of transition from stage to stagevaries from individual to individual. Further, anytransition happens gradually, with children in theearly phase of any given stage sometimes using thoughtprocesses which are characteristic of the new stage,while at other times using old" thought patterns.

Piaget's position on the process of learning may becrystalized to the following major points:

- Acquisition of knowledge is a gradual anddevelopmental process.

- It is made possible through the child's interactionwith the environment.

- The level of sophistication of the child's represen-tation of reality is determined by his/her stage ofdevelopment.

- Stages are defined by the nature of the thoughtstructures which are utilized by the child.

- Learning is shaped by a combination of the followingforces: maturation, environment, need for equilibri-um, and socialization.

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Educational Implications:A wealth of literature exists which provides detailedsuggestions for teachers based on Piaget's work. Inthe context of the mandate of this paper, a few globalimplications arising from this theory are listed here:

- The major significance for teachers, lies in thesense of direction and sequence Piaget's stagetheory provides.

- Piaget's theory implies that curriculum must recog-nize the child's development and seek to organizelearning activities in such a way that they areappropriate for the age level of the child.

- Emphasis during the early years of school should beon experiential learning.

- During later years emphasis may shift to moretheoretical and abstract methods of instruction.

- The theory suggests that the emphasis of teachingshould be to channel student's activities so thatthey may extract meaning from the world around them,rather than an emphasis on direct instruction.

- Instruction should not aim at undue developmentalacceleration, since in Piaget's framework develop-ment is seen as being regulated mainly by internalprocesses which are not responsive to external accel-eration. Educational efforts, therefore, should beaimed at broadening the base of intellectual experi-ences within each appropriate stage, rather thanattempting to hasten progress from stage to stage.

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2.4 INFORMATION PROCESSING APPROACH

Even according to its own adherents, the Information-Processing approach does not yet fulfill the criteriaof a comprehensive theory of cognitive development,rather it represents a ,nerai approach to the studyof cognition. Within t j approach a large number ofresearchers have dealt w..th a multitude of aspects ofcognition. The scope of this paper only allows inclu-sion of some of the key issues which emerged, ignoringmany others.

Key Concepts:Some of the key elements which characterize theInformation-Processing approach are:

a perception of human cognition in terms ofinformation-processing devices

a view of development as self-modification

an emphasis on detailed task analysis

a view of cognition which puts little emphasison development

Since these key elements all have potential educa-tional implications, each will be briefly discussednow.

The Computer Metaphor:At the heart of the Information-Processing approachis the idea that human cognitive functioning may beunderstood in terms of an electronic information-processing device, the computer. The assumptiontherefore is made that human cognition is made upof individual processes which operate sequentially.These processes include: gnglaing.s__Ltudn$14Almiholiarepresentation, and transformatim. The system (cog-nitive functioning) may be restricted by two enti-ties: ar9seASIDSgaalcity and fixed storages gA2A-gity. The final product of the cognitive process(e.g., solution to a problem) is seen as putput.

Development as Self-modification:Recent breakthroughs in computer technology allowedfor development of self-correcting, alf-modifyingprograms. Several Information-Processing psycho-logists suggest that cognitive development, similar-ly, takes place through self-correcting as a resultof feedback processed by the system. In more con-crete terms, the child tries out a variety of rules and

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strategies which are rejected or retained according totheir usefulness, thus a child becomes a progressivelymore efficient information processor.

Task Analysis:Another key characteristic of the Information-Processing approach is its detailed analysis ofcognitive tasks. Various tasks make different andunique demands on processing activities. Suchprocessing activities, for example, are verbal re-hearsal, categorization, and elaboration, to name justa few. In contrast to earlier learning theories whichalso dealt with the breakdown of complex behaviors intosimple tasks, these new task analyses delved muchdeeper, and in much greater detail, into the complexsequences of mental operations following stimulusinput. Although these practices have been criticizedby many as reductionism they have contributed a greatdeal to our knowledge of the learning process (seesection on learning strategies in Part II).

Developmental Issues:Although the Information-Processing approach startedwith a focus on adult cognition and largely ignoreddevelopmental concerns, within this approach existthree broad areas of research which have attempted toinvestigate developmental questons. These are theareas of memory, representations and problem solving.

Memory:Shiffrin and Atkinson proposed in 1969 a flowchartconceptualization of the memory system. The concep-tual framework and terminology of this schema of mem-ory is still in use and is essential to the under-standing of, both, present research trends andstudents cognitive functioning in the classroom.According to this schema, stimulus imput is firstreceived by the sensory register where it is heldfor an extremely short period of time (a fraction ofa second). From there it continues to the short-termstore (15-30 seconds or longer if special strategiesare used). If the information is not either attendedto in short-term store, er channelled to long-termstore, it is quickly lost. In contrast to short-termstore, which has a small capacity, long-..:erm store hasa large capacity and can retain information indefin-itely. Therefore, short-term store is the major limit-ing factor in memory, acting like a bottleneck in thememory system. Various strategies have been shown togreatly reduce this limitation including: rehearsal,leaving clues, forming categories, etc.

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A large number of studies have supported the notionthat both the type of strategy used and the degreeof efficiency of use, are determined by a refinementprocrtss from simple to complex processing which pro-gresses in a predictable developmental order.

For example, Flavell showed in 1969 that few 5- yearolds, more than 50% of 7- year olds, and most of the10- year olds, spontaneously used rehearsal techni-ques. In general, as children use strategies theyprogressively refine them. For example third-gradersrehearse just one word at a time, whereas eighth-graders generally rehearse cumulative (repeat allpreviously learned words in a series plus the new one).

Research suggests that by the preteen years mostchildren use a variety of strategies and are ableto select a suitable strategy for the task at hand.They also seem to be able, at this age, to ignoreirrelevant and process only relevant information, thusreducing the pressure on short-term memory capacity.

Research evidence further clearly indicates that thesestrategies can be taught thus increasing the processingcapacity greatly. This is of great importance sincememory limitations are known to restrict the use ofavailable reasoning skills and also are closely tiedto the acquisition of knowledge.

Representation:Representation refers to the mental forms in whichinformation is cast. Knowledge may be representedin words, actions, images, abstract propositions, etc.These representations therefore may be classed assemantic, episodic, visuai, iconic. Research seems topoint to some developmental tendency for younger child-ren to prefer visual representations and other nonver-bal forms over verbal ones.

Problem-Solving:Several researchers have investigated the rules child-ren use when solving Piagetian problems. When theserules are translated into "computer language" weencounter two important concepts: agclugtigfla - whichare condition-action rules, and production pystems -which are sets of productions stored in long-termmemory. The formal study and representation of produc-tion systems has contributed to the knowledge of learn-ing processes by producing explicit, detailed, moment-by-moment descriptions of how the child solves aproblem.

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Several theorists have attempted to put these insightsinto developmental perspective. Perhaps the most prom-ising of such attempts to date has been made by RobbieCase. His developmental theory of intellectual devel-opment is discussed in some detail in the next chaptersince it is believed to hold much promise for educatorsand especially curriculum developers.

The following points summarize some of the moreimportant factors of the Information-ProcessingApproach which are of interest to the educationalprocess.

Shortcomings:The approach limits itself to proposing models of per-formance on specific tasks while neglecting to inte-grate these models into a broader perspective of humancognitive functioning.

It does not put adequate emphasis on metacognitiveprocesses since it deals predominantly with stratectvexecution rather than with the selection of strate-gies or executive strategies.

Finally, it largely ignores development.

Major Strength:It provides detailed research and descriptions of stepsof cognitive processing.

It further provides detailed mapping of conceptualnetworks.

It explores cognitive strategies.

It provides a "mapping" of memory processes.

In general it has a strong process orientation.

The many strengths of this approach and the obviousshortcomings, in particular with regard to education,have lead to the theory of R. Case. His theory ofIntellectual Development combines the strength of theinformation processing approach, with older notions oncognitive development, especially Piaget's, in a com-prehensive account of intellectual development (seenext chapter).

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2.5 TOWARD A CONSOLIDATION OF THEORIES (R. CASE)

The theory of intellectual development from birth toadulthood by Robbie Case (1985) combines the strengthas well as attempts to rectify some of the shortcomingsof several earlier theories. Case's comprehensiveframework of intellectual .growth incorporates majorelements of Piaget's and Bruner's theories while usinginformation processing concepts and metaphors todescribe the process by which problems are solved atvarious stages. This theory appears to hold muchpromise as a framework for research and as a conceptualbase for the description and explanation of cognitivedevelopment and functioning. It further may serve,both, as a prescriptive guide for curriculum design,and as a theoretical base for instructional strategies.

It is beyond the scope of this paper to give an exhaus-tive account of this multi-faceted theory or even tomention all aspects of it, therefore, the interestedreader is referred to Case's (1985) book for a morecomplete insight into this theory. The present chap-ter, merely, provides a brief overview of the theoryand draws the reader's attention to some of the ele-ments which differentiate it from the three theoreticalframeworks from which it drew, as well as to thoseelements which it shares with these theories.

Overview:Table VI shows a zIchematic representation of the fourstages of Case's theory of intellectual development anatheir substages.

The first stage, the Sensorimotorataae, spans approx-imately the time from birth to 18 months. The second,the Relational Stour extends from approximately one tofive years of age. The Dimensional Stage, which fol-lows, spans the time from three and a half to elevenyears, and the final stage, the Vectorial stage, istraversed from approximately age 9 to age 18.

Within each stage, development progresses through threesubstages: Unifocal-, Bifocal-, and Elaborated Coor-dination. Prior to the Unifocal substage, a periodof Operational Consolidation exists where previouslyacquired cognitive structures are consolidated. Thisperiod and the last substage of the previous stageoccupy the same time span which accounts for theoverlap in age levels for each of the four stages.

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DANTMCPmMIMirM

Table VI:

SENSORIMOTOR STAGE

ElaboratedCoordination(12-18 month)

2

Case's Theory of Intellectual Development

RELATIONAL STAGE

DIMENSIONAL STAGE

VECTORIAL STAGE

ElaboratedCoordination(15-14 years)

BifocalCoordination(13-15 years)

UnifocalCoordination(11-13 years)

ElaboratedCoordination(9-11 years)

OperationalConsolidation

BifocalCoordination(7-9 years)

UnifocalCoordination(5-7 years)

ElaboratedCoordination(3 1/2-5 years)A

OperationalConsolidation

BifocalCoordination(2-3 1/2 years)

UnifocalCoordination(1 1/2-2 years)

OperationalConsolidation

BifocalCoordination(8-12 month)

UnifccalCoordination(4-8 month)

OperationalConsolidation(0-4 month)

Adapted from: R. Case, (1985)

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Case views the child as a problem solver. To be sucha "problem solver" an individual has to be capable offormulating objectives and of pursuing them even inthe face of obstacles. According to Case, childrenare endowed with natural desires to set and reach goalsand have natural capabilities for overcoming barriersbetween themselves and those goals.

He sees development as entailing the child to aspire toincreasingly highet-order objectives while using pro-gressively more complex strategies to accomplish thoseobjectives. The development of higher-order strategiesand goals is seen as based on the refinement of lowerorder objectives and strategies. For example, theobjectives of the very young infant are modest indeed(e.g., not losing sight of an interesting objectdangling above the crib, or sustaining a smile gamewith the mother). Similarly, the solutions to theseproblems are achieved with comparable simple strate-gies. It is the pursuit of these simple goals, though,and their attainment with the help of low-order strate-gies, which lay the foundation for future cognitivefunctioning.

The Stages of Intellectual Development:

Sensorimotor Stage:This stage in Case's- theory basically corresponds toPiaget's first stage. As the name implies, intellec-tual development, during this time, centers aroundsensory objects and motor activity. The differencein Case's theory lies mainly in his rigor of experi-mental design and the detailed description and chartingof mental operations which are typically performed bychildren at the various stages and substages.

In each stage children initially (OperationalConsolidation) follow a simple pattern of problemsolving:

1) recognizing the -* 2) forming a simpleproblem situation objective

3) devising a simpleone-step strategyfor its attainment.

During the next three substages these "executivecontrol structures" are refined to increasinglymore complex patterns.

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Therefore, during the final substage of each stage(Elaborate Coordination) the child would switch severaltimes back and forth between successive aspects of theproblem situation to successive steps in the objective,in order to finally develop a multi-step strategy toreach his/her objective.

1) 2)Problem 3) > 4) ObjectiveSituation 6)

7. Strategy

1)

2) ab

3)4)

Relational Stage:The structura- pattern during this period of earlychildhood is quite similar to the previous one. Theessential difference between the two periods is that .

whereas in the first 1 1/2 years of life the basicunits of thought are related to sensory objects andmotor activities, during the next four years theseunits are the relationships between those objects andactions.

Dimensional Stage:Dimensional thought in Case's theory is roughly equi-valent to Piaget's concrete operational thought. Theprogress through the substages, again, follows a simi-lar pattern as in the first two stages: from simpleproblem - objective - strategy, to - repeated back andforth movements between problem and objective to amulti-stepped strategy. In this stage the concept ofdimension is the key issue. Dimensions such as"weight," "height," and most importantly "number" willnow be mastered and incorporated into the problemsolving process.

Vectorial Stage:Case also refers to this stage as the "abstractdimensional stage." During this time, as duringPiaget's stage of formal operations, the child andlater the adolescent acquires the ability of abstractreasoning. Now, the child will not just be able todeal with a variety of dimensional relationships in hisproblem solving activities, but will also be able totake the magnitude of various dimensions into account.

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Again, progression from simple to complex controlstructures occurs, but now within the domain ofvectorial thnmaht,

For Case, then, intellectual development ischaracterized by changes in the child's "execu-tive control structures" which determine the child'sability and typical strategies for problem solving.

Executive Control Structures:This concept is central to Case's theory and thereforeneeds defining. The term refers to an integral mentalblueprint which represents a person's habitual way ofconstructing a particular problem situation, togetherwith his/her habitual procedure for dealing with it.(Case, 1985, p. 68). Therefore, executive control,structures are presumed to contain three essentialcomponents:

- a representation of the problem situation,- a representation of typical objectives, and- a representation of the typical strategy which isgenerally used to solve it (a set of metal steps).

Case's theory provides detailed, mapped accounts ofthese progressively more complex executive controlstructures for each of the four stages and theirsubstages, not just in general terms, but also asthey apply to various content domains.

Mechanisms of Stage Transition:Several key mechanisms are hypothesized to affect themovement through the stages. These are:

- Transition from one stage to the next involves thehierarchical integration of executive structureswhich were assembled during the previous stage.

- Movement from substage to substage, also, occursthrough the process of integration, but thisintegration need not be hierarchical.

- New executive structures are formed through prob-lem solving, exploration, imitation, and mutualregulation, all of which involve schematic search,evaluation, retagging, and consolidation.

- Instruction is a crucially important form of mutualregulation.

- Although the capacity for hierarchical integration cistructures is limited by the availability of short

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term storage capacity (see chapter 2,4 InformationProcessing), growth is achieved through increase inoperational efficiency at each higher stage andsubstage.

- This ir:rease in efficiency, in turn, depends onneurological factors, maturation, and practice.,

Summary:Case's approach to intellectual development, then,combines the technical rigor of the information pro-cessing approach with develcptental insights closelyakin to Piaget's work. In addition, in accord withBruner's theory, the culture and human environment ofthe growing child is seen as contributing vitally tointellectual development.

Following is a summary of key aspects of Case's theorywhich correspond to the three approaches which moststrongly influenced it:

Elements related to Piaget's theory:

- Development is seen as progressing through auniversal sequence.

- The rate of development is, at least in part,determined by internal variables.

Elements related to Bruner's theory:

- Essential structures are generated by a givenculture.

- Appropriately designed educational environmentsare essential if students are to realize theirfull potential.

Elementa related to the information processingapproach:

- Intellectual operations are conceptualized asexecutive control structure.

- Information processing terminology such as short termstorage space (STSS), processing capacity, executiveprocessing load (EPL), etc., are used to explainmental processes.

Practice is seen as having a place in any well-balanced curriculum.

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Educational Implications:Many of the above listed elements point directlyto the relevance of this theory for education. Inaddition, Case points to the following implicationsof his theory for education:

- High level insights and skills need activefacilitation in order to develop fully.

- To this end, first adult control structures, whichare used to deal with relevant problem situations,need to be analyzed.

- Second, develo?mental precursors of these high-level control structures must be analyzed.

- Third, educational activities need to be selectedwith two points in mind: 1) to be appropriate forthe current level of the students, and 2) to enablestudents to progress toward higher levels.

Curriculum therefore should be designed in such a wavthat it permits teachers to adapt it to individualneeds by making decisions concerning the followingfactors:

- the child's current developmental level,- the balance of independent and socially regulated

activities,- the degree of task simplification.

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2.6 SUMMARY OF COGNITIVE THEORIES

The previous chapters gave a brief overview of keyaspects of some important theoretical approaches tothe study of cognition. In contrast to the theoriesof social-emotional growth, the theories of cognitivegrowth, in general, were less concerned with questionsof development. In fact, only Piaget and recentlyCase, focused their research on the developmentalprogression of cognitive functioning. The othertheories, generally, were more interestedin the processes which are involved in learning ingeneral, than they were in considering cognitivefunctioning as it is influenced by the process ofmaturation. Therefore, typical cognitive developmentalcharacteristics according to crucial age levels, acrossall theories, could not be established (as they couldbe with regard to social-emotional development).

When looking, then, at an overview of the cognitivetheories (see Table VII) the reader will notice somerather unreconcilable views of: the learner, the goalcf learning, as well as ways of facilitating learning.Whereas it appears that aspects of some theories cancomplement each other (see Case), other theories arein diametrical opposition to each other philosophicallyas well as in goal and method (e.g., Behavioristic-Gestalt), and therefore do not seem reconcilable. Eacheducator, therefore, will have to do some "soulsearching" in order to re-evaluate, from time to time,his/her own position. Despite the philosophical andconceptual differences, though, it must be kept inmind, that aspects of all of the approaches to theprocess of learning have their place in instruction,and that concepts as well as practical implicationof the various theories may (and should) be usedeclectively according to: student characteristics,teacher characteristics, subject matter, andinstructional objective.

Finally, an awareness of tiK key aspects of variouscognitive theories is desirable when choosing andimplementing instructional strategies (see Part IIof this paper).

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Table VII: Summary of Theories of Cognitive Development

eory View of Learner Goal of Learning Key Concepts Learning isFacilitatedby=

ehavior-istic

conies

........

a passive orreactiveorganism withinnate reflexesandvneeds

.....

acquisition ofappropriateresponsepatterns

-stimulus/responseconnection

-conditioning-reinforcement

-externalstimuli-rewards-punishment-reinforcement?imitation

ognitive-estaltheories

a purposefulbeing in mutualinteraction withthe environment

development ofinsightful .

understanding ofstructure

-insight-perception-life space-concept-Gestalt

-perceptionaccording tolaws-desire forinsight-instructionwhich aidsunderstanding

Piaget a young scientistin the making

development oflogical,mathematical,scientificthought patterns

-developmentalstages

-equili:Iration-assimilation-accommodation

-internaldesire forequilibrium-naturaldevelopment- curriculumgeared tocurrent stageof development

Informa-tionProcessing

a manipulatorof symbols andprocesner ofinformation

becoming anefficientinformationprocessor

-computermetaphor-memory-task analysis-problem solving

increasinglyefficientinformationprocessingsystem-practice

R. Case a young problem-aolyci

development ofhigh-levelproblem solvingabilities

-developmentalstages-executivecontrolstructures-problemsolving

naturaldevelopmenttask analysis-carefullydesignedcurriculum-instruction-practice

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2.7 SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS

Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behaviourmodification. New York: Holt, Rinehart andWinston.

Bigger M.L. (1982). Learning theories for teachers.New York: Harper and Row.

Bruner, J.S. (1966).New York: Norton.

Case, R. (1985). Intellectual development: Birth toadulthood. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

Crain, W.C. (1980).and_Amjications. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHail.

4 4 -.

Gage, NJ," & Berliner, D.C. (1975). Educationalpsychology. Chicago: Rand McNally.

Gagne, R.M. (1985). The conditions of learning (4thed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Kuhn, D. (1984). CognitiveBernstein and M.E. Lambpsychology: An advancedHillsdale, NJ: Lawrence

development. In M.H.(Eds.), aemt-Inpmantaltextbook (pp. 133-180).Erlbaum Ass.

Lefrancois, G.R. (1972). gsychological theories andbuman learning: Kongor's report. Belmont, CA:Brooks/Cole Publishing.

Lewin, K. (1936). principles 9f topological psychology.New York: McGraw Hill.

Piaget, J. (1954). The construction of_Laalityiathachild. New York: Basic Books.

Skinner, B.F. (1974). About behaviourism. New York:Knopt.

Thomas, R.M. (1979).development. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth PublishingCompany.

S1$ - I

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PART II INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

Introduction:The purpose of this section is to provide the readerwith brief descriptions of major instructional stra-tegies. These various strategies am methods ofcreating favorable environments for learning. Thereader will notice that different strategies createdistinctly different learning environments. It isbelieved that the intelligent use of these tools -namely matching the strategies to a) the changingneeds of students b) different educational goals,n) teacher characteristics, and d) curriculum con-;cent is the key to effective instructional out-comes. Curriculum designers need to be aware ofthe scope and variety of alternative approaches toinstruction so that they may construct the frame-work that will enable teachers to provide diverselearners with the opportunity to reach a variety ofeducational goals.

The fact that the various models have distinctlydifferent goals explains that no one model ofinstruction is sufficient or universally applicable.

Most models can be adapted to a variety of agegroups or developmental levels. In other words,the models are not age-specific, rather they focuson different aspects of learning. The "Personal"and "Social" groups, for example, focus on humangrowth and self understanding, as well as inter-personal skills and social commitment, while the"Information-Processing" group is mainly concernedwith concept formation, models of inquiry and othermethods which are believed to increase intellectualcapacity.

Although strategies are described here as seperateunits, many can be successfully combined. Forexample, the essential principles of the CooperativeLearning approach can be successfully combined withaspects of inquiry techniqu,s.

We, in accord with Joyce and Weil (1980), believethat education should be a "cafeteria of alterna-tives" to stimulate personal growth and thus enableall students to reach their full potential.

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3 PERSONAL AND SOCIAL ORIENTED STRATEGIES

The personal and social oriented strategies share acommon concern for personal growth and the quality ofhuman interaction. While some of these strategies makethese goals their prime objective (e.g., ClassroomMeeting, T-Group, Awareness Training), others are aimedat helping to transmit content through socially orpersonally oriented strategies (e.g., Group Inves'-iga-tion, Cooperative Learning and Synectics).

As part of the Program Policy Proposals, the CurriculumReview Committee identified six categories of commonessential learnings. The personal and social instruc-tional strategies, which are describes in the followingchapters, are designed to foster growth in three ofthese six categories: communication skills, personaland social skills and values, and critical and creativethinking.

The sorientegte,etistrat, specifically, deal withtwo broad concerns: interpersonal relationships andconcepts of society. Those strategies which deal mainlywith interpersonal relationships offer a variety oftechniques which help students to deal more effectivelyand productively with each other, while those which dealwith concepts of society are aimed at the democraticprocess itself.

The person oriented strategies share a strong emphasison personal development toward growth and selfhood.They focus on helping students to understand theprocesses which individuals use to organize theirrealities. These models all seek to lead the indivi-dual to richer inter- and intrapersonal lives. Theyemphasize a nurturant educational environment, typi-cally advocating much room for flexibility and studentinitiative. This flexibility is essential, both, forthe full self-realization of each individual and for thenurturing of creativity. The development of creativity,in fact, is one declared goal of this group ofstrategies.

This chapter, therefore: will be opened with a section onSYNECTICS - a strategy aimed at developing creativity.

3.1 SYNECTICS

The synectics model for developing creativity wasdesigned by William Gordon (1961). It is based onfour assumptions about the nature of creativity.

1) Creativity is important in everyday activities.

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2) The creative process can be described.3) The process of creative invention is similar in

all fields.4) Creative thinking follows similar paths in groups

and individuals.

It is. fuxther assumed that once the creative process isbrought into awareness we can increase creative capa-city. He postulates that emotion and irrationality aremore crucial to creative thought than are the intellectand rationality. He maintains that these emotional,irrational processes must be brought to awareness inorder to increase problem solving abilities. In otherwords, once irrational processes are understood theycan be used purposefully and constructively to generatenovel, innovative approaches.

The vehicle of the Synectics Model is the metaphor.Through its guided 'ise creative problem solving (in thebroadest sense) is advanced in two ways: by making thestrange familiar or by viewing familiar things in newways.

Gordon described three kinds of metaphorical forms:

1) personal Analogy requires the student to empathizewith ideas or objects. This empathy should ideallyresult in the temporary loss of self into someother object. The greater the conceptual distanceis between the students identity and the analogicalform, the more fruitful is the exercise for theemergence of creative, original thought.

Four progressively complex levels of involvement inpersonal analogies are described:

First-person description of factsWell known facts are simply restated in the firstperson.

First-person identificationHere the student recites common emotions whichmight be connected to the object of the analogy.

Empathetic identification with a livinq_thinaThe student now identifies on an emotional levelwith the analogy.

Empathetic identification with_au.oliving objectThe person vividly and empathetically identifieswith an inorganic object.

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2) Direct_Analoqy is a comparison of two objects orconcepts. It superimposes the conditions of theproblem at hand onto another situation thus genera-ting novel ideas for dealing with existingproblems.

3) gnIalaelfa2dCanflict is the third metaphoricalform. Here two conflicting descriptions of anobject or condition are incorporated into a two-word statement (e.g. angry-game, discouraging-fun,etc.).

The purpose of these metaphorical exercises is tostretch the imagination, to visualize concepts andconnections between concept, to break out of mentalsets, and generally to wiaen students' perspectives.Synectics have been shown to promote more creativewriting, speaking and problem solving. Further, theprocess of taking on someone or something else'sidentity potentially increases students empathy andfurthers group cohesiveness.

Depending on the desired outcome different sequences ofsteps are suggested.

Following are brief outlines of two sequences of ana-logy formation procedures which were adapted from Joyceand Weil (1986, pp 169 and 175).

The first sequence shows the steps teachets should leadtheir pupils through if the goal is gict.,jaela....atudents_kCL

Ze2fainiliaritilingianctrAtiye ways.

1) The teacher asks the students tc describe the cur-rent problem situation as they see it.

2) The student then is encouraged to find directADAlogies for the situation.

3) After this one analogy is chosen and students per-sonally identify with it, attenpting progressivelyto become the analogy.

4) Looking at their descriptions from step one andtwo students now are to come up with as many aspossible compressed conflicts, finally choosingone of them.

5) Based on this compressed conflict another directanalogy is developed.

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6) Finally, teachers and students return to th.L., origi-nal problem situation and use the final analogyand/or other steps of the synectics experience towork on the solution to the problem.

In summary, as students progress through the steps ofthis model, no logical restraints are placed upon themin orde N increase the conceptual distance betweentheir owr )erience and the metaphor of the analogy.This gives free flow to innovative and original ideas.Only in step six is there a return to logical restric-tions as the new ideas will be incorporated into afeasible problem solution.

The second sequence is designed to assist in exploringthe unfamiliar. Here students are guided in connectingnew concepts with familiar ones. The steps of thisstrategy_to making the stranoe_familiar are as follows:

1) The teacher provides information on the new topic.

2) The teacher suge(ests a direatanaggy and studentsare asked to elaborate aspects of this analogy.

3) Students, then, are asked to become that analogythrough empathetic identification.

4) Following this, students are to explainsimilarities between the new material andthe analogy.

5) Students explore aspects of the analogy which donot fit.

6) Students then explore the topic on its own terms.

7) Finally students provide their own direct analogyfor the topic.

Synectics as an instructional strategy asks for moder-ate structure with the teacher initiating sequences butmuch freedom given to students for open-endeddiscussion.

There are many appropriate uses of synectics in thecurriculum. While the use of synectic techniques isdirected at developing creativity in groups as well asindividuals, it also creates a community of equals withstatus gained simply from contributing thoughts.

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Applications:Synectics may be used successfully in most subjectareas. Its principles can, be applied to discussicn,role play, art activities and may be used with studentsranging from middle years to high school as well asadults. Although applicable to an almost indefinitevariety of uses, it has most successfully been used inthe areas of creative writing, problem solving and thecreation and designing of products. In general, thestrategy is uoeful whenever a broadening of perspec-tives is desired.

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3.2 AWARENESS TRAINING MODEL

The central assumption underlying this strategy is thatan awareness of one's own needs and feelings is essen-tial in order to reach one's full potential. The orig-inator of this model, William Schutz (1958, 1967), hasdeveloped strategies which are believed to facilitatethis awareness.

The theory underlying awareness training states:

(a) that self-concept is based on relationshipswith others, and

(b) that in relationships with others, peoplehave three basic needs: inclusion, gontrol,and affection.

Awareness training is designed to help individuals tobecome aware of their feelings, and of how theirbehavior relates to the three basic needs. It isbelieved that through the process of awareness trainingthe individual will not only become aware of his/herown needs and feelings, but through it will be morecompetent in social interactioils, and will asume moreself-responsibility.

Key Elements:Awareness training is characterized by three guide-lines: take responsibility for yourself, focus onfeelings, and engage in feedback.

Responsibility implies:

- acknowledging that oneself is the source of one'sown difficulties

- taking responsibility for doing something aboutthese difficulties

- making one's own decisions

- taking charge of one's own life

- using language which reflects this responsibility(e.g., "I won't" instead of "I can't")

Focusing on feelings implies:

- discussion should concentrate on feelings whichaccompany the experience

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- do not focus on thoughts behind and reasons forexperiences - do not rationalize

- use language which reflects personal feelings (e.g.,"I feel" instead of "it seems to me")

Feedback implies:

- a willingness to give and receive feedback

- feedback needs to be specific and direct

- feedback should describe behavior not assiTs"labels"

Awareness t- :fling sessions generally consist of twophases: posing and completing a task, and discussingor analyzes,, keeping in mind the three above guide-lines, The facilitator provides low to moderate struc-ture mainly by setting the sequence of tasks. Theleader further ensures that an atmosphere of opennessand honesty prevails at all times during the sessions.

Application:Awareness training is one of many methods which may beused for the purpose of affective education, therefore,its prime focus on human emotions. Awareness train-ing may be used, for example, in the classroom for ashort period of time each day or at certain days of theweek. It can easily be adapted for age levels fromK -12.

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3.3 CLASSROOM MEETING MODEL AND LABORATORY TRAINING

Both of these models use group processes to facilitateintrapersonal growth and interpersonal interact:!onskills. 'Both use group dynamics to increase self-knowledge and self-direction, however their methods andbasic assumptions differ. The current chapter willonly hint at some of these methods and assumptions.The reader who desires to have more information onthese methods is referred to Joyce and Weil (1986) fora comprehensive summary of these techniques, or towritings of some of the originators of these strategies(e.g., Glasser, 1965, 1969; Shepard, 1964).

The Classroom Meeting Model:This strategy is based on Glasser's *Reality Therapy*which he adapted in this model to the classroomsetting.

The belief that most prlblems, which humans encounter,are the result of inadequate social functioningunderlies this model. It is further assumed, that ifthe following tour basic requirements are fulfilled,social functioning will be greatly improved:

faging_ReAlity: Individuals have to assess andchoose their behavior according to its consequencesto themselves and others.

- AsagmingResponsihility: Once behavior which isbased on reality has been chosen, individuals have toassume the responsibility for carrying it out.

- Commitment to Morality: Individuals have to setstandards for themselves as to what is "right" andthen be faithful to these standards.

- Intense Personal Involvement: Such involvement, forGlasser, requires both love and discipline.

The classroom meeting model, then, is the vehicle whichhelp- to build these four basic requirements. Studentsget together for social problem solving sessions. Thetopics are social problems which have arisen within theclassroom. The goal is toward a positive resolving ofthese problems without fault finding or blaming.

Each such meeting includes six phases:

establis'iing a climate of involvement- exposing the problem for discussion- making a personal value judgement

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- identifying alternate courses of action- making a ctamitment- after a time, assessing the effectiveness of new

behaviors

During these meetings, the teacher sets the generalcourse of the action but exhibits a nonjudgementalattitude. The teacher further needs to show warmth andbe a skillful facilitator of interpersonal discussion.

Laboratory Training or T-Group Model:The laboratory method is based on Lewin's concept oflife space (see part I) and was developed with hiscollaboration. The method is specifically designed toimprove interpersonal relations and personal flexibil-ity. Through the process participants gain increasedawareness of their own and others' feelings, as well asthe genuine differences between peoples with regard togoals, needs, and styles of approaching problems.Ideally, groups of about 10 members meet for extendedperiods (8-40 hours) in a setting which is removed fromtheir normal, everyday life. Therefore, this strategy,in its original form does not lend itself easily foruse in the day-to-day school life, but may be adaptedto "fit" the school day, or may be 'sed in specialsituations (e.g., extended field ttlps, etc.).

Without going into the details of this technique, fourkey characteristics shall be mentioned here:

- The method is non-directive: The facilitat-or doesnot "lead" in the commonly understood sensee nor doeshe/she provide an agenda or even goal. The resultingstress is intended to facilitate the emergence ofrear' issues and ultimately promote self-direction.

- An orientation toward group growth and individuallearning and personal development is characteristicof this method.

- A strict focus On the "here and now" makes theexperiences and the feedback of the session into,both, the topic of discussion and the n'aterial whichprovides the learning experience, rather than usingpast experiences ds the basis for discussion.

- Both, mmbers and "trainer" take the role ofobservant participant.

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The reader who would like to have a thoroughintroduction into the laboratory method is referred to:Bradford, Gibb and Benne (1964) or to Golembiewski andBlumberg (1970).

Application:The models are generally useful whenever the goal isto improve interpersonal relationships and or selfunderstanding.

Classroom meetings may be held as often as severaltimes a day or as rarely as a few times a week. Thetechnique is particularly useful for relatively briefmeetings at the start of the day to share experiences,to discuss topics of personal interest, and to plan theday's activities.

511e.Thz-zaupmosiel, on the other hand, is most suitablefor special times, away from tne day -to -day schoolsetting, when longer time blocks are available.

Both strategies: although adaptable to all age levels,are generally more accepted in the middle to upperlevels.

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3.4 ROLE PLAYING

The role playing model, which is described here, wasdeveloped by Fannie and George Shaftel (1984). Itagain, aims at improving so' ..21 skills and increasingself-awareness. But beyond this, it helps students tocollect and organize information, especially aboutsocial issues, it encourages reflection on Personal andsocial values, and it provides students with tools aswell as insights which enable them to deal with problemsituations in decent and democratic ways. Simply put,role playing allows the participants to deal withproblems through action: through identifying theproblem, acting it out, and discussing it.

Basic Assumptions:The strategy of role playing is based on the centralassumption that analogies of "real -life" problemsituations can be created and that, with the help ofthese analogies, experience-based learning can beachieved. Fol ..-4ng from this central idea are avariety of further assumptions:

- typical emotional responses may be elicited viarole play

- such emotions, both of self and others, may berecognized and analyzed

- analysis and discussion of enacted material is asimportant as the role play itself

- not only emotional content, but also intellectualcontent may be explored through role play

- further, attitudes, values, and belief systems ofself and others may be recognized with the help ofthis technique

- connections may be explored between such attitudes,values, and belief systems and behavior, as well asits consequences

- as a result, if necessary, personal attitudes andbelief systems may be reassessed or revised

The Concept of Role:"Role, in Shaftel's sense, does not just refer to aparticular "part° one may play, but is mainly under-stood from the psychological point of view theunique manner of relating to others which characterizPs

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each individual. These "roles" are shaped over manyyears through life experiences, relaticnships to otherpeople, and cultural and environmental influences.For a clear understanding of ourselves and others, itis crucially important to be aware of roles. It isbelieved that role playing promotes this understandingby forcing us to emerge ourselves in the roles cfothers, as well as to examine our own roles.

Method:The authors of this instructional strategy suggest aseries of typical steps which should structure the roleplaying sessions:

1) Vary upThe problem is identified and made explicit.Issues are explored, and role playing is explained.

2) CastingRoles are analyzed and players are selected.

3) 22tStAggDecide on line of actin and restate roles.

4) ErgpuationofaisarvarsDecide what to look for and assign specificobservation tasks.

5) The PlayHave the "actors" enact the story line (fairlybrief).

6) IliaMIE$141142111avalUILLArtDiscuss action and major focus. Develop nextenactment.

7) Re-enactmentRe-enact the "play" taking into consideration theprevious discussion and evaluation, (steps 6 and 7may be repeated several times)

8) Experience Sharing ard G,:neralizationReJate aspects of the enacted problem situationto ,,,urrent real-life problem. Explore generalprinciples of behavior.

The teacher assumes the responsibility for structuringthe sessions, initiates the various steps of the model,and guides the students within each step. Students, onthe other hand, determine the content and shape theenactment of the problem.

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Application:Role playing not only is used to improve social skillsand self- ani social awareness, but also serves as ahighly useful tool to practice specific skills. Forexample, in a career guidance program this techniqueis often used to practice job interview skills.

Other models which utilize role playing to exploreproblems, are Psychodrama, for example, which is usedin the are' of psychotherapy, and fiocial Simulation,which uses :i.nteractive games to help students exper-ience various social processes, to examine theirreactions to them, and to develop decision-makingskills.

Role playing can be adapted for the use with studentsfrom K-12 as well as adults.

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3.5 COOPERATIVE MODELS OF INSTRUCTION

Cooperative instructional strategies are characterizedby the placing of students into small, interdependentgroups which are heterogeneous in terms of ability,racer culture and sex, and In which the members helpeach other while working toward a common academic goal.A variety of different cooperative methods have beendesigned. Among them are: Student Team-AchievementDivisions, Teams-Q1megmloarnaments (both were developedat the John Hopkins University), Jigsaw and Jigsaw II(developed by Aronson et. al.), LgaLaingallsethe: (de-veloped by Johnson and Jnhnson), CO-OPCO-CO (developedby Kagan), and Group investigation (developed byThllen). Despite variations in procedures, allmethods apply two central principles:

- cooperative incentives and- cooperative task structures.

This chapter will briefly describe "Group Investiga-tion" as one example of these cooperative models. Formore information on any of the other t.lchniques, theinterested .reader is referred to the writings of theauthors of these theories.

Group Investigation:Thelen's Group Investigation Model combines principlesand dynamics of the democratic process with those ofacademic inquiry. The classroom is seen as analogousto a larger society. Therefore, as in society in gen-eral, students have a natural urge to create a workingsocial order for the4.r own "microsociety." The ener-clies, which are generated by this urge, can be chan-neled through the technique of group investigation,to accomplish intellectu,..1 as well as social goals.

Basic Concepts:Three concepts are central to group investigation:inquiry, knowledge, and the dynamics of the group.

Inquiry needs as its motivator an event or problemwhich generates puzzlement or curiosity. AY:houghthe teacher may provide the students with t,te problemsituation, the students will have to be the ones whoidentify the specific parameters of the problem, whoformulate a plan of action, and who work actively onits solution. Genuine inquiry by students will not,occur if the teacher carries the main responsibilityor if the end-product precedes the "inquiry" process.

KnDsiledge is the final goal of inquiry. For Thelen,knowledge is the "application of the universals and

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principles drawn from past experience to presentexperience."

Dynamics of the Group:The group context, in which individuals are con-fronted with various reactions, alternatives, opinions,personal needs and ways of approaching problems,facilitates this experiential knowledge.

Method:The followi,j series of stages is suggested by Thelenfor Group Investigation:

1) problem Situationstudents encounter (planned or unplanned) aproblem situation which may be in the formof a verbally presented hypothetical situation,or it may be a "real life" experience.

2) Reaction to the ProblemStudents explore their reactions to 'he problem.

3) Problem DefinitionStudents organize a plan of action, (e.g., assignstudy tasks, roles, etc.).

4) independent and Group StudyStudents pursue independently and in groups theirassigned tasks.

5) AraiyairsStudents analyze their progress and the processinvolved.

6) Recycle_ActivityBased on the conclusions of the analysis thecycle is repeated with new problems which mayhave grown out of the previous process. Alldecisions and activities are guided by theprinciples of the democratic process. Struc-ture is not imposed externally, but based ongroup decisions made by the students. Teachersplay a facilitative role and function as "aca-demic counsellors."

Application:Cooperative teaching strategies can be used in mostsubject areas and across all grade levels. They appearto be specifically beneficial for children of nat.,veancestry beccase of the non-competitive nature of thesestrategies.

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3.6 SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS (Personal and SocialStrategies)

Aronson et al (1978). Thaaigaawalaasmoom.Sage Publications.

Bradford, Gibb, & Benne. (1964). T -Group theory andlaboratory method.

Glasser, W. (1969). Schools without failure. New York:Harper and Row.

Glasser, W. (1965). ReAlitytharapy. New York: Harperand Row.

Golembiewski, & Blumberg. (1970). Zepsitivityo_avh

Gordon: W.J. (1965). The metaphorical way of knowing.In Education of yid.= by G. Kepes (Ed.). New York:George Braziller.

Gordon, W.J. (1961). Zynectics. New York: Harper andRow.

Gwillian et al. (1983). Working together, learningtogether: The co- operatively structured classroom.Saskatoon: Saskatchewan Teachers' Federation.

Johnson, D., & Johnson, R. (1975). Learningtogethexand al9ne. Englewood Cliffs, Nt7: PrenticeHall.

Joh6son, D., & Johnson, R. (1974). Instructional goalstructure: Cooperative, competitive andindividualistic. Review of Educational Research, AA:213-240.

Joyce, 13., & Weil, M. (1986). Models of teaching(3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ; Prentice Hall.

Lewis, H., & Streitfeld, H. (1970). Growth games.New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc.

Schutz, W. (19J7). Joy: :IRAnilmlhumarAulcantaa. NewYork: Grove Press.

Shaftel, F., & Shaftel, G. (1982). EillaRlaying_inthe curriculum. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall.

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Slavin, R.E. (1978). Student teams and achievementdivisions. journal of Research and Development inEducation, 12: 39-49.

Thelen, H. (1981). The classroom society: Theconstruction of education. Halsted Press.

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4 BEHAVIORAL ORIENTED STRATEGIES

The behaviorally oriented strategies are based on prin-ciples advanced by classical and operant conditioningtheory. EL%ensive research has demonstr:Ited the effec-tiveness of behavioral methods for a broad spectrum ofapplications including educationul ones. Some basicassumptions underly all the behavioral strategies.Among them are the following;- behavior is lawful and subject to external variables of

the environment- maladaptive behavior is acquired through learning- therefore, it can be modified through the learningprocesses

- regardless of the broad goal, behavioral goals needto be specific, discrete and individualized

4.1 MASTERY LEARNING, INDIVIDUALLY PRESCRIBED INSTRUCTIONAND DIRECT INSTRUCTION

This chapter briefly discusses three behavioralstrategies which all have as their main goal themastery of content. They are based on the assump-tion that if goals are precisely defined most stu-dents will be able to reach an acceptable degree ofcompetence on any given task.

Mastery Learning:The concept of Mastery Learning is based on JohnCarroll's glefinitiondaptit_udeas the_alauntQf

ye" material.This definition has several important iJplicat;ons:It suggests that:- if sufficient time is provided almost anybody can

master any given subject- instruction (time and method) has to be geared to

individual student's needs

It I

The degree of mastery of any subject therefore,according to Carroll, depends on the dlowingvariables:- time allowed- perseverance of the student- quality of instruction- ability of the student to understand the

instruction- the student's aptitude

Carroll's ideas have been transformed by Bloom andotheis into specific instructional strategies. The

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following characteristics are typical of most of thesemodels:1) Mastery is defined in terms of a set of major

objectives.2) The domain which is to be learned is then divided

into a set of relatively small units, each withtheir own set of objectives.

3) Learning material is identified and appropriateinstructional strategies are selected.

4) Units are accompanied by brief diagnostic testswhich monitor student progress and identify problemareas.

5) Based on this test data, individualized additionalinstruction is provided.

Individually Prescribed Instruction:Different behavioral models emphasize different aspectsof behavioral theory. For example, Individually Pres-cribed Instruction (IPI), as the name implies, puts itscentral focus on gearing instruction to the needs ofeach individual student. To this end, environmentalconditions in the classrom leve to be arranged so thateach student can work at its own pace through a se-quence of instructional units. Only if a specifiedminimum degree of competence is acquired does he/sheproceed to the next unit. Therefore, emphasis isplaced on frequent evaluation.

Since careful sequencing of material is essentialto the success of this model, objectives need to bespecific and carefully chosen so as to provide mean-ingful streams of content with each one building onthe preceding one. Units are designed to representdifferent levels of progress and to provide logicalbreak-points in the material.

An example of this type of behavioral model, with thecentral focus on individualized instruction is theLanguage Laboratory which has proven extemely usefulin the teaching of foreign languages.

Direct Instruction:This model of instruction has proven to be effectivespecifically in the areas of reading, mathematics, andthe acquisition of basic skills; in particular withstudents from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. Thetechnique serves an important function within the totaleducational picture. Despite- this general usefulness,it has to be kept in mind, that this strategy shouldnot be used exclusiv7ly since studies indicate it maynot adequately promote abstract thinking skills,creativity, and problem solving.

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Method:The lEarning environment during Direct Instruction istask centered, teacher directed, and highly structured.

On the most general level this strategy involves 1) theteacher explaining a new concept to the large group,2) the testing of student-understanding by controlledpractice, 3) continued guided practice under theteacher's supervision, and finally 4) independentpractice by the student. Since this model places soheavy an emphasis on practice it is sometimes referredto as practice Model.

The steps, then, which characterize the DirectInstruction Approach may be summarized as follows(adapted from Joyce and Weil, 1986):

1) OrientationTeacher establishes framework of lessonTeacher orients students to new materialTeacher reviews previous relevant learningTeacher clarifies purpose of the lessonTeacher explains the procedures for the lesson

2) PresentationTeacher presents new concept or skillTeacher provides representation of taskTeacher checks for students' understanding byconvergent questioningTeacher provides feedback to students' responses

3) Structured PracticeTeacher guides students through practice in lockstep fashion (often with use of overhead)Students respond to questionsTeacher provides corrective feedback for errorresponses and reinforces correct practiceVisual representation of the task (VRT) isavailable

4) Guided PracticeStudents practice semi-independently (teacher isin room)Teacher monitors student's practice (circulates)Teacher provides corrective feedback wherenecessaryTeacher refers students to VRT as a resource

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5) Independent PracticeStudents practice on their own (after achievingaccuracy level of 85-90%) either in the classroomor at homeFeedback is delayedIndependent study occurs several times over anextended period

Applications:The three strategies which were outlined above all canbe adapted for use with students from K-12 and adults.

Zactery learning and individually prescribed instruc-tion are most helpful in any highly skill-orientedsubject area (e.g., typing), but may be successfullyused in almost any subject area.

Direct instruction is a most effective strategy in thebeginning levels of basic skills instruction (e.g.,mathematics and reading.)

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4.2 CONTINGENCY MANAGEMENT

Contingency management is the most common applicationof behavior theory in educational settings. It isbased on the systematic control of reinforcing stimuliafter the desired response has been made. In otherwords, it is based on the principle of operant condi-tioning in that desirable behavior is reinforced andundesirable behavior is ignored with the consequenceof extinguishing undesirable behavior or instillingdesirable behavior.

Reinforcers may be in one of three forms:- social, praise, a smile, attention, etc.- material, candy, toys, tokens, etc.- activity, once a (for the student) less desirableactivity (e.g., study) is completed satisfactorily,reinforcement is provided, by the privilege topartake in a more desirable activity (e.g., play,recess, crafts, reading, etc.).

The choice of the appr9priate reinforcer is cruciallyimportant for the success of contingency management.

Method:Contingency management follows five basic phases: 1)specifying the desired final performance, 2) assessingthe current behavior (baseline), 3) formulating thecontingency management programs, 4) implementing theprogram, and 5) evaluating the program.

Phase One: nesmecifying_pf the desired finalbehavior involves:- the identification of the target behavior,- specification of the behavioral outcome (Which is the

response to be reinforced? What is the behavioralobjective?),

- developing a scheme for measuring the behavior (e.g.,specimen description, time sampling).

Phase Two: The assessing of the entering behaviorinvolves:- observing and recording of frequenee and/or nature

and context of relevant behavior (establishing thebaseline).

Phase Three: The formulation of the contingency_management plan involves:- planning appropriate structure of the environment

(e.g., physical environment, learning materials,etc.),

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- selecting appropriate reinforcers according tostudent characteristics,

- formulating behavior-shaping procedures(gradual withdrawal of cues).

Phase Four: The implementation of the contingency_management plan involves:- the arranging of the learning environment accordingto plan (see phase three),

- the informing of the students of target behavior andreinforcers (some other behavioral models do notinclude this step),

- maintaining the reinforcement and behavior-shapingschedules.

Phase Five: The evaluation phase involves:- deliberately structured evaluation of the success ofthe program according to the original behavioralobjectives.

The social atmosphere, in this model, is highlystructured by the teacher through a planned rewardsystem and the carefully designed environment.

Application:Contingency management has been shown to be successfulin reducing a variety of maladaptive behaviors. It hasfurther proven to be useful, in developing new desir-able behaviors. The strategy can be used to developsocial and self-management skills, as well as academicskills. Finally, contingency management is an effec-tive technique for maintaining existing desirablebehaviors.

The strategy can be adapted for all grade levels but ismost appropriate at the lower grade levels.

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4.3 SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS (Behavioral Strategies)

Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behaviimodification. New York: Holt.

Block, J.H. (1971). Mastery learning: Theory andpractice. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Bushell, D. Jr. (1970). The behavior analysisclassroom. Lawrence, Kansas: University of KansasDepartment of Human Development.

Carroll, J.B. (1973). A model of school learning.Teachers College Record, .64: 722-733.

Resnick, L. (1967). Design of early learningcurriculum. Pittsburgh, PA: University ofPittsburgh Lcarning Research and Development Center.

Thoreson, C.E., & Mahoney, M.J. (1974). Behavioralself-control. New York: Holt.

Wolper Y. (1969). The practice of behavior therapy.Oxford: Pergamen Press.

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5 INFORMATION PROCESSING STRATEGIES

The information processing strategies share a commmonemphasis on intellectual development. The focus in thisgroup of strategies is on how students process, organize,and analyze information, as well as on the way problemsare articulated, and solutions are generated. Theparticular strategies which are discussed in this sectiondeal with: concept attainment, ways to provide advanceorganizers for the structuring of content material,techniques which promote deductive and scientificthinking processes, as well as inquiry techniques.Further this section looks at a strategy, based onPiaget's theory which focuses on gearing instruction tostages of maturity in students, and finally, a strategywhich is designed to enhance the ability to assimilateand retain information, is briefly discussed.

5.1 CONCEPT ATTAINMENT

Concept Attainment is based on the work of Bruner andhis associates. The prime goal of this strategy is todevelop inductive thinking through concept developmentand analysis. It involves relatively easy to learnsteps, but requires a good understanding, by theteacher, of the theoretical background if it is tobe truly effective as a tool to teach conceptualthinking.

Since the relevant aspect.: of Bruner's theory werediscussed in Part I section 2.2.3, theoretical back-ground to the concept attainment model will not bereiterated here.

Generally, in the reonceatatain=attiosiel, cluesare supplied by the teacher from which students areto determine the identity of concepts. In contrast,in the Inductive_Thinking Model, which is describedin the next section, students are engaged in the pro-cess of concept formati= (see Part I section 2.2.3)by grouping examples together on a variety of basesto form as many conceptual groups as possible.

Concepts:Concepts, according to Bruner, have five elements:names, examples, attributes, values, and rules.Since these elements have crucial implications forthe structure of the concept attainment method, theywill be briefly described here:

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1) The name, of the concept is the term given to aparticular category (e.g., cat, tree, school,etc.).

2) Examples are the instances of a concept. In theinitial stages of the strategy the teacher willsupply the students with positive examples of theconcept (those examples which are instances ofit) and negative examples (those which are notinstances of the concept). Students learn torecognize positive examples of the concept aswell as negative examples, even if these areclosely related.

3) Attributes are those features which place examplesinto a given category. Essential attifbutes arethose without which an example could not beconsidered as belonging to the category.

4) Since most examples (objects, events) are notstandardized but instead occur in a great variety,attributes have a value range within which theexample qualifies for the concept under considera-tion. For example, apples can be of a variety ofroundish shapes, but if the example is too oblong,it does not any longer qualify for the concept"apple" but may well be an example of the concept"pear" (if other essential attributes for "pear"are also present).

5) A rule is a statement which specifies the essentialattributes of any given concept. In the classroomsetting, rules generally are developed toward theend of the concept attainment process.

In summary, then, concepts are distinguished fromone another by their distinguishing attributes andby the range and value of their essential or criticalattributes. This information can be combined to for-mulate a male wlqch specifies the essential character-istics of a conc.:pt.

Noisy AttriL tes:One of the difficulties which exists when concepts haveto be learned through observation in the "real world"is that examples do not appear in their pure form(meaning only with their typical and critical attri-butes) but that they generally are embedded in manynonessential features. Bruner refers to these non-essential attributes as Noisy attributes. It is theteacher's task, when teaching students new concepts,to "remove the noise" from the examples.

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Concept attainment can occur under two distinctlydifferent learning conditions which Bruner calledaelectiftn-, and reception conditions. When selectionconditions are present? examples are not identified as"yes" or "no", instead, the learner selects from a poolof unmarked examples those which are part of the con-cept. When reception conditions are present, examplesare clearly marked as "yes" and "no". Depending onwhich condition exists, different thinking strategiesare employed, and consequently methods of thetructionalso differ accordingly.

Method:The Concept Attainment model which is appropriate underreception condition involves the following steps:

1) The presentation of examples and the identificationof the eonc.vt involves that:

- labelled ("yes", "no"), carefully selectedexamples are presented to students

- attributes of examples are compared by students

- students develop and test their hypothesis aboutthe concept

- students formulate the rule of the concept

2) The students testing of their attainment of theconcept involves that:

- students identify new, unlabelled examples asbelonging or not belonging to the concept

- the original hypothesis is rejected or confirmed

- students generate additional examples of theconcept

3) The thinking strategies which were employed areanalyzed. This involves that:

- students describe their thoughts which lead themto the hypothesis

- students discuss the roles of attributes andhypothesis

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This reception model of teaching for concept attainmentfocuses on familiarizing students with the basic ele-ments of "concepts" and how these are used to formconcepts.

In the gelection model of concept attainment, examplesare presented unlabelled, and it is up to the students

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asking questions, forming more examples, testinghypothesis and formulating rules. This model movesstudents closer to the ability to identify conceptsin natural, unorganized, non-classroom situations andto conceptual thinking in general.

All concept attainment strategies require a relativelystructured environment with the teacher, especially inthe early stages, controlling the process. Materialsand examples have to be carefully selected andpresented.

Application:Concept attainment strategies may be used: to teachnew concepts, to teach the process of concept attain-ment, and to advance inductive thinking in general.The strategy helps students to think conceptually byenabling them t, sort more effectively through themultitude of data which surrounds them. ConceptAttainment can be used with appropriate adaptationsfor all grade levels.

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5.2 INDUCTIVE THINKING

The Inductive Thinking Model was developed by HildaTaba. It incorporates several teaching strategieswhich are aimed at developing inductive thinkingprocesses. Although Taba's model, like Bruner's,focuses on conceptual thought (and in fact usesBruner's notion of concept as its theoretical base)it reaches beyond concept formation as its major goalfor instruction. Instead, its mandate is the system-atic teaching of logical, conceptual thought processesfor the purpose of interpreting data, the predicting ofconsequences which might arise out of the data, and ofconditions which were established earlier in theprocess.

The three strategies which constitute the basicinstructional framework for Taba's model, therefore,each address one of the following instructional goals:concept formation, interpretation of data, and theapplication of principles. Taba's model has been mostnoted for its use in social studies curricula. Becausethe skills and insights which are gained through theuse of each of the three strategies build on eachother, these strategies have to be u3ed sequentially.

Method:Each of the three strategies consist of three steps.For each step Taba describes the kind of activity whichis carried out, the mental operations the studentsperform, and typical questions which the teachermight use to elicit appropriate student responses.

Although the strategies appear rather similar on thesurface, the subtle differences in method and goalallow teachers to lead their students to delve intothe given subject at increasingly complex leve15.

strategy_me=_conc=tE2mmatim:Step one:Activity: Identify and enumerate data whichis relevant to the subject or problem.Mental Operation: Differentiation.Typical Questions: What did you see/hear?

Step two:Activity: Group the items which wereidentified according to similarities.Mental Operation: Abstraction.

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Typical Questions: What belongs together? Whatare the reasons for this? On what basis.,.?

Step three:Activity: Categories for the groupings are foundand labelled.Mental Operations: Hierarchical item organization.Typical Questions: What belongs to what? How couldyou call this group? Which one is the more impor-tant/more general group?

Strategy Two - Interpretation of Date:

aepant:Activity: Important aspects of the data areidentified by the students.Mental Operations: Differentiating.Typical Questions: What did you discover,notice, find?

Step two:Activity: Students explain aspects of theidentified information and relate them toeach other.Mental Operations: Determining cause/effectconnections, discove-ing relationships.Typical Questions: Why dia this happen?How does it relate to...?

Step three:Activity: Students make inferences based on theinformation which has been accumulated, th_y arereaching beyond the strict confines of the data.Mental Operations: Extrapolating, findingimplications.Typical Questions: What effect could this have?What does this mean in relationship to...? Whatmight be the consequences?

Strategy Three - Application of Principles:

Stet? one:Activity: Students try to predict consequences ofthe data. They attempt to explain unfamiliar aspectsof the problem, and form hypothesis.Mental Operations: Analyzing and retrieving knowledge.Typical Questions: What would happen if?

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Step two:Activity: Explanations and supporting argumentsfor the hypothesis are sought.Mental Operations: Exploration of causalrelationships.Typical Questions: Why do you think this wouldhappen? What might be the reasons for...?

,yep three:Activity: Predictions are verified by thestudents. Conditions which would verifypredictions are identified.Mental Operations: Logical methods and factualinformation are used to determine necessary andsufficient conditions.Typidal Questions: Under what conditions wouldthis always be true? Under what conditions wouldthis generally be true?

In general, the Inductive Thinking Model works best ina classroom atmosphere of cooperativeness. The teacherprovides a fair amount of guidance through his ques-tioning techniques, especially in the earlier phasesand as long as the technique is new to the students.The teacher closely monitors the students' level ofinformation processing (through their answers) sothat he can implement the appropriate strategy.

Application:Inductive Thinking strategies were first used in thearea of social studies, but since the primary goal ofthis technique is to develop thinking capacity, it isvery well adaptable to other curricula (e.g., English,Science). The model, especially the concept formationpart, can be adapted for use with relatively youngchildren. The strategy as a whole, though, isparticularly suitable for middle and upper grades,to help these students to process a large amount ofinformation, as well as to promote more general goalssuch as the development of In increased sensitivityto language, '-he familiarization with logical thinkingprocesses, as well as concept formation.

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5.3 INQUIRY TECHNIQUES

inquiry techniques which are described here,view the concept of "inquiry" in the academic/scientific sense. To inquire here means to lookat a problem analytically, to examine the datarelated to the problem, and to develop and testhypotheses.

Typical examples of such strategies are:

- The Biological Science Inquiry Model, (developedby Schwab in the 1960s) which focuses on teachingof the research systen which is used in biology,but which may be applied to other domains as well.In this model, real-life scientific studies are de-scribed with a certain crucial part being omittedin the description (e.g., design of the study, howto control for a crucial variable, how to drawconclusions from the data, etc.). During the courseof each lesson, students work to "fill in themissing part. This strategy conveys both the processof biological inquiry, and subject matter to thestudents.

- The Social Inquiry Model (developed by ByronMassialas and Cox, 1966) uses the method ofscientific inquiry in order to reflect uponand examine values and issues which affect ourpresent society. The strategy involves thepresentation of a dilemma to the students, whoin turn:develop and clarify hypotheses,explore assumptions and implications,explore the validity of assumption and data,

- gather facts to support or questionhypotheses, andformulate a solution or generalized statementconcerning the dilemma.

The Inquiry Training Model:This model was developed by Suchman, 1962. Likethe models which were described above it is basedon methods used in scientific inquiry. This modelis discussed here in more detail.

The Inquiry Training Model is strongly processoriented, focusing on process skills involved inscientific inquiry such as:- observing, collecting and organizing data,

identifying and controlling variables,- developing and testing hypotheses, and- making inferences from data.

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These skills, translate into a technique of disciplinedsearching for answers to puzzling questions. Accordingto Suchman, a further aim of this technique is to im-press upon students the notion that all knowledge istentative, open to questioning, and to alternativeexplorations.

If properly implemented, the technique should resultin its ultimate goal, the development of independentlearners.

Method:Suchman formulated a number of rules which areessential for the success of this model:

1) Student questions should be phrased in such away that they can be answered by the teacherwith "yes" or "no." This encourages studentsto think independently and form "mini-hypotheses."

2) Once called upon, a student may ask as manyquestions as he/she wishes. Students shouldnot feel pressured to give up the floor beforetheir line of questioning is completed.

3) Statements of theories are not answered with"yes" or "no" by the teacher, instead studentswill be encouraged to test their theories.

4) Any student can test any theory at any time.Students are encouraged to discuss each other'stheories.

5) Students are allowed to confer with oneanother regarding their theories in orderto facilitate cross-fertilization of ideas.

6) The learning environment should provideinformation (e.g., resource books, experi-mental kits, idea books).

These rules shape the class climate and the inter-action patterns between students and teacher. Theprocess itself, involves five distinct phases whichare traversed in sequence:

Phase One:- The rules of the inquiry process are explained

to the students.

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- A puzzling or discrepant event is presented.It is important that the event or problem ischosen carefully (the outcome has to be sur-prising and not easily predictable) so thatit truly generates a spirit of inquiry.

Phase Two:- Data is gathered and verified.- Student questions at this stage are limited tofinding out about the identity and nature ofobjects and conditions surrounding the puzzlingsituation. (Facts are verified.)

Phase Three:- More data is gathered and analyzed.- Student questions now seek to explore

relationships between variables.- Verbal and actual experiments are carriedout to explore these relationships.

- Students are made aware of the differencebetween questions aimed at verifying factsand those which explore relationships.

- Students hypothesize about causalrelationships.

Phase Four:- Rules, which attempt to fully explain theproblem, are formulated and discussed.

Phase Five:- The inquiry process is analyzed.- The strategy is examined.- More effective strategies are developed.

The process in this strategy is largely controlled bythe teacher but the intellectual environment has to beopen so that all relevant ideas are heard and seriouslyconsidered. Inquiry into everything should be stronglyencouraged, both data and possible solutions should beopen to questioning at all times. The teacher is res-ponsible for the selection of the problem, the teachingand maintaining of the proper pr -:educes, and thefacilitating of open discussion. As students becomemore familiar with the model, some of these functionsmay be carried out by the students themselves.

Application:Since Inquiry Training was originally based on themethodology of natural science research, the naturalsciences were its original area of application. Butthe model has proven also applicable for other subjectssuch as Social Studies and English to name just two.

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In fact, any subject where one may deal with problemswhich do not have readily apparent solutions orexplanations, may benefit from this teaching strategy.

Since the central aim of Inquiry Training is thedevelopment of independent learners and since itactively promotes critical thinking strategies,Inquiry Training effectively promotes two of thecommon essential learnings which have been namedas necessary for all students by the Core CurriculumAdvisory Committee.

Although this strategy, like most, can by a skillfulteacher be adapted to all grade levels, it is mostappropriate with those children who have some basicskills in place, since it requires some independentwork by students.

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5.4 ADVANCE ORGANIZER MODEL

This model, which was developed by David Ausubel,has as its main goal the facilitation of meaningfullearning of subject matter. Therefore, in contrastto the three information processing techniques whichwere previously described, Ausubel focuses on contentlearning rather than on process learning.

The model provides strategies which are aimed atimproving the presentational methods of teachers,by providing them with a framework for effctivelypresenting large amounts of information as meaning-fully and efficiently as possible.

Basic Assumptions:- Ausubel holds that learning by way of lecture-typepresentations does not necessarily have to be in theform of rote memorization, especially if material ispresented in such a way that new material is put intoits proper global and contextual framework.

- Meaningful learning, according to Ausubel, entailsthe relating and reconciliation of what the learneralready knows with the newly learned material. Thisconnection between previous knowledge and newlyacquired knowledge allows for the application of thenew material to a variety of new contextual settings(transferability).

- Receptive learning (as it occurs during lectures) hasoften been criticized as passive learning. Ausubelstrongly disagrees with this notion, pointing outthat the receptive learner has to perform a number ofimportant, active mental operations in order to makethe new material meaningful. Among these are:

- the relating of new material to existingknowledge,deciding on the appropriate concept under whichto mentally "file" the new knowledge,

- looking at the new material from differentangles,

- reconciling it with previous information, and- attaching it to a new terminology.

Since these operations, according to Ausubel, are notgenerally easily performed spontaneously, chis modelproposes to assist students with these mentaloperations.

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Ausubel further belieJes that the cognitive structurespeople form in their minds, are directly related to theway the subject matter was organized when it was pre-sented. He believes that each discipline has a uniquehierarchical structure of relevant concepts and that itis the role of the lecturer/teacher to relate new sub-ject matter to this structure. He further maintainsthat new material is only truly understood, retained,and transferrable if it is related to the existingknowledge and to the appropriate hierarchical, concep-tual framework. Therefore, the model emphasizes theimportance of, both, sequencing and hierarchicallystructuring of new learning material.

Advance Organizers:The main idea in this method is, as the name implies,to provide the students with advance organizers(ideational anchors). Ausubel describes theseas follows:

An Advance Organizer is introductory materialthat is presented ahead of the learning taskand is at a higher level of abstraction andinclusiveness than the learning task itself.Its purpose is to explain, integrate, andinterrelate material...with previouslylearned material. (Ausubel, EducationalPsychololgy, p. 152).

There are two types of advance organizers:

- expository advance organizers are most usefulfor use with relatively unfamiliar subject matter.They provide a general scaffolding, a hierarchicalstructure, to which new material can be related.

- Comparative advance organizers are more usefulwith fairly familiar material. They relate newconcepts to other, more or less similar ones.They establish similarities and differences be-tween those closely related concepts, thuspreventing confusion and allowing fordifferentiation of related concepts.

Method:The strategy is composed of three major phases.Phase One: The presentation of the Advance Organizer

inname2:

- explaining the aims of the lesson to students,

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- organizing (scaffolding) of subject matterwhich involves the followirg:- critical attributes are identified,- related examples are given,- the concept is related to other similar

concepts,- related terminology is repeated, and- relevant previously acquired knowledge is

brought back into the students' awareness.

Phase Two: The presentation of the new materialinvolves:

- the presenting of new material in a form whichmakes the logical order and/or hierarchicalstructure of the learning material explicit,

- the relating back of material to the advanceorganizer.

Phase Three: The strengthening of the newly formedcognitive organization involves:

- the integrative reconciliation of the newmaterial,

To do this the teacher can:

- remind the students of the largercontext,

- ask for a summary of the main aspectsof the new material,

- repeat definitions,- explore with the students differences

as well as parallels to relatedmaterial,

- the promotion of active receptionlearning;

To encourage this the teacher may:

- ask students to relate the newmaterial to a single aspect of theirprevious knowledge,

- elicit additional examples of the newconcept or material,

- encourage students to translate theessence of the new knowledge intotheir own terminology or frame ofreference,

- have students examine the concept fromdifferent points of view,

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- have students relate the new knowledgeto other knowledge of a contradictorynature.

In general, the strategy of using Advance Organizersrequires the teacher to help the students, not only togain new factual knowledge, but also to put thisknowledge in the context of existing, previouslyacquired, frames of reference, both, in terms of thestudents' intellectual and experiential background.

The strategy is teacher oriented and controlled butrequires a climate which allows for free and opencommunication. The teacher's responses to students areaimed at clarifying facts, as well as relationshipsbetween facts, and at promoting a critical approach toknowledge.

Application:As mentioned earlier, the strategy is highly useful forstructuring lecture-type presentation in such a way,that students will become active, rather than passive,learners. Although basically teacher oriented, it isbelieved to transmit skills which will promoteindependent learning. The model provides a frameworkfor the acquisition and mastery of facts, a way ofrelating new facts or concepts to existing cognitivestructures, and it assists in the transferability ofknowledge to applications in different contexts.Therefore the technique is particularly useful forthose subjects or situations where a large amount ofconceptually interrelated knowledge needs to beconveyed, for example, when introducing the keyconcepts of a new discipline. The model isparticularly appropriate for use with students in themiddle and upper years, but may be successfully adaptedfor working with younger children.

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5.5 MEMORY MODEL

As mentioned in chapter 2.2 of Fart I of this document,memory plays a crucial part in the processing of infor-mation, as well as in knowledge acquisition and inreasoning capacity. For these reasons, an instruc-tional and self-monitoring strategy which explicitlyfocuses on the improvement of memory capacity, seemsto be of great practical value.

The strategy which is described here was developed byHarry Lorayne and Jerry Lucas and popularized in "TheMemory Book" (1974).

Basic Assumptions:The process of memorization is one of informationprocessing. From the many stimuli in the environment,first only those which attract the individual's atten-tion enter into short-tem_mamory, second, of thes,only those which are "rehearsed" enter loartarnmemory. Third, only if we develop retrieval cuesduring rehearsal, are we able to recall theinformation.

Memory can be improved by applying strategies toimprove the ability to attend to information, aswell as to develop sensory, episodic, and categori-cal cues.

Basic Concepts:The following concepts are essential components of mostmemory enhancing strategies.

lwareness Only what has entered our consciousawareness can be remembered.

Association New pieces of information can be easierremembered if they are associated to already existingknowledge.

Link Systc;it Most memory probDims may be broken downinto groups of two connected ideas. To enhance memoryof several unrelated ideas, Lorayne and Lucas suggestthe forming of ideational or visual links between theitems which are to be remembered.

Ridiculous Associations Tne stronger the image of theassociation, the easier it is to remember. The moreillogical, ridiculous, or impossible these images are,the easier it is to remember the information which isassociated with them,

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These effects may be achieved in several ways:- by the rule of substitution (horse rides man),- by the rule of exchanging proportions (small thingsbecome gigantic),

- by the rule of exaggeration, and- by the rule of action association.

SubstitadOEIrdSzatem This is a method by which theapparently abstract is made into something concreteor meaningful. Through this technique, the sound of aword which is to be remembered may be used as a triggerto generate a concrete association. For example, theword ALASKA is remembered by way of the phrase "I'llask her.*

Fey Word Finally, when a relatively long phrase orthought has to be remembered, a key word is selectedto represent the whole thought. This word should bethe one which represents the main idea of the thought.

Method:The memory model includes four distinct phases whichelaborate on the previously discussed critical steps ofmemory, namely attending to the material, establishingconnections, expanding images, and practicing recall.

Phase One: Attending to the learning materialTechniques are used that help students to concen-trate on the material:- identifying main ideas by: underlining, reflecting,listing, comparing, clarifying and rephrasing

Phase Two: Developing connectionsMaterial is made familiar and connectionsare established. Techniques used are:- link systems, key words, substitute words,associations

Phase Three: ZapandinsaimagagWhereas the previous phase established tultialassociations, this stage seeks to enhance theimages. Techniques used here are:- ridiculous associations, exaggerations, humor-ous dramatizations

Phase Four: practice and recallFinally students are encouraged to practice and askedto recall the material.

Overall, the memory model calls for a cooperativeclassroom atmosphere and a sense of team spirit.

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The teacher explains and facilitates the movementthrough the various stages.

Application:The model is applicable to all areas of the curriculum.It may be taught to groups as well as individuals.Perhaps the most valuable aspect of this model is itspotential for enhancing students independent studyskills. Por this effect to be present, it is essen-tial that the teacher makes the process and techniquesexplicit to the students, so that they, in turn, canuse it on their own to enhance their memory skills.The strategy is useful for students from K-12 as wellas adults.

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5.6 COGNITIVE GROWTH

A number of instructional strategies have been de-veloped which are to a greater or lesser degree basedon the theoretical work of Piaget. These strategieshave in common an emphasis on concrete experiences ofplay and problem solving, and a careful gearing of thelearning task to the developmental state of the stu-dents. While some strategies concur with Piaget'sstance of not rushing students' development, otherspromote techniques which are geared at acceleratingintellectual development. The model which is presentedhere calls for the gearing of curriculum and instruc-tional strategies to the learner's developmental stage,emphasizing broadening intellectual experiences ratherthan accelerating- intellectual development.

Teaching strategies which emphasize development in thePiagean sense are basically clinical in nature, in thatthe teacher gontimallymsesraesatudentslintaidevelopmente selects tasks which are appropriate fqx

atu-7" g

scents' responses in terms of developmental criter&a,-I. - u.development.

Since the basic assumptions which underly Piaget'stheory as well as the characteristics of his stagesof cognitive development were described in Part I ofthis document, this chapter will not reiterate thisinformation.

Method:The method described here is based on Piaget's"clinical .nterview" which is aimed at determiningthe child's stage of reasoning by carefully plannedquestioning which is aimed at testing the child'slimits of reasoning.

The model consists of three phases:

Phase One: Lonfrontation with a task, which is relevantta±12-e_sleaelppmentalata.seatheatudents-The choice of the task has to be carefully geared tothe developmental stage of the students. The taskshould be familiar enough to allow for assimilationto take place, while at the same time novel enough torequire some accommodation (see Part I section 2.3).The confrontation with the task may involve verbal,nonverbal or environmental interactions.

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Phase Two: Inquiry into students' levels of reasoning.The teacher probes into students' level of reasoningby asking for justification of his/her responses andby offering counter suggestions.

Phase Three: Transfer.Students' reasoning will be applied to related tasks.

Overall, this strategy requires that the teacher isvery familiar with Piaget's theory so that he/she maychoose stage-appropriate learning tasks and providemaximal learning environments, both, with regard tothe physical and organizational arrangements, andhis/her own interactions with the students. Theclassroom environment may range from a very struc-tural one, in which the teacher initiates and guidesmost activities and interactions, to a minimallystructured one, where the learning process is to agreater or lesser degree student guie-i. In anycase; the strategy calls for a social atmospherewhich fosters free, intellectual exchange.

Application:The model is useful for promoting social as well ascognitfve development. It may be used with indivi-dual students, for example in tutoring or assessmentsettings, but is equally well suited for classroomapplication.

Although Piaget's "clinical interview" was originallydeveloped for the assessment of logical/mathematicalthought, it can easily be adapted to other develop-mentally oriented frameworks. It has, for examplebeen successfully applied to Kohlberg's theory ofmoral development (see Part I, 1.2).

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5.7 SUPPLEMENTARY READINGS (Information ProcessingStrategics)

Ausubel, D.P. (1963). The psychology of neaningfulverbal learning. New York: Grune and Stratton.

Ausubel, D.P. (1960). The use of advance organizers inthe learning and retention of meaningful verbalmaterial. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51,267-72.

Bruner, J., Goodnow, J.J., & Austin, G.A. (1967).LsttLtiftALniacin. New York: Science Editions.

Eggen, P.D., Kauchak, D.P., & Harder, R.J. (1979).Strategies for teachers: Information processingmodels in the classroom. Englewood Cliffs, NewJersey: Prentice Hall.

Lorayne, H., & Lucas, J. (1974). The memory book.Briercliff Manor, NY.

Lucas, G., Meyer, D.M., Mizell, A.P., & Siegel, M.(Eds.). (1977). Exp?oring teaching alternatives.Minneapolis, Minnesota: Burgess Publishing.

Massialas, B., & Cox, B. (1966). Inquiry in SocialStudies. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Merrill, D.M., & Tennyson, R.D. (1977). Teachingconcepts; An instructional design guide. EnglewoodCliffs, New Jersey: Educational TechnologyPublications.

Nelson, L,N. (Ed.) (1969). The nature of teachin : Acollection of readings. Waltham, Massachusetts:Blaisdell Publishing.

Peterson, P.L., & Walberg, H.J. (Eds.). (1979).teaching: Concepts,

implications. Berkley, CA: McCutchan Publishing.

Pressley, IA" & Levin, R. (1982). The mnemonic keywordmethod. EgyigwalResearch, 52, 61-91.

Suchman, J.R. (1964). Studies in Inquiry Training. InPiaget reconsidered, R. Ripple and V. Bookcastle,(Eds.) Ithaca, NY: Cornell University.

Suchman, J.R. (1962). The Elementary School TrainingProgram in Scientific Inquiry. Report of the U.S.Office of Education, Project Title VII. Urbana:University of Illinois.

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Taba, H. (1967). Teacher's handbook for elementarySocial Studies. Reading, MA: Addison-WesleyPublishing.

Weil, M., & Joyce, B. (1978). Information processingmodels of teaching: Expanding your teachingrepertoire. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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5.8 SUMMARY OF INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES

Part II of this document provided "thumbsketch" out-lines of the characteristics of some of the more im-portant instructional strategies. This brief andselective overview points to the diversity of options,not only with regard to the number of choices, butalso with regard to the extent of differences ofapproaches which are represented by these strategies.Some of these differences are the result of:- various philosophical and theoretical views about

the nature of the learner (see Part I, Section 1),- various beliefs and theoretical views about the

learning process (see Part I, Section 2).

Other differences are due to the diversity of goalswhich form the mission of each of these strategies.When considering all strategies, these goals have arather wide spectrum but within each of the majorgroups (personal/social, behavioral, and informationprocessing) a great deal of overlap and agreementexist.

For example, the personal/social strategies as a group,to a greater or lesser degree, seek to:- develop self-awareness,- facilitate personal and interpersonal growth,- improve interpersonal and social skills,- develop cooperative behavior,- instill a sense of personal responsibility,- promote a broadening of perspectives,- develop personal and interpersonal problem-

solving skills,- promote creativity.

The behavioral strategies, which were described here,seek to:- facilitate the teaching of facts, concepts and

skills,- promote socially acceptable behavior,- facilitate learning for all students at theirown pace.

The information - processing strategies seek to:- facilitate the processing of information,- develop critical thinking,- develop inductive thinking,- promote meaningful content learning,- develop conceptual thinking,- teach independent study skills,- enhance memory capacity,- deepen and or accelerate cognitive development.

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Although there is a great deal of overlap with regardto suitable areas of application for the variousstrategies, with many of them indeed being applicableacross most areas of the curriculum, some strategiesare particularly well suited for certain subject areas.

In general, the paramalLE221Alatrateziaa aremost useful for group guidance activities, affectiveeducation and personal and creative problem solvingsessions. Nevertheless, most of these strategies mayalso be adapted to a variety of other curricular areas,such as English, Social Studies, etc.

The behavioral strategies are particularly well suitedfor highly skill oriented subject areas. But thesestrategies also have been found very useful for theteaching of more academic subject matter, as well asfor general classroom management and behavioralintervention.

Finally, the information-processing strategies aremost suitable for areas of the curriculum where largeamounts of subject matter have to be related by theteacher, and processed, stored, and at the appropriatetime retrieved by the students. Since these condi-tions apply to most school subject areas, the informa-tion-processing strategies are appropriate for a widerange of applications but are particularly useful insubject areas such as the natural and r ial sciences,social studies and English.

In summary,- strategies are most clearly distinguished by theirmain goals or missions,

- they are generally adaptable for use with most gradelevels although some are more commonly used witheither younger or older students,

- strategies show considerable overlap in area ofapplication as well as goals especially within eachof the main groups of strategies.

The choice of strategy for any given teaching situa-tion, therefore, is not a matter of any one absolutelyright or wrong model, but rather a matter of matchingsubject matter constraints, student characteristics,and the overall objective of the lesson, since anygiven strategy has the power to transform both contentand material through the kind of emphasis and processit uses. In other words, the same science contenttaught, for example, as a concept attainment lesson,

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or using advance organizers, will leave students withvery different skills, thoughts and values, as well aswith different ways of relating and transferring thenewly learned material to previous learning and to newsituations.

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Table VIII; Summary of Instructional Strategies(Personal/Social)

Strategy Theorist Main Goals Applications Grade Level

Synectics Gordon -to develop creativeproblem solvingskills-to promote broaden-ing of perspectives

-most subject areasspecifically:creative writingexploring problemsproduct design

. _

-middleanduppergrades

-adults

AwarenessTraining-

PerlsSchutz

-to develop self-awareness

-to promote self-directionto instill respon-sibility for ownactions

-affective education-group counselling

-adaptablefor R-12studentsandadults

ClassroomMeeting

Glasser -to facilitate inter-personal growth

-to develop a senseof responsibility

-affective education-group guidance-interpersonalproblem solving

-adaptablefor R-12studentsandadults

Labora-toryTraining(T-Groups)

Lewin -to improve inter-personal relations-to promote personalflexibility

-small groupsettings

-for extended timeperiods-removed from day-to-day schoolsetting

-uppergradesandadults

RolePlaying

Shaft4 -to improve socialskills

-to improve self-awareness-to practice behaviorfor specific socialsituations

-group counselling-career guidance

-adaptablefor R-12studentsandadults

Cooper-ativeLearning(GroupInvesti-gation)

Thelen -to develop coopers-tive behavior-to develop knowledgeacquisition skills-to promote "genuine"inquiry

-most subject areas -adaptablefor R-12students

-particu-laxlyusefulfor usewithchildrenof nativeancestry

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Table IX: Summary of Instructional Strategies (Behavioral)

Strategy Theorist Main Goals Applications Grade Level

Mastery Carroll -to facilitate -most subject areas -adaptableLearning Bloom learning for -specifically highly for It-l2Models Gagne All students skill oriented students-to teachindividualstudentsaccording totheir own pace

areas-foreign languages,mattmatica, typing,etc.

and adults

Contin- Skinner -to teach facts -general classroom -adaptablegency -to teach management for allManage- concepts -teaching academic gradement -to teach skills skills levels-to promote -special education -mostsocially accep- -behavioral appropriatetable behavior intervention at lower

grades

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Table X: Summary of Instructional Strategies (InformationProcessing)

Strategy Theorist Plain Goals Applications Grade Level

ConceptAttain-ment

Bruner -to developinductivethinking skills

-to teach newconcepts

-to teach theprocess ofconceptattainment

-adaptableto allgradelevels

Induc-tiveThinking

Taba +to develop skillsof scientificinquiry

+to developcritical thinkingskills

+to teach logical,conceptual thought

-specifically wellsuited for SocialStudies

-adaptable toother areas of thecurriculum (e.g.,English, Science)

-middle anduppergrades-may beadaptedfor usewithyoungerchildren

InquiryTechni-gues

SchwabByron et.alSuchman

+to developresearch skills

+to developindependentlearning skills

-natural science-social science-English

-middle anduppergrades

AdvanceOrgan-izers

Ausubel -to improvelecture-typepresentations-to promotemeaningfulcontentlearning

-most areas wherelarge amounts ofof hierarchicallyrelated subjectmatter have to berelated

-when introducingnew discipline,etc.

-middle anduppergrades

-may beadaptedfor usewithyoungerchildren

MemoryModel

LorayneLucas

-to improvememory skills-to enhanceindependent studyskills

-all areas of thecurriculum

-with whole class,small groups, andindividuals

-all gradelevels

Cog-nitiveGrowth

PiagetKohlbergSullivan

-to provide stageappropriatelearningexperiences

-to deepen and/oracceleratecognitivedevelopment

-all subject areas -all agelevels

-mostheavilyutilizedin lowerand middlegrades

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FINAL NOTE

This document presented an overview of some relevant de-velopmental theories, both, in the affective and cognitivesphere, as well as a brief summation of important instruc-tional strategies.

The purpose of this paper was to provide the curriculummaker with a document which combined overview presentationsof, both, theoretical views on aspects of cievelopment and oninstructional strategies, in the hope that the side-by-sidepresentation of these two topics will lead to greater in-sight into the theoretical underpinnings of instructionalstrategies and therefore to a more enlightened selectionand use of instructional technology.

It is believed, that the knowledge of the conceptual andphilosophical base from which the various strategies sprung,allows the educator to make more appropriate use of instruc-tional strategies, as well as to enable him/her to adapt thestrategies to individual and situational needs.

It is believed that the overall quality of instructionis greatly enhanced if a relatively large variety ofstrategies is utilized not only since each strategyilluminates the curriculum content from a different view-point, but also because the use of a variety of strategiestakes into account that different students have differentlearning styles.

Finally, a clear understanding of relevant developmentaltheories and existing instructional strategies may providethe experienced educator with the background to develop newstrategies.